Category: Theoretical Terms

Paragone: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

“Paragone” is an Italian term that translates to “comparison” or “contest” in English. Its etymology can be traced back to the Renaissance period, where it gained prominence in the realm of art. Artists would engage in debates or competitions, known as “paragone,” to determine the superiority of one artistic medium over another, such as painting versus sculpture. This term has since evolved to encompass broader contexts beyond the arts, representing any comparison or rivalry between different entities or ideas.

Meanings and Concept:

• Artistic Comparison: Historically, paragone referred to debates or competitions among artists to determine the superiority of one artistic medium or technique over another.
• Intellectual Comparison: In broader contexts, paragone represents any comparison or rivalry between different entities or ideas, often with the aim of determining superiority or excellence.
• Competitive Evaluation: It implies a structured assessment or evaluation process where contrasting elements are compared to ascertain their relative merits or qualities.
• Comparative Analysis: Paragone can involve a critical examination of contrasting aspects to discern their strengths, weaknesses, and overall effectiveness.

Paragone: Definition of a Theoretical Term

“Paragone” is a theoretical term originating from Italian, primarily associated with the comparative analysis of artistic mediums. It denotes a methodical examination or competition aimed at determining the superiority or excellence between two or more entities, often within the realms of art or intellectual discourse. This term encapsulates the concept of rigorous evaluation and comparison, serving as a framework for assessing relative merits or qualities in various contexts.

Paragone: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

1. Leon Battista Alberti: The Renaissance polymath wrote extensively on the comparison between the arts, advocating for painting as a superior form due to its ability to imitate nature.
2. Giorgio Vasari: In his influential work “The Lives of the Artists,” Vasari explored the rivalry between different artistic mediums and the debates surrounding their merits.
3. Michelangelo Buonarroti: The renowned artist and sculptor famously engaged in debates about the superiority of sculpture over painting, contributing to the discourse on paragone.

Works:

1. “De Pictura” by Leon Battista Alberti: In this treatise, Alberti discusses the principles of painting and argues for its superiority over other art forms, such as sculpture.
2. “The Lives of the Artists” by Giorgio Vasari: This seminal work not only provides biographical accounts of artists but also delves into the comparative evaluation of their works, contributing to the paragone discourse.
3. Correspondence and Writings of Michelangelo: Michelangelo’s letters and writings contain discussions about the merits of sculpture versus painting, offering insights into his views on paragone.

Arguments:

1. Imitative Capacity: The debate often revolves around the medium’s ability to imitate nature convincingly, with proponents arguing for the superiority of the medium that best achieves this goal.
2. Expressive Potential: Some argue that certain mediums possess greater expressive potential or emotional impact, leading to discussions about the subjective qualities of each art form.
3. Technical Mastery: The mastery of technical skills and craftsmanship is also a key aspect of the paragone debate, with artists and theorists assessing the complexity and virtuosity required in different mediums.

Major Characteristics of Paragone:

1. Comparative Analysis: Paragone involves the systematic comparison of different entities or ideas to determine their relative merits or excellence. This characteristic is evident in the rigorous evaluation of contrasting artistic mediums or intellectual concepts.
2. Debate and Discourse: Paragone often sparks debates and intellectual discourse, as seen in the exchanges between artists, scholars, and theorists who engage in discussions about the superiority of one medium over another.
3. Historical Context: The concept of paragone is historically rooted, particularly in the Renaissance period, where it gained prominence in the debates among artists and thinkers about the merits of painting, sculpture, and other artistic forms.
4. Subjectivity and Interpretation: Paragone involves subjective judgments and interpretations, as the assessment of artistic or intellectual excellence can vary based on individual perspectives and preferences.

Literary References:

1. “Symposium” by Plato: While not directly related to the artistic paragone, Plato’s “Symposium” features discussions about love and beauty, showcasing the ancient Greek philosophical tradition of comparative analysis and debate.
2. “The Birth of Tragedy” by Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche’s work explores the dichotomy between the Apollonian and Dionysian aspects of art, which can be seen as a form of paragone between rationality and emotion, order and chaos.
3. “Shakespeare’s Sonnets”: Shakespeare’s sonnets often contain comparisons and contrasts between different aspects of love, beauty, and morality, reflecting a literary form of paragone within the realm of poetry.
4. “Art and Illusion” by Ernst Gombrich: Gombrich’s seminal work delves into the psychology of perception and artistic representation, touching upon the comparative analysis of different visual forms and techniques, akin to the principles of paragone.

These literary references demonstrate how the spirit of paragone, characterized by comparison and evaluation, permeates various intellectual and artistic discourses throughout history.

Paragone: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Paragone
Formalism	Paragone can be relevant in formalist literary theory by examining the comparative merits of different literary forms, styles, or techniques. Scholars may engage in debates about the superiority of certain literary devices or structures in achieving aesthetic effects.
Structuralism	In structuralist literary theory, paragone may involve the comparison of narrative structures, linguistic elements, or symbolic systems within literary texts. It can contribute to the analysis of how different narrative strategies or symbolic motifs function within a text and their relative effectiveness in conveying meaning.
Postcolonial Theory	Paragone can intersect with postcolonial theory by exploring comparative representations of cultures, identities, and power dynamics in literature. Scholars may examine how colonial and indigenous voices are portrayed within texts and the implications of these representations in terms of cultural hierarchies and colonial legacies.
Feminist Theory	Within feminist literary theory, paragone may involve the comparison of gender representations, narrative perspectives, and feminist themes in literature. Scholars may analyze how different literary works depict gender roles, agency, and power dynamics, contributing to discussions about the portrayal of women and gender equality in literature.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Paragone can be relevant in psychoanalytic literary theory by comparing the psychological motivations, conflicts, and symbolic meanings present in literary texts. Scholars may explore how characters’ behaviors and relationships reflect unconscious desires, repressed traumas, or symbolic struggles, enriching interpretations of the text’s psychological depth.
Marxist Theory	In Marxist literary theory, paragone may involve comparing representations of social class, economic structures, and ideological conflicts in literature. Scholars may analyze how different literary works reflect or challenge dominant class narratives and contribute to the critique of capitalism, imperialism, and social inequality.
Postmodernism	Paragone intersects with postmodern literary theory by questioning traditional hierarchies and boundaries between literary genres, styles, and forms. Scholars may explore how postmodern texts experiment with intertextuality, pastiche, and parody to challenge the notion of artistic superiority and disrupt conventional modes of literary evaluation.

These examples illustrate how the concept of paragone can be relevant across various literary theories, contributing to nuanced analyses of literature from different critical perspectives.

Paragone: Application in Critiques

1. The Lottery by Shirley Jackson:
   • Comparative Analysis: Through paragone, one could compare The Lottery with other dystopian short stories, such as George Orwell’s 1984 or Ray Bradbury’s The Lottery, to assess how each author employs allegory and symbolism to critique societal norms and human behavior.
   • Debate and Discourse: Paragone could spark discussions about the effectiveness of Jackson’s understated narrative style compared to more overtly political dystopian works, examining how ambiguity and tension contribute to the story’s impact.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Critics might explore the subjective interpretations of the story’s ending and its implications for understanding human nature, morality, and the dangers of conformity.
2. A Good Man is Hard to Find by Flannery O’Connor:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing O’Connor’s use of Southern Gothic elements with other Southern literature, such as William Faulkner’s works, to evaluate how each author depicts themes of morality, religion, and violence.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might engage in debates about the moral ambiguity of O’Connor’s characters and the theological underpinnings of her narratives, examining how her Catholic faith informs her storytelling.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, scholars could explore the subjective responses to the story’s shocking climax and its implications for understanding redemption, grace, and the complexities of human nature.
3. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing Kafka’s existential themes and surreal narrative style with other works of existential literature, such as Albert Camus’ The Stranger or Jean-Paul Sartre’s Nausea, to assess how each author explores themes of alienation, absurdity, and identity.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might debate the symbolic significance of Gregor Samsa’s transformation and its metaphorical resonance with themes of dehumanization and existential angst, exploring how Kafka’s narrative technique enhances the story’s philosophical depth.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, readers could examine the subjective interpretations of the story’s ambiguous ending and its implications for understanding the search for meaning in a chaotic and indifferent universe.
4. A Doll’s House by Henrik Ibsen:
   • Comparative Analysis: Paragone could involve comparing Ibsen’s exploration of gender roles and societal expectations with other feminist plays, such as Lorraine Hansberry’s A Raisin in the Sun or Caryl Churchill’s Top Girls, to assess how each playwright challenges patriarchal norms and advocates for female agency.
   • Debate and Discourse: Critics might engage in debates about the moral complexities of Nora Helmer’s decision to leave her family and the implications for understanding marriage, identity, and autonomy in the late 19th century.
   • Subjectivity and Interpretation: Through paragone, scholars could explore the subjective responses to Nora’s character development and the play’s ambiguous ending, examining how Ibsen’s realistic dialogue and psychological insights contribute to its enduring relevance.

Paragone: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Definition
Mimesis	The representation or imitation of the real world in art and literature.
Ekphrasis	The vivid description of a visual work of art within a literary text.
Bildungsroman	A novel that focuses on the moral and psychological growth of a protagonist.
Diegesis	The fictional world in which the events of a narrative occur.
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text refers to or incorporates elements of another.
Doppelgänger	A literary device featuring a character’s double or alter ego, often representing inner conflict.
Catharsis	The emotional release or purification experienced by the audience through tragic literature.
Pathetic Fallacy	The attribution of human emotions to nature or inanimate objects in literature.
Hypodiegesis	A secondary narrative embedded within the main narrative of a text.
Hubris	Excessive pride or arrogance often leading to the downfall of a tragic hero.

Paragone: Suggested Readings

1. Alberti, Leon Battista. On Painting (De Pictura). Translated by John R. Spencer, Yale University Press, 1956.
2. Gombrich, Ernst. Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. 5th ed., Princeton University Press, 2000.
3. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Vintage Books, 1967.
4. Plato. Symposium. Translated by Benjamin Jowett, Digireads.com Publishing, 2019.
5. Vasari, Giorgio. The Lives of the Artists. Translated by Julia Conaway Bondanella and Peter Bondanella, Oxford University Press, 1998.
6. Jackson, Shirley. The Lottery. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005.
7. O’Connor, Flannery. A Good Man is Hard to Find. Harvest Books, 1977.
8. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Translated by Stanley Corngold, Bantam Classics, 1972.
9. Ibsen, Henrik. A Doll’s House. Dover Publications, 1992.
10. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classic, 1961.

Heroism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology and the Term “Heroism”

The concept of heroism is rooted in the ancient Greek “hērōs” (ἥρως), signifying a warrior-protector often possessing demi-god status. The term has transcended its mythological origins to encompass acts demonstrating remarkable valor and selflessness in service of others or a greater cause.

Key Attributes of Heroism

• Unwavering Courage: Heroes exhibit an extraordinary capacity to face danger, adversity, or uncertainty without succumbing to fear.
• Altruism and Sacrifice: The well-being and safety of others are prioritized above personal concerns, reflected in acts of self-sacrifice.
• Principled Actions: Heroism aligns with deeply held values and ethical standards, such as justice, compassion, and upholding societal ideals.
• Purpose-Driven: Heroes often feel compelled by a higher calling or a strong sense of duty that transcends personal gain.
• Inspirational Effect: Heroic acts serve as potent catalysts for admiration and emulation, encouraging others to rise above their limitations.

Heroism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Heroism is a theoretical construct characterized by actions that prioritize the needs of others or a broader cause above one’s own well-being. These actions typically demonstrate exceptional courage, self-sacrifice, and adherence to a strong moral code. Perceptions of heroism are context-dependent, shaped by cultural norms and the prevailing values of a society.

Heroism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists and Their Seminal Works on Heroism

• Thomas Carlyle: In his influential work On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841), Carlyle articulated the “Great Man Theory.” This perspective posits that historical change is primarily driven by extraordinary individuals or “heroes,” characterized by unique personal qualities like intellect and charisma.
• Joseph Campbell: Exploring the concept of the monomyth in The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949), Campbell theorized the existence of a universal narrative structure underlying countless heroic tales across cultures. This “Hero’s Journey” often features archetypal stages of departure, initiation, and return.
• Philip Zimbardo: Zimbardo’s controversial Stanford Prison Experiment and subsequent writings, such as The Lucifer Effect (2007), analyzed situational influences that can trigger both heroic and morally abhorrent behavior in ordinary individuals. He highlighted the power of social roles, authority, and deindividuation in shaping actions.
• Franco & Zimbardo: In The Banality of Heroism (2006), they challenged the assumption that heroism necessitates grand gestures. They stressed the importance of everyday defiance of societal pressures and adherence to personal ethics as equally compelling manifestations of heroism.

Heroism: Major Characteristics

• Courage: The steadfast determination to confront danger, adversity, or uncertainty without yielding to fear. Heroes exemplify a willingness to act in the face of risk or challenge.
• Selflessness and Sacrifice: Placing the needs, well-being, and safety of others above personal concerns. Heroic acts often involve elements of self-sacrifice for the greater good.
• Strong Moral Principles: Heroes operate within a framework of deeply held ethical ideals such as justice, compassion, and integrity. Their actions reflect a commitment to upholding fundamental values.
• Purpose-Driven Focus: A sense of duty or a compelling calling to protect others or create positive change. Heroes are often motivated by a higher purpose extending beyond personal gain.
• Inspirational Influence: Heroic actions foster admiration and inspire others to act courageously and aspire to rise above their limitations.

Important Considerations

• Heroism and Imperfection: Heroes, like all people, may experience fear and self-doubt. Overcoming these internal challenges forms a core element of the hero’s determination.
• The Spectrum of Heroism: Heroism exists on a spectrum. It spans grand acts of self-sacrifice in high-stakes situations and manifests in small but impactful gestures of resilience, everyday kindness, and principled behavior.

Heroism: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Archetypal Criticism (Mythic Criticism): Building on Jungian thought and Joseph Campbell’s work, this approach studies recurring characters, symbols, and narrative patterns across vast numbers of literary works. Think of the familiar heroic archetype — the valiant warrior, the noble savior — and the “Hero’s Journey” structure common to both ancient myths and modern storytelling.
• Structuralism: Here, focus shifts to the underlying structures that shape meaning in the text. Heroic characters can be studied in relation to their opposites (villains, anti-heroes) and the power struggles between forces such as good versus evil. Heroism may highlight societal values or anxieties present in a work’s cultural context.
• Reader-Response Criticism: This theory centers on the reader’s individual interpretation and reaction to a text. How readers perceive or define a character’s actions – heroic, foolish, morally ambiguous – shapes their understanding of the story’s theme or message.
• Feminist Criticism: Examines gender roles, and how the traditional trope of the male hero (and damsel in distress) often perpetuates or challenges gendered power dynamics. More modern depictions of heroism might portray female heroes, flawed heroes, or redefine what actions warrant heroic status.
• Postcolonial Criticism: Focuses on analyzing literature produced by or about colonized cultures. In such a lens, a protagonist resisting oppressive regimes may be interpreted as heroic. Conversely, heroes upheld by colonizers might be critically re-examined to reveal complexities, biases, and problematic narratives.

Additional Notes

• Complexity of Heroism: Literature frequently depicts “flawed heroes” to complicate the traditional heroic ideal and provide a more nuanced exploration of human motivations.
• Evolving Representations: Notions of what constitutes heroism can reflect the shifting values and concerns of the societal context in which the literary work was produced.

Heroism: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Perspective on Heroism	Focus of Critique
Beowulf	Archetypal/Structuralist	Analyze Beowulf as the embodiment of the classic hero archetype while exploring the narrative’s portrayal of good vs. evil.
To Kill a Mockingbird	Reader-Response	Explore how readers may grapple with Atticus Finch’s complex actions and question whether he can be considered a traditional hero.
Things Fall Apart	Postcolonial / Feminist	Critique Okonkwo’s actions through a postcolonial lens; is he resisting oppression or reinforcing its toxic masculinity? Consider alternative definitions of heroism found in female characters.
The Hunger Games	Feminist / Reader-Response	Analyze Katniss Everdeen’s acts of defiance as both protecting her family and subverting patriarchal systems. How do readers engage with her survival instincts vs. heroic ideals?

Heroism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition	Notes
Agency	The capacity of an individual to make choices and exert influence over their life and environment.	Explores how heroic acts often demonstrate free will and defy imposed limitations.
Role Model	A person whose actions and character inspires others to emulate positive behavior.	Examines how heroes can create influential social templates for idealized conduct.
Protagonist	The central character driving the main conflict of a narrative.	Heroes are often, but not always, the protagonist of a given story or myth.
Martyr	A person who endures great suffering or dies in defense of their beliefs or a cause.	Raises questions about how self-sacrifice defines a hero and distinguishes them from mere victims.
Idealism	The pursuit of noble or morally elevated principles, prioritizing these over realistic constraints.	Considers the aspirational aspects of heroism and whether true idealism can exist.
Transgression	The act of violating established norms or boundaries.	Heroic acts may sometimes require disregarding rules to achieve a higher purpose.
Moral Ambiguity	Situations or characters lacking clear distinctions between right and wrong.	Complicates traditional black-and-white understandings of “hero vs. villain.”
Self-Actualization	Reaching one’s full potential by acting courageously, ethically, and in accordance with deeply held values.	Aligns with humanistic psychology; heroism can be a path to self-fulfillment.
Social Justice	Fairness and equal rights for all within society.	Frames heroism as active contributions to social improvement and dismantling unjust systems.
Dissent	Expressing opposition to the status quo or dominant authority.	Examines how heroic acts may involve social protest and agitating for change.

Heroism: Suggested Readings

1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
2. Coelho, Paulo. The Alchemist. HarperOne, 1993.
3. Greene, Robert. Mastery. Penguin Books, 2012.
4. Homer. The Iliad. Translated by Robert Fagles, Penguin Classics, 1998.
5. King, Martin Luther Jr. Stride Toward Freedom: The Montgomery Story. Beacon Press, 2010.
6. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Vintage Books, 1995.
7. Pressfield, Steven. The War of Art: Break Through the Blocks and Win Your Inner Creative Battles. Black Irish Entertainment, 2012.
8. Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. Scholastic, 1998.
9. Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2004.
10. Zimbardo, Philip. The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil. Random House, 2007.

Ontology: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “ontology” originates from the Greek words “ontos,” meaning “being,” and “logos,” meaning “study” or “science.” In philosophy, ontology refers to the branch of metaphysics concerned with the study of existence, being, or reality. It examines the fundamental categories of existence and the nature of being, seeking to understand what entities exist and how they relate to each other.

Meanings and Concept:

• Study of Being: Ontology investigates the nature of existence and the fundamental categories of being, addressing questions about what exists and what it means for something to exist.
• Categories of Existence: It explores the different types of entities that exist, such as substances, properties, relations, and events, and examines their interrelationships.
• Existential Dependence: Ontology considers the relationships between entities, including questions of dependence, identity, and change, exploring how entities are connected and how they influence each other.
• Metaphysical Commitments: Ontology often involves metaphysical commitments about the nature of reality, such as whether there are abstract objects, whether universals exist, or whether reality is ultimately composed of material or immaterial substances.
• Applications in Philosophy and Beyond: Ontological questions arise in various philosophical domains, including metaphysics, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and philosophy of language, as well as in other disciplines such as computer science, where ontology refers to the formal specification of conceptualizations.

Ontology: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Ontology, as a theoretical term, refers to the branch of metaphysics concerned with the study of existence and being. It investigates fundamental questions about what entities exist in the world and how they relate to each other. Ontology seeks to understand the nature of reality by examining the categories of existence and the relationships between different types of entities.

Ontology: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Year	Arguments
Plato	The Republic	380 BCE	Argued for the existence of a realm of Forms, distinct from the physical world, where ideal, immutable entities exist as the ultimate reality.
Aristotle	Metaphysics	350 BCE	Proposed a hylomorphic ontology, positing that substances are composed of matter and form, with form giving identity and defining the essence of things.
Immanuel Kant	Critique of Pure Reason	1781	Developed a transcendental idealism, suggesting that the structure of human cognition shapes our understanding of reality, and posited the existence of noumena.
Martin Heidegger	Being and Time	1927	Explored the question of being (Sein) and the ontological difference between beings (Seiende) and Being itself, emphasizing the temporality and existential aspects.
Jean-Paul Sartre	Being and Nothingness	1943	Championed existentialist ontology, asserting that existence precedes essence and that individuals are radically free to define their own existence through choice.
David Lewis	On the Plurality of Worlds	1986	Proposed modal realism, arguing for the existence of multiple concrete possible worlds as equally real, challenging traditional notions of actuality and possibility.
Saul Kripke	Naming and Necessity	1980	Introduced the idea of rigid designators and argued for the existence of necessary truths grounded in the essential properties of objects, challenging traditional views.

This table provides an overview of key theorists in ontology, their significant works, publication years, and the main arguments they advanced in the field.

Ontology: Major Characteristics

• Study of Being: Ontology delves into the nature of existence itself, examining what entities exist and what it means for something to be.
• Categories of Existence: It explores different types of entities, such as substances, properties, and relations, and investigates how they interrelate.
• Existential Dependence: Ontology considers how entities depend on each other for existence, identity, and change, exploring the connections between them.
• Metaphysical Commitments: Ontology often involves metaphysical commitments about the ultimate nature of reality, such as the existence of abstract objects or the nature of universals.

Literary References:

• In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov, the character Ivan Karamazov’s philosophical discussions touch upon ontological questions, particularly the existence of God and the nature of moral responsibility.
• Jorge Luis Borges’s short story “The Library of Babel” explores ontological themes through the concept of an infinite library containing all possible books, raising questions about the nature of reality and knowledge.
• In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, the protagonist Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect prompts ontological reflections on identity, existence, and the human condition.
• In Haruki Murakami’s Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World, the narrative intertwines two parallel worlds, one dystopian and one fantastical, raising ontological questions about the nature of reality and consciousness.

Ontology: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Ontology
Formalism	Formalism may examine how the ontology of literary works influences their structure, content, and interpretation.
Structuralism	Structuralism may explore the underlying structures and systems of meaning within texts, revealing their ontological dimensions.
Postmodernism	Postmodernism may challenge traditional ontological assumptions, questioning the stability and coherence of literary realities.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism may analyze the ontological implications of characters’ subconscious desires and symbolic representations.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist criticism may investigate how ontological assumptions about gender shape representations of identity and power in literature.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial criticism may examine how colonial ontologies influence literary representations of identity, culture, and power.
Ecocriticism	Ecocriticism may explore the ontological relationship between humans and the natural world, as depicted in literary texts.
Queer Theory	Queer theory may challenge normative ontological categories of gender and sexuality, destabilizing fixed identities in literature.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism may analyze the ontological dimensions of class struggle and economic relations depicted in literary works.
Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-response criticism may investigate how readers’ ontological assumptions and perspectives shape their interpretations of texts.

In each of these literary theories, ontology plays a crucial role in shaping perspectives on the nature of reality, identity, power, and representation within literary texts.

Ontology: Application in Critiques

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia):
   • Application: Ontological critiques of this novel may focus on the magical realism that permeates the narrative, exploring how the blending of the ordinary and the fantastical challenges traditional ontological assumptions about reality and perception. García Márquez’s portrayal of the Buendía family’s cyclical history may also prompt reflections on the ontology of time and memory.
2. The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov (Russia):
   • Application: Ontological analysis of Bulgakov’s novel may center on the blurred boundaries between reality and fantasy, particularly in the depiction of the Devil’s visit to Moscow and the surreal events that unfold. Critics may explore how Bulgakov uses the supernatural elements to challenge conventional ontological categories and to critique Soviet society.
3. The Trial by Franz Kafka (Austria-Hungary/Czechoslovakia):
   • Application: Kafka’s existential and absurdist themes invite ontological scrutiny, with critiques focusing on the protagonist Josef K.’s futile quest for meaning and justice in a surreal and bureaucratic world. The novel’s depiction of opaque systems of power and the arbitrariness of existence prompts ontological reflections on the nature of authority, identity, and reality.
4. Blindness by José Saramago (Portugal):
   • Application: Saramago’s exploration of a sudden epidemic of blindness serves as fertile ground for ontological critique, with analysts examining how the loss of sight disrupts conventional perceptions of reality and identity. The novel’s portrayal of societal breakdown and the struggle for survival prompts ontological reflections on the fragility of civilization and the essence of humanity.

In each of these non-American literary works, ontology serves as a lens through which to explore themes of reality, perception, identity, and the nature of existence, enriching critical interpretations and deepening understanding of the texts.

Ontology: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Epistemology	Study of knowledge and how we justify beliefs.
Metaphysics	Inquiry into the fundamental nature of reality and existence.
Phenomenology	Examination of subjective experiences and consciousness structures.
Existentialism	Emphasis on individual existence, freedom, and meaning in a chaotic world.
Idealism	Belief that reality is fundamentally mental or conceptual, not material.
Materialism	Assertion that reality consists solely of physical matter and interactions.
Dualism	View positing two distinct substances or realities, often mind and body.
Solipsism	Belief that the self is the only thing known to exist.
Nihilism	Belief that life lacks inherent meaning or value, often leading to despair.
Pragmatism	Emphasis on practical consequences over abstract principles.

Ontology: Suggested Readings

1. Badiou, Alain. Being and Event. Translated by Oliver Feltham, Continuum, 2006.
2. Caputo, John D. Ontology: The Hermeneutics of Facticity. Indiana University Press, 2019.
3. Caputo, John D., and Michael J. Scanlon, editors. Ontology after Ontotheology: Plurality, Event, and Contingency in Contemporary Philosophy. Fordham University Press, 2014.
4. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
5. Heidegger, Martin. Ontology as the Hermeneutics of Facticity. Indiana University Press, 1994.
6. Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by Peter H. Nidditch, Oxford University Press, 1979.
7. Meillassoux, Quentin. After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency. Translated by Ray Brassier, Continuum, 2008.
8. Quine, W.V.O. Ontological Relativity and Other Essays. Columbia University Press, 1969.
9. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes, Washington Square Press, 1993.
10. Whitehead, Alfred North. Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology. Corrected Edition, Free Press, 1978.

Ontological Responsibility: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “ontological responsibility” originates from the combination of two key elements: “ontology” and “responsibility.” “Ontology” refers to the branch of philosophy that explores the nature of existence and being, while “responsibility” pertains to the moral or ethical duty one has towards others or oneself. The fusion of these terms signifies a conceptual framework that delves into the ethical considerations and obligations associated with the very nature of existence.

Meanings and Concept:

1. Existential Ethical Framework: Ontological responsibility encompasses a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the ethical implications embedded in the very fabric of existence. It urges individuals to consider the moral dimensions of their being and actions.
2. Acknowledgment of Interconnectedness: The concept underscores the interconnected nature of all entities and highlights the ethical responsibilities that arise from this interconnectedness. It prompts individuals to recognize the impact of their choices on the broader web of existence.
3. Ethical Considerations Beyond Human Realm: Ontological responsibility extends ethical considerations beyond human interactions, acknowledging the moral duties towards the environment, non-human entities, and the ecosystem as a whole.
4. Reflection on Being and Morality: Practicing ontological responsibility involves a reflective exploration of one’s own being and the moral principles that guide actions. It encourages individuals to question and align their choices with ethical values.
5. Duty to Future Generations: This concept emphasizes the responsibility individuals have towards future generations. It encourages sustainable and ethical practices that consider the long-term impact of current actions on the well-being of those who come after.
6. Integration of Ethics into Existence: Ontological responsibility calls for the integration of ethical considerations into the very essence of one’s existence. It goes beyond mere adherence to moral codes, urging a deeper understanding and embodiment of ethical principles in daily life.

Ontological Responsibility: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Ontological responsibility is a theoretical term that refers to the ethical obligations inherent in the nature of existence. It encompasses the recognition of interconnectedness among entities and emphasizes the moral considerations arising from this interconnected existence. This concept prompts individuals to reflect on their being, encouraging a heightened awareness of the ethical dimensions embedded in the fabric of existence and fostering a sense of duty towards the broader spectrum of life.

Ontological Responsibility: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Emmanuel Levinas:
   • Work: “Totality and Infinity” (1961)
   • Argument: Levinas emphasizes ethical responsibility as fundamental to human existence, proposing the idea that our responsibility for the Other precedes and transcends any theoretical or ontological framework.
2. Martin Heidegger:
   • Work: “Being and Time” (1927)
   • Argument: Heidegger’s exploration of ontology and the nature of being has influenced discussions on ontological responsibility. He underscores the importance of authentic existence and ethical engagement with the world.
3. Hans Jonas:
   • Work: “The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age” (1979)
   • Argument: Jonas addresses the ethical implications of technological advancements, emphasizing our responsibility for the future and the environment. His ideas align with the broader concept of ontological responsibility.
4. Emanuel D. Adler:
   • Work: “Seizing the Middle Ground: Constructivism in World Politics” (1997)
   • Argument: Adler’s constructivist approach in international relations includes considerations of ontological security, which can be seen as a form of ontological responsibility in the context of identity and state behavior.
5. Karen Barad:
   • Work: “Meeting the Universe Halfway: Quantum Physics and the Entanglement of Matter and Meaning” (2007)
   • Argument: Barad’s agential realism explores the entanglement of matter and meaning, suggesting a relational ontology that has implications for ethical responsibilities within interconnected systems.

These theorists and their works contribute to the understanding of ontological responsibility by addressing ethical concerns, the nature of being, and the interconnectedness of entities in various contexts. While the term may not be explicitly used by all these thinkers, their ideas resonate with the overarching concept of ethical obligations embedded in the fabric of existence.

Ontological Responsibility: Major Characteristics

Characteristics	Literary References
Interconnected Existence	“No Man Is an Island” by John Donne emphasizes the interconnectedness of humanity, reflecting the idea that actions have ripple effects on the collective.
Moral Duty to Others	In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment,” the protagonist’s moral struggle and responsibility toward others showcase the ethical dimensions of existence.
Environmental Ethics	Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” serves as a poignant call for environmental responsibility, illustrating the ethical obligation to protect the ecosystem.
Responsibility for Future Generations	Aldous Huxley’s “Brave New World” explores the consequences of actions on future societies, highlighting the duty to consider the well-being of generations to come.
Ethical Reflection on Being	Albert Camus’ “The Stranger” prompts readers to reflect on the ethical implications of the protagonist’s actions and their alignment with societal norms.
Philosophical Existentialism	Jean-Paul Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness” contributes to ontological responsibility discussions by examining the ethical implications of human freedom and choice.

Ontological Responsibility: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theories	Relevance to Ontological Responsibility
Existentialism	Existentialist theories, as seen in works like Sartre’s “Being and Nothingness,” align with ontological responsibility by emphasizing individual freedom, choice, and the moral implications inherent in human existence.
Feminist Literary Theory	Feminist perspectives, such as those found in works like Virginia Woolf’s “A Room of One’s Own,” engage with ontological responsibility by exploring gender roles, societal expectations, and the ethical dimensions of personal and collective identities.
Eco-criticism	Eco-critical theories, evident in texts like Ursula K. Le Guin’s “The Dispossessed,” examine ontological responsibility through the lens of environmental ethics, considering humanity’s interconnectedness with the natural world.
Postcolonialism	Postcolonial literature, exemplified in Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart,” addresses this responsibility by reflecting on the ethical implications of cultural encounters, power dynamics, and the responsibilities of colonizers.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic theories, as applied to literary works like Dostoevsky’s “The Brothers Karamazov,” delve into characters’ psychological depths, revealing ethical dilemmas and responsibilities rooted in individual psyches.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response perspectives, as explored in Roland Barthes’ “Death of the Author,” connect with ontological responsibility by acknowledging the reader’s role in interpreting and co-creating the ethical dimensions of a literary text.

Ontological Responsibility: Application in Critiques

1. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
   • Interconnected Guilt and Redemption: Ontological responsibility is evident in the protagonist’s moral journey, exploring the interconnectedness of individual actions and their ethical consequences. The narrative prompts readers to reflect on the protagonist’s responsibility for his crimes and the potential for redemption.
2. Silent Spring by Rachel Carson:
   • Environmental Ethics: Carson’s work applies ontological responsibility to environmental concerns, emphasizing the ethical obligation to protect the interconnected ecosystems. The critique may focus on how the text challenges readers to recognize their responsibility for the well-being of the planet and future generations.
3. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:
   • Colonial Encounter and Cultural Responsibility: Ontological responsibility is examined through the lens of postcolonialism, revealing the ethical dimensions of cultural encounters. The critique may explore how characters navigate their responsibilities in the face of cultural upheaval and colonial forces.
4. The Stranger by Albert Camus:
   • Existential Reflections on Morality: Camus’ work engages with ontological responsibility through the lens of existentialism, prompting readers to reflect on the protagonist’s indifference to societal norms and moral obligations. The critique may explore how the text challenges conventional notions of responsibility and morality.

Ontological Responsibility: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Terms	Brief Description
Deontology	Ethics based on duty and moral rules, irrespective of consequences.
Teleology	The study of purpose and end goals, often in ethical contexts.
Phenomenology	Examining consciousness and phenomena as they appear in human experience.
Metaethics	Philosophical exploration of the nature and origin of ethical concepts.
Epistemology	The study of knowledge, including its nature and scope.
Axiology	The philosophical study of value, including ethics and aesthetics.
Dialectics	The examination of opposing ideas and their resolution in philosophy.
Consequentialism	Ethical theory evaluating actions based on their outcomes.
Nihilism	The rejection of inherent meaning or values in existence.
Hermeneutics	The interpretation of texts or understanding of meaning in communication.

Ontological Responsibility: Suggested Readings

1. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. Vintage, 1989.
2. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin, 1962.
3. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. Crime and Punishment. Vintage, 1993.
4. Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
5. Levinas, Emmanuel. Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Duquesne University Press, 1969.
6. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness: An Essay on Phenomenological Ontology. Washington Square Press, 1992.
7. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989.

Objectivism: Etymology/Term, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

Objectivism is a philosophical term that originated from the broader concept of “objectivity,” which refers to the idea of an objective reality existing independently of individual perceptions or beliefs. The term “Objectivism” was specifically coined by Ayn Rand, a Russian-American philosopher and novelist, to describe her comprehensive philosophical system.

Meanings:

1. Philosophical System: Objectivism encompasses Ayn Rand’s philosophical system, which includes her views on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics.
2. Objective Reality: Objectivism asserts the existence of an objective reality, emphasizing that facts are independent of anyone’s subjective interpretation.
3. Reason as the Only Means of Knowledge: Objectivism places a high value on reason as the primary and only reliable means of gaining knowledge about the world.
4. Individualism: Objectivism upholds the importance of individual rights, individual happiness, and the pursuit of one’s own self-interest.
5. Capitalism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism: Objectivism advocates for a political system based on individual rights, including the protection of property rights, and promotes laissez-faire capitalism as the ideal economic system.
6. Ethical Egoism: Objectivism promotes ethical egoism, asserting that individuals should act in their own rational self-interest and pursue their own happiness as the highest moral goal.
7. Artistic Romanticism: Objectivism extends to aesthetics, emphasizing the role of art in portraying an idealized view of life and promoting the celebration of human achievement.

Objectivism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Objectivism, as a theoretical term, refers to the philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand, encompassing her views on metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. It emphasizes the existence of an objective reality independent of subjective perceptions and asserts reason as the primary means of acquiring knowledge. Objectivism advocates for individual rights, ethical egoism, and a laissez-faire capitalist political system based on the principles of self-interest and individual freedom.

Objectivism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

1. Ayn Rand (1905-1982): A Russian-American philosopher and novelist, Rand is the founder of Objectivism. Her influential works, such as “Atlas Shrugged” and “The Fountainhead,” lay out the core tenets of Objectivist philosophy.

Works:

1. “Atlas Shrugged” (1957): Ayn Rand’s magnum opus, this novel presents Objectivist ideas in a narrative form, exploring the consequences of a society that abandons individualism and reason.
2. “The Fountainhead” (1943): Another major work by Rand, this novel serves as an introduction to her philosophy, illustrating the life and struggles of an individualistic architect, Howard Roark.

Key Arguments:

1. Metaphysics and Objective Reality: Objectivism argues for the existence of an objective reality, asserting that facts exist independently of individual perceptions and beliefs.
2. Epistemology and Reason: The philosophy places a profound emphasis on reason as the sole means of acquiring knowledge, rejecting mysticism and faith as valid sources of understanding.
3. Ethics and Ethical Egoism: Objectivism advocates for ethical egoism, asserting that individuals should pursue their rational self-interest and happiness as the highest moral purpose.
4. Politics and Individual Rights: Objectivism supports a political system based on the protection of individual rights, including property rights, and advocates for laissez-faire capitalism as the ideal socio-economic structure.
5. Aesthetics and Artistic Romanticism: The philosophy extends to aesthetics, promoting a sense of life and the celebration of human achievement in art, emphasizing the importance of artistic romanticism.

In summary, Objectivism, primarily associated with Ayn Rand, is expounded in key works such as “Atlas Shrugged” and “The Fountainhead.” The philosophy centers on metaphysical objectivity, epistemological reason, ethical egoism, political individualism, and an aesthetic appreciation of human achievement in art.

Objectivism: Major Characteristics

Characteristics	Literary References
1. Individualism	– The Fountainhead by Ayn Rand: Howard Roark’s individualistic pursuit of his architectural vision.
2. Reason as the Sole Means of Knowledge	– Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand: Characters like Dagny Taggart rely on reason to navigate challenges.
3. Ethical Egoism	– Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand: Characters, particularly John Galt, advocate for the pursuit of self-interest.
4. Objective Reality	– Anthem by Ayn Rand: Depicts the discovery of objective truth in a society suppressing independent thinking.
5. Political Individualism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism	– Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand: Explores the consequences of abandoning political individualism and capitalism.
6. Celebration of Human Achievement in Art	– The Fountainhead by Ayn Rand: Portrays the protagonist’s vision in architecture as a celebration of human creativity.

Objectivism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theories	Relevance of Objectivism
1. Formalism	– Objectivism aligns with formalism by emphasizing the importance of the objective reality portrayed in literary works. A focus on the form and structure of literature reflects the precision and clarity emphasized in Objectivism.
2. Reader-Response Theory	– Objectivism invites reader engagement by presenting clear and individualistic ideas, prompting varied responses. The celebration of human achievement in Objectivist literature can evoke diverse reactions from readers.
3. Feminist Literary Criticism	– Objectivism’s portrayal of strong individualistic characters, regardless of gender, may be seen as both supportive and challenging to feminist perspectives. Ayn Rand’s female protagonists, like Dagny Taggart, exhibit strength and independence.
4. Marxist Literary Criticism	– Objectivism contrasts with Marxist perspectives, as it advocates for laissez-faire capitalism and rejects collectivism. Literature influenced by Objectivism may be critiqued for its divergence from Marxist ideals in addressing social structures.
5. Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Objectivism is not inherently tied to postcolonial themes, but its emphasis on individual rights and self-interest can be juxtaposed against postcolonial concerns of collective identity and systemic oppression. Literature may be analyzed for such tensions.
6. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism	– Objectivism, with its emphasis on reason and individualism, may be contrasted with psychoanalytic theories that explore the subconscious and collective aspects of human experience. Literary characters’ motivations may be interpreted differently.

Objectivism: Application in Critiques

1. The Fountainhead by Ayn Rand:
   • Strength of Individualism: The novel epitomizes Objectivism by portraying Howard Roark’s unwavering commitment to individualism. Roark’s refusal to conform to societal expectations and pursue his architectural vision aligns with Objectivist ideals.
   • Celebration of Human Achievement: Objectivism’s emphasis on celebrating human achievement in art is evident in the novel’s portrayal of Roark’s innovative and individualistic architectural designs.
2. Atlas Shrugged by Ayn Rand:
   • Political Individualism and Laissez-Faire Capitalism: The novel serves as a manifesto for Objectivism, illustrating the disastrous consequences of abandoning political individualism and advocating for the virtues of laissez-faire capitalism.
   • Ethical Egoism: Characters like John Galt embody Objectivist principles of ethical egoism, emphasizing the pursuit of rational self-interest as a moral imperative.
3. 1984 by George Orwell:
   • Critique of Collectivism: Objectivism can be applied to critique the collectivist themes in 1984. The novel’s dystopian society, where individualism is suppressed and conformity is enforced, contrasts sharply with Objectivist ideals.
   • Manipulation of Truth: Objectivism’s emphasis on objective reality can be used to analyze how the manipulation of truth in 1984 reflects the dangers of a society where subjective interpretations prevail.
4. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood:
   • Individual Rights and Autonomy: Objectivism can be applied to critique the novel’s dystopian setting, where individual rights, particularly women’s autonomy, are severely restricted. The lack of personal freedom and self-determination goes against Objectivist principles.
   • Totalitarian Control: Objectivism’s critique can extend to the portrayal of a society ruled by religious extremism and totalitarian control, highlighting the dangers of subjugating individual liberties.

In these critiques, the book titles are presented in bold italics without quotation marks for clarity.

Objectivism: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Terms	Brief Definitions
1. Individualism	Emphasizes individual rights and self-interest.
2. Rationalism	Advocates reason as the primary source of knowledge.
3. Ethical Egoism	Belief in acting for one’s own self-interest ethically.
4. Empiricism	Reliance on sensory experience for knowledge.
5. Libertarianism	Advocates for individual liberty and limited government.
6. Laissez-Faire Capitalism	Supports minimal government intervention in the market.
7. Secular Humanism	Emphasizes reason, ethics, and human well-being without religious influence.
8. Cognitive Realism	Belief in an objective reality and accurate cognitive perception.
9. Ayn Rand Objectivism	A philosophy emphasizing reason, individualism, and laissez-faire capitalism.
10. Existentialism	Emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility in creating personal meaning.

Objectivism: Suggested Readings

1. Branden, Nathaniel. The Psychology of Self-Esteem. Nash Publishing, 1969.
2. Hospers, John. Understanding the Arts. Prentice Hall, 2009.
3. Kelley, David. The Evidence of the Senses: A Realist Theory of Perception. Louisiana State University Press, 1986.
4. Rand, Ayn. Atlas Shrugged. Random House, 1957.
5. Rand, Ayn. The Fountainhead. Bobbs-Merrill, 1943.
6. Rand, Ayn. Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand. Edited by Leonard Peikoff, Meridian, 1991.
7. Smith, Tara. Ayn Rand’s Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
8. Salmieri, Gregory, and Allan Gotthelf (editors). A Companion to Ayn Rand. Wiley, 2016.
9. Sciabarra, Chris Matthew. Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical. Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995.
10. Valliant, James S. The Passion of Ayn Rand’s Critics: The Case Against the Brandens. Durban House Publishing, 2005.

Concept of Unconscious Motivation

The concept of unconscious motivation, rooted in psychological and psychoanalytic theories, posits that various human behaviors and actions are driven by emotional factors such as desires, needs, and impulses that operate below the level of conscious awareness.

Pioneered by Sigmund Freud, this notion suggests that individuals are often unaware of the underlying psychological forces influencing their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Unconscious motivations may stem from repressed memories, unresolved conflicts, or innate instincts. They manifest in various ways, impacting decision-making, interpersonal relationships, and personal development.

The exploration of unconscious motivation is integral to understanding human behavior. It frequently appears in fields such as psychology, psychiatry, and literary analysis to explore the deeper, often hidden, layers of human experience and expression.

Meanings of Unconscious Motivation

Aspect	Meanings
Psychological Underpinnings	Hidden psychological forces shaping character behavior.
Subtext and Symbolism	Analysis of symbols and metaphors for hidden motivations.
Freudian and Jungian Analysis	Use of psychoanalytic frameworks to explore character psychology.
Conflict and Resolution	Role of unconscious conflicts in driving plot and character development.
Narrative Ambiguity	Creation of narrative ambiguity for readers to decipher hidden intentions.
Interplay with Themes	Connection between unconscious motivations and broader thematic elements.
Reader Engagement	Encouragement for readers to uncover deeper layers of meaning in the narrative.

Definition of Unconscious Motivation as a Theoretical Term

Unconscious motivation, in literary theory, refers to the concealed psychological influences that propel characters’ actions and choices in a narrative. It explores the subconscious desires, fears, and unresolved conflicts that drive character behavior and often remain hidden from the characters’ conscious awareness.

Literary analysis of unconscious motivation uncovers the underlying, often unspoken, psychological forces that contribute to character development, narrative complexity, and thematic exploration in literary works.

Unconscious Motivation: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939):
   • Notable Works: The Interpretation of Dreams and Psychopathology of Everyday Life.
   • Arguments: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory introduced the concept of the unconscious mind and its influence on human behavior. He argued that unconscious desires and conflicts, often related to repressed memories and instincts, are pivotal in understanding characters’ motivations. Freud’s analysis of dream symbolism and the Oedipus complex also informs literary interpretations of different works.
2. Jacques Lacan (1901-1981):
   • Notable Works: Écrits and The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis.
   • Arguments: Lacan further elaborated Freud’s ideas and emphasized the role of language and the symbolic order in shaping unconscious motivations. His theories on the “mirror stage” and the “Name of the Father” contribute to the analysis of identity and desire in literature. Lacan’s work underscores the linguistic and cultural aspects of unconscious motivation.
3. Carl Jung (1875-1961):
   • Notable Works: Psychological Types and Man and His Symbols.
   • Arguments: Jung’s concept of the “collective unconscious” introduced archetypal elements that influence characters and themes in literature. He argued that universal symbols and myths are rooted in the collective unconscious, contributing to character development and storytelling. Jung’s ideas on the “shadow” and individuation also play a role in literary interpretation.
4. Harold Bloom (1930-2019):
   • Notable Works: The Anxiety of Influence and A Map of Misreading.
   • Arguments: Bloom’s theory of “poetic misprision” explores the unconscious influence of past literary works on writers. He argued that writers unconsciously engage with and transform the works of their predecessors, leading to a complex interplay of influences in literature. Bloom’s work focuses on the literary tradition and the impact of earlier writers on the creative process.
5. Julia Kristeva (1941-):
   • Notable Works: The Powers of Horror and Desire in Language.
   • Arguments: Kristeva’s work on the “semiotic” and “symbolic” realms within language and literature addresses the expression of unconscious desires and fears. She examines how the interplay of these realms shapes character development and narrative structure. Kristeva’s theories encompass the relationship between language, subjectivity, and the unconscious in literary analysis.

These theorists and their significant works provide diverse perspectives on how hidden psychological forces influence character behavior, narrative structure, and the interpretation of literature in the context of unconscious motivation.

Unconscious Motivation and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Psychoanalytic Theory	Unconscious motivation is foundational in psychoanalytic literary theory, particularly in the Freudian tradition. It explores how the unconscious desires, conflicts, and repressed memories of characters shape their actions and relationships in literature. This theory emphasizes the significance of the id, ego, and superego in character development and plot dynamics.
Reader-Response Theory	Unconscious motivation is relevant in reader-response theory as it focuses on how readers’ unconscious emotions, experiences, and desires influence their interpretation of a text. Reader-response theorists explore how readers’ personal unconscious motivations interact with the text to create diverse readings and responses.
Archetypal Criticism	Within archetypal criticism, the concept of unconscious motivation aligns with Carl Jung’s exploration of the collective unconscious. Archetypal critics analyze the universal symbols and myths rooted in the collective unconscious that recur in literature. These archetypes represent common human desires and fears that influence characters and narratives.
Feminist Literary Theory	Unconscious motivation is relevant in feminist literary theory, where it is applied to uncover the hidden desires and struggles of female characters. Feminist critics explore how societal norms and the unconscious motivations of characters, particularly women, impact their roles and identities in literature.
Postcolonial Theory	In postcolonial literature, unconscious motivation is used to explore into the complex psyches of characters from colonized societies. The theory explores how the unconscious motivations of these characters reflect their responses to the temporal and cultural shifts brought about by colonialism.
Deconstruction	Within deconstruction, unconscious motivation is considered in the context of language and its hidden complexities. Deconstructionist critics question the stability and linearity of language and how unconscious linguistic elements impact the interpretation of texts.
Narrative Theory	Unconscious motivation is pivotal in narrative theory, which examines how characters’ hidden desires and conflicts drive the development of plot and narrative structure. Narrative theorists explore how the unconscious motivations of characters contribute to the construction of stories.

Unconscious Motivation in Literary Criticism

1. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky: Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment provides a profound exploration of unconscious motivation. The protagonist, Raskolnikov, is driven by unconscious desires to prove his extraordinary nature through murder. As the novel unfolds, his inner turmoil and guilt reveal the intricate workings of the human psyche. Dostoevsky’s depiction of Raskolnikov’s unconscious motivations offers a deep psychological analysis of character depth, emphasizing the moral and ethical dimensions of the unconscious, making it a rich ground for psychoanalytic interpretation.
2. The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger: In The Catcher in the Rye, Salinger explores the unconscious alienation of the protagonist, Holden Caulfield. His first-person narrative allows readers to witness his stream of consciousness, unveiling his subconscious feelings of disconnection and disillusionment with the adult world. Salinger’s use of the stream of consciousness technique provides insight into the unconscious desires and fears of an adolescent on the brink of adulthood. Analyzing Holden’s unconscious motivations enriches our understanding of his character and the novel’s themes.
3. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: In The Great Gatsby, the characters are driven by unconscious desires and ambitions. Jay Gatsby’s unrequited love for Daisy Buchanan and his relentless pursuit of the American Dream are rooted in an unconscious yearning for social acceptance and love. Fitzgerald’s exploration of the unconscious desires of the characters sheds light on the themes of wealth, identity, and the illusion of the American Dream. The subconscious motivations of the characters add depth to the novel’s critique of Jazz Age society.
4. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude is rich in magical realism and symbolism, representing the collective unconscious of the Buendía family and the town of Macondo. The novel’s narrative blends the conscious and unconscious to create a dreamlike, otherworldly atmosphere. By incorporating elements of the unconscious into the narrative, Márquez invites readers to explore the blurred boundaries between reality and fantasy. The novel’s dreamlike quality allows for a deeper analysis of the character’s emotional and psychological experiences, rooted in their unconscious motivations.

Relevant Terms of Unconscious Motivation

1. Sublimation: Redirecting potentially harmful or unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors or creative pursuits.
2. Repression: The unconscious act of blocking out or forgetting distressing or traumatic memories to avoid emotional pain.
3. Defense Mechanisms: Psychological strategies that the unconscious mind uses to protect the ego from anxiety, such as denial, projection, or rationalization.
4. Id: The primitive, unconscious part of the personality that contains basic, instinctual drives and desires.
5. Ego: The conscious and rational part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id and the constraints of reality.
6. Superego: The moral conscience or internalized set of societal and parental values that guides and restricts behavior.
7. Cathexis: The investment of emotional energy or attachment to a person, object, or idea, which can influence behavior.
8. Freudian Slip: A verbal mistake that reveals unconscious thoughts or feelings, often related to repressed desires.
9. Transference: Unconsciously transferring emotions and attitudes from one person to another, typically in the context of therapy or relationships.
10. Oedipus Complex: A psychoanalytic concept involving a child’s unconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, typically occurring during the phallic stage of development.

Suggested Readings

1. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.
2. Lacan, Jacques. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. Translated by Alan Sheridan, W. W. Norton & Company, 1998.
3. Miller, J. Hillis. The Ethics of Reading: Literature in the Age of Barnum. Columbia University Press, 2017.
4. Royle, Nicholas. Jacques Derrida. Routledge, 2003.
5. Smith, Jennifer L. Unconscious Dominions: Psychoanalysis, Colonial Trauma, and Global Sovereignties. Duke University Press, 2011.
6. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. Routledge, 2015.
7. Wollheim, Richard. The Mind and Its Depths. Harvard University Press, 1993.
8. Zizek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. Verso, 1989.
9. Zizek, Slavoj. The Plague of Fantasies. Verso, 1997.
10. Zupančič, Alenka. The Odd One In: On Comedy. The MIT Press, 2008.

Objecthood: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term: The term “objecthood” is derived from the combination of “object” and the suffix “-hood,” which denotes a state or condition. In philosophy and art theory, it refers to the state or quality of being an object, often explored in discussions about the nature and existence of objects.

Meanings and Concept:

In Philosophy	In Art Theory
Examines the ontological status of objects, questioning what it means for something to be considered an object.	Explores how objects are perceived, represented, and given significance in artistic contexts.
Involves discussions about the existence, identity, and properties of objects in the philosophical realm.	Focuses on the artistic representation of objects and their impact on viewer perception and interpretation.
Addresses questions about the nature of reality and the relationships between subjects and objects.	Considers how artists manipulate objecthood to convey meaning, challenge conventions, or provoke thought.
Explores the boundaries between subjects and objects, delving into philosophical inquiries about perception and consciousness.	Acknowledges the role of the viewer in determining the objecthood of artworks and the subjective nature of aesthetic experiences.

Objecthood: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Objecthood, as a theoretical term, encompasses the examination of an entity’s ontological status, questioning the fundamental nature of what constitutes an object. In philosophy, it delves into inquiries about existence, identity, and the relationships between subjects and objects, exploring the boundaries of reality. In art theory, objecthood extends to the representation and manipulation of objects, examining how artists convey meaning and engage with viewers through the intentional shaping of objecthood in their works.

Objecthood: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

• Martin Heidegger: Explored the ontological aspects, questioning the nature of being and the existence of objects in the world.
• Jean-Paul Sartre: Contributed to existentialist discussions, emphasizing the subjective nature of perception and the role of consciousness.
• Maurice Merleau-Ponty: Examined the phenomenology of perception, offering insights into the embodied experience of objects.

Key Works:

• “Being and Time” by Martin Heidegger: Discusses the concept of Dasein and its relationship to the surrounding world, shaping discussions on it.
• “Being and Nothingness” by Jean-Paul Sartre: Explores existentialist ideas, delving into the interplay between consciousness, objects, and the subjective experience of reality.
• “Phenomenology of Perception” by Maurice Merleau-Ponty: Investigates the embodied nature of perception, providing a foundation for understanding how subjects engage with objects.

Central Arguments:

• Heidegger’s Argument on Readiness-to-Hand: Objects exist in a practical context, and their significance is revealed through their utility and functionality.
• Sartre’s Argument on Bad Faith: Individuals may engage in self-deception to escape the responsibility of confronting the true nature of objects and their own existence.
• Merleau-Ponty’s Argument on Embodiment: Objecthood is intimately tied to the embodied experience, with perception being a bodily and sensory engagement with the world.

Objecthood: Major Characteristics

1. Existential Ambiguity:

• Description: Objecthood often carries an inherent existential ambiguity, blurring the lines between being and non-being. Objects may exist in a state of potentiality, their significance shaped by context and perception.
• Literary Reference: In Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect exemplifies the existential ambiguity of objecthood, challenging traditional notions of identity and existence.

2. Subject-Object Relationship:

• Description: Objecthood involves a dynamic interplay between subjects and objects, raising questions about the nature of their relationship. The perception and interpretation of objects are influenced by the subjective experiences of individuals.
• Literary Reference: In Marcel Proust’s “In Search of Lost Time,” the narrator’s reflection on the madeleine dipped in tea illustrates how objects trigger subjective memories, emphasizing the subjective nature of objecthood.

3. Aesthetic Representation:

• Description: Objecthood extends to the realm of art, where the representation and manipulation of objects contribute to aesthetic experiences. Artists intentionally shape objecthood to convey meaning, challenge conventions, or evoke emotions.
• Literary Reference: In Virginia Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse,” the lighthouse itself becomes a symbol of artistic representation, embodying the transformative power of shaping objecthood in literature.

4. Temporality and Objecthood:

• Description: Objects exist within the dimension of time, undergoing changes and transformations. The temporal aspect of objecthood adds complexity to their significance and contributes to the narratives of existence.
• Literary Reference: In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” the recurring motif of the golden fish reflects the temporal nature of objects, mirroring the cyclical patterns of history and memory.

5. Phenomenological Engagement:

• Description: Objecthood involves a phenomenological engagement, emphasizing the embodied experience of interacting with objects. Perception is not merely visual but encompasses sensory and emotional dimensions.
• Literary Reference: In J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye,” Holden Caulfield’s fixation on his sister Phoebe’s red hunting hat exemplifies the phenomenological engagement with an object, where its sensory and emotional aspects become central to the narrative.

These characteristics of objecthood, as illustrated through literary references, showcase its multifaceted nature and its profound impact on existential, subjective, artistic, temporal, and phenomenological dimensions.

Objecthood: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Objecthood
Existentialism	Examines the existential ambiguity inherent in objecthood, as objects often represent the struggle for meaning and identity in a seemingly indifferent world.
Structuralism	Explores the relationships and signifying structures within a literary work, considering how objects may function as symbols or signs that contribute to the overall structure of the narrative.
Postmodernism	Challenges traditional notions of representation and reality, highlighting the subjective nature of objecthood. Objects in postmodern literature may be deconstructed, recontextualized, or used to question established norms.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Views objects as symbols that may have latent meanings in the subconscious. Objecthood can be analyzed in terms of desire, repression, and the manifestation of psychological processes in literary symbolism.
Feminist Criticism	Investigates the role of objects in reinforcing or challenging gender norms. Objecthood in literature may reflect and contribute to the construction of gender identities and power dynamics.
Reader-Response Theory	Focuses on the reader’s engagement with the text, and objecthood can influence the reader’s interpretation and emotional response. Objects may evoke personal memories or cultural associations, shaping the reading experience.

Objecthood plays a crucial role in various literary theories, influencing how scholars analyze and interpret texts within the frameworks of existentialism, structuralism, postmodernism, psychoanalytic theory, feminist criticism, and reader-response theory.

Objecthood: Application in Critiques

1. Beloved by Toni Morrison:
   • Application of Objecthood: The haunting presence of the baby ghost, representing Sethe’s traumatic past, serves as a poignant object in the narrative. Analyzing the objecthood of the ghost contributes to critiques by unraveling themes of slavery, motherhood, and the enduring impact of historical trauma.
2. Blindness by José Saramago:
   • Application of Objecthood: The sudden epidemic of blindness in the novel introduces a collective object, challenging societal norms and exposing the fragility of civilization. Critically examining the objecthood of blindness contributes to critiques by exploring themes of human vulnerability, societal breakdown, and the loss of individual identity.
3. The Road by Cormac McCarthy:
   • Application of Objecthood: The father and son’s journey through a post-apocalyptic world is marked by their possession of a shopping cart. Analyzing the objecthood of the shopping cart adds depth to critiques by exploring themes of survival, familial bonds, and the struggle for humanity in a desolate landscape.
4. The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde:
   • Application of Objecthood: Dorian Gray’s portrait serves as a central object embodying the consequences of his hedonistic lifestyle. Critiques focusing on the objecthood of the portrait contribute to the analysis of themes related to morality, the corrupting influence of aestheticism, and the pursuit of eternal youth.

Objecthood: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Terms	Brief Description
1. Subjectivity	Examines individual perspectives and experiences in interpretation.
2. Ontology	Investigates the nature of being and existence, often in a metaphysical context.
3. Aesthetics	Focuses on the study of beauty, taste, and artistic expression.
4. Semiotics	Analyzes signs and symbols in communication and their interpretation.
5. Phenomenology	Explores conscious experience and the ways phenomena are perceived.
6. Epistemology	Examines the nature and scope of knowledge and belief.
7. Representation	Studies the portrayal or depiction of concepts, objects, or ideas.
8. Signification	Investigates the meaning and significance of signs and symbols.
9. Identity	Explores the nature and characteristics that make entities distinct.
10. Spectatorship	Focuses on the role and engagement of the observer or audience.

Objecthood: Suggested Readings

1. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. HarperOne, 2008.
2. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. W. W. Norton & Company, 1996.
3. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper Perennial, 2006.
4. Merleau-Ponty, Maurice. Phenomenology of Perception. Routledge, 2012.
5. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.
6. Proust, Marcel. In Search of Lost Time. Vintage, 1992.
7. Saramago, José. Blindness. Mariner Books, 1999.
8. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Washington Square Press, 1993.
9. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1991.
10. Wilde, Oscar. The Picture of Dorian Gray. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Esotericism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Esotericism: Etymology

The term “esotericism” stems from the Greek adjective “esōterikos” (ἐσωτερικός), signifying “belonging to an inner circle.” This etymology suggests a body of knowledge or practices not readily accessible to the general public, but held by a select group.

Meanings of Esotericism

Esotericism is not a singular, unified ideology but a broad term encompassing diverse beliefs and practices that emphasize elements considered hidden, profound, or reserved for initiates. Common themes include:

• Specialized Knowledge: Esoteric traditions often claim to possess insights into the fundamental workings of the universe, spiritual dimensions, or the human psyche, transcending mainstream understanding.
• Spiritual Development: Esotericism may incorporate practices such as meditation, ritual, symbolism, or the study of sacred texts. These are undertaken as a means of attaining higher states of consciousness, self-transformation, or communion with the divine.
• Non-Standard Cosmologies: Some esoteric schools of thought may present worldviews or historical narratives that diverge significantly from conventional scientific or religious explanations.

The Concept of Esotericism

Esotericism is a complex field of study. Key concepts frequently associated with it include:

• Occultism: This concerns the study and purported manipulation of hidden forces or energies influencing the material world. Occult practices might include divination, astrology, or various forms of magic.
• Mysticism: The pursuit of direct experiential knowledge of spiritual truths or ultimate reality. Mystical experiences are often facilitated by practices such as meditation or prayer.
• Hermeticism: A philosophical tradition influenced by writings attributed to the legendary figure Hermes Trismegistus. Hermeticism emphasizes the interconnectedness of the universe, concepts like “as above, so below,” and the potential for spiritual ascent.
• Gnosticism: A collection of early religious movements unified by the belief in a hidden divine essence within some individuals. Gnostics held that the attainment of specialized knowledge (“gnosis”) was essential for transcending the constraints of the material world.

Esotericism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Esotericism refers to a multifaceted and often elusive domain of knowledge characterized by its hidden or specialized nature. It encompasses mystical, occult, and spiritual traditions that emphasize secret teachings, inner wisdom, and the pursuit of deeper truths beyond the surface level of understanding. Esotericism typically involves practices, beliefs, and symbols that are restricted to a select group of initiates or seekers who are dedicated to exploring the mysteries of existence.

Esotericism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists in the Study of Western Esotericism

• Antoine Faivre (1934-present): One of the founding figures in the academic study of esotericism. Faivre proposed a framework for defining esotericism based on recurring characteristics:
  • Correspondences: The belief in an underlying network of connections within the cosmos.
  • Living Nature: The view of nature as imbued with spirit and vitality.
  • Imagination and Mediations: The use of symbolic systems, ritual practices, and other mediatory tools to interact with spiritual realities.
  • Transmutation: The possibility of inner transformation and spiritual progression.
• Wouter Hanegraaff (1961-present): Hanegraaff emphasizes the historical marginalization of esoteric knowledge by dominant scientific and religious frameworks. He argues that:
  • Esotericism largely constitutes a category of “rejected knowledge.”
  • There exists a complex and dynamic relationship between esoteric currents and popular culture.
• Kocku von Stuckrad (1966-present): Von Stuckrad advocates for a discursive approach, shifting the focus of analysis from the content of esoteric beliefs to the way esoteric knowledge systems are constructed and legitimized. His work highlights:
  • The ways in which esoteric discourses interact with and mimic scientific or established knowledge systems.
  • The continuous evolution and constructed nature of esoteric traditions.

Notes:

• This presentation offers a concise overview of influential approaches to the academic study of esotericism.
• These figures represent key foundational theorists. Numerous contemporary scholars are actively engaged in refining and expanding our understanding of this complex field.

Esotericism: Major Characteristics

• Hidden or Secret Knowledge: Esotericism often involves claims of ancient or revealed wisdom available only to select initiates.
  • Literary example: Dan Brown’s The Da Vinci Code centers on an alleged secret lineage descended from Christ and Mary Magdalene, echoing themes from gnostic texts and historical legends.
• Symbolism and Correspondence: Esoteric texts frequently use rich symbolism, including numbers, geometric forms, and archetypal figures to transmit complex teachings. Belief in “correspondences” suggests interconnectedness between the spiritual and material realms.
  • Literary example: William Blake’s poetry and artwork are permeated with esoteric symbolism, drawing upon Kabbalah, hermeticism, and his own unique mystical system.
• Transformation: Esoteric practices often aim at inducing inner change, spiritual elevation, or unlocking untapped human potential.
  • Literary example: Dante’s Divine Comedy depicts a symbolic journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise, representing a process of spiritual purification and ascent.
• Alternative Cosmology: Esoteric schools may promote worldviews diverging from mainstream science or conventional religion, proposing hidden levels of reality or supernatural agencies.
  • Literary example: H.P. Lovecraft’s stories feature ancient cosmic entities and forbidden knowledge that destabilizes notions of a rational universe.
• Mystical Experience: Direct, transcendent encounters with the Divine or other spiritual dimensions are often a central aim within esoteric practice.
  • Literary Example: The ecstatic visions of medieval mystics like Hildegard of Bingen or Julian of Norwich reflect deep mystical experiences.

Esotericism: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Archetypal Criticism and Depth Psychology: Drawing from the work of Carl Jung, literary theorists explore archetypal images and motifs (e.g., the hero’s journey, symbols of transformation) common across cultures. These shared symbolic patterns can be linked to esoteric traditions concerned with the structure of the psyche and collective unconscious.
• Deconstruction: Deconstruction challenges fixed meanings and binary hierarchies, echoing esoteric notions of interconnectedness and hidden knowledge beneath the surface of texts. Critics can expose ways dominant narratives suppress esoteric aspects of literature to uphold established systems.
• Reader-Response Criticism: Esoteric concepts of hidden layers of meaning within texts resonate with reader-response theory, which emphasizes the active role of the reader in deciphering meaning. The experience of uncovering a work’s esoteric elements invites personal interpretation and transformative insights.
• Historical & Cultural Studies: Scholars investigate esoteric currents within particular cultural moments, revealing how esoteric thought intersects with literature. Esoteric themes can reflect societal anxieties, hidden power structures, or provide commentary on dominant ideologies.
• Postcolonial & Feminist Criticisms: Esotericism offers lenses for re-examining works by marginalized authors. Feminist critics might explore how women used the language of mysticism to subtly challenge dominant narratives. Postcolonial theorists might uncover subversive uses of symbolic systems appropriated from colonized cultures.

Important Consideration:

The mere presence of esoteric themes in a text doesn’t necessarily necessitate an explicitly esoteric reading. However, recognizing esoteric undercurrents provides a fresh interpretive lens by:

• Sensitizing readers to symbolism, alternative worldviews, and transformative aspects within literary works.
• Illuminating historical power dynamics and the marginalization of alternative forms of knowledge.
• Enhancing our understanding of the complex dialogue between texts and their broader cultural contexts.

Esotericism: Application in Critiques

Critical Approach	Key Esoteric Concepts/Themes	Sample Critical Questions
Archetypal/Jungian	Universal archetypes, symbolism, collective unconscious	How do archetypal patterns (e.g., the hero, the shadow) shape character development and plot?
Deconstruction	Hidden meanings, disruption of binaries, ambiguity	How does the text undermine its own surface meaning or challenge conventional hierarchies?
Reader-Response	Multi-layered interpretations, active reader engagement	How might multiple esoteric interpretations be valid based on the reader’s experiences and knowledge base?
Historical/Cultural Studies	Influence of social and political contexts, marginalized knowledge	How does the text reflect or challenge the esoteric currents prevalent during its time of creation?
Postcolonial/Feminist	Hidden power dynamics, subversive readings, revalorizing non-dominant perspectives	How might marginalized authors use esoteric symbolism to encode criticism of dominant narratives?

Esotericism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Occultism	Study/manipulation of hidden forces or energies
Mysticism	Pursuit of direct union with the divine or ultimate reality
Hermeticism	Philosophy emphasizing correspondences and spiritual ascent
Gnosticism	Knowledge (“gnosis”) as a path to spiritual liberation
Theurgy	Rituals for interaction with deities or spirits
Alchemy	Transmutation of matter and spirit
Kabbalah	Jewish mystical tradition
Rosicrucianism	Esoteric Christian order
Tarot	Divinatory cards with symbolic imagery
Astrology	Studying celestial influences on human affairs
Numerology	Significance of numbers in relation to events/personality
Neoplatonism	Philosophical system influencing mystical concepts
Fourth Way	Gurdjieff’s teachings on self-awareness and transformation
Syncretism	Blending elements from different belief systems

Esotericism: Suggested Readings

1. Faivre, Antoine. Access to Western Esotericism. State University of New York Press, 1994.
2. Faivre, Antoine, and Jacob Needleman, editors. Modern Esoteric Spirituality. Crossroad, 1992.
3. Godwin, Joscelyn. The Theosophical Enlightenment. State University of New York Press, 1994.
4. Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas. The Western Esoteric Traditions: A Historical Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2008.
5. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. Esotericism and the Academy: Rejected Knowledge in Western Culture. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
6. Hanegraaff, Wouter J. New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. State University of New York Press, 1998.
7. Kripal, Jeffrey J. Esalen: America and the Religion of No Religion. University of Chicago Press, 2007.
8. Partridge, Christopher. The Re-Enchantment of the West: Alternative Spiritualities, Sacralization, Popular Culture and Occulture. Vol. 1, T & T Clark International, 2004.
9. Strube, Julian. “Socialist Religion and the Emergence of Occultism: A Genealogical Approach to Socialism and Secularization in 19th-Century France.” Religion, vol. 46, no. 3, 2016, pp. 359-388.
10. Von Stuckrad, Kocku. Western Esotericism: A Brief History of Secret Knowledge. Equinox, 2005.

Apotheosis: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

“Apotheosis” traces its roots to the Greek word “apotheoun,” meaning “to deify” or “to make a god.” The term denotes the elevation of a person or thing to divine status or the highest point of development or achievement. In various contexts, “apotheosis” embodies themes of transcendence, ultimate transformation, or the pinnacle of greatness. It can represent the glorification of individuals, ideas, or ideals beyond ordinary human limitations, often through symbolic or metaphorical means. Across literature, art, religion, and philosophy, “apotheosis” serves as a potent motif, capturing humanity’s aspirations for perfection, immortality, or spiritual enlightenment.

Meanings and Concepts:

• Deification: Refers to the elevation of a mortal to divine status, often in religious or mythological contexts.
• Transcendence: Signifies surpassing ordinary limits or boundaries, reaching a state beyond the mundane.
• Ultimate Transformation: Represents a profound and significant change, leading to the highest possible state or form.
• Glorification: Involves the exaltation or adulation of a person, idea, or concept to the highest degree.
• Symbolism and Metaphor: Implies representing abstract ideas or qualities through concrete or symbolic imagery.
• Aspiration for Perfection: Reflects humanity’s innate desire for excellence, completeness, or flawlessness.
• Immortality: Connotes achieving a form of eternal existence or enduring significance beyond physical life.
• Spiritual Enlightenment: Pertains to attaining deep understanding, insight, or awakening to higher truths or realities.

Apotheosis: Definition of a Theoretical Term

“Apotheosis” is a theoretical term that signifies the elevation of something to a divine or exalted status. It embodies the concept of ultimate transformation, representing the pinnacle of development or achievement. The term often implies a symbolic or metaphorical process through which individuals, ideas, or ideals are glorified beyond their ordinary human limitations.

Apotheosis: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

• Carl Jung: Jung explored the concept of apotheosis within his theory of individuation, suggesting it as a crucial stage in the process of psychological development where the individual integrates the conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche.
• Joseph Campbell: Campbell, in his work on comparative mythology, identified apotheosis as a common motif in hero’s journeys across cultures, where the hero attains divine status or enlightenment through trials and challenges.
• Hegel: Hegel discussed apotheosis within his philosophy of history, viewing it as the culmination of the dialectical process where the Absolute Spirit achieves self-awareness through the development of human consciousness.

Works:

• “The Hero with a Thousand Faces” by Joseph Campbell: In this seminal work, Campbell extensively discusses the archetype of the hero’s journey, highlighting the stage of apotheosis as a central aspect of the hero’s transformation.
• “Psychological Types” by Carl Jung: Jung delves into the concept of individuation and the process of self-realization, emphasizing the significance of apotheosis in the integration of the psyche.
• “Phenomenology of Spirit” by G.W.F. Hegel: Hegel’s magnum opus explores the development of human consciousness throughout history, with apotheosis representing the pinnacle of spiritual evolution in his dialectical framework.

Arguments:

• Integration of the Psyche: Theorists argue that apotheosis symbolizes the harmonious integration of the conscious and unconscious aspects of the psyche, leading to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment.
• Universal Archetype: Scholars assert that apotheosis serves as a universal archetype found in myths, religions, and philosophical systems worldwide, reflecting humanity’s collective aspiration for transcendence and ultimate transformation.
• Teleological Progression: Hegel’s argument posits that apotheosis is the culmination of a teleological progression in history, where human consciousness evolves towards self-awareness and the realization of absolute truth.

Apotheosis: Major Characteristics

• Beyond Human Limitations: The apotheosized figure breaks free from the constraints of mortality. This may manifest as immortality, extraordinary abilities, or freedom from earthly concerns.
• Acquisition of Divine Traits: Individuals undergoing apotheosis often adopt qualities associated with deities, such as supernatural power, wisdom, or the ability to command natural forces.
• Symbolic Significance: Apotheosis primarily functions as a powerful symbol, highlighting the extraordinary legacy and lasting impact of the subject rather than suggesting a literal physical change.
• Reverence and Commemoration: Rituals, monuments, artistic representations, and literary works often mark apotheosis, venerating the individual’s elevated status.

Examples in Literature and History:

• Ancient World:
  • Hercules (Heracles): Upon completing his trials and attaining redemption, Hercules ascended to Mount Olympus as a god in Greek mythology.
• • Roman Emperors: Figures like Julius Caesar and Augustus were sometimes deified as part of political propaganda and imperial cult practices.
• Classical Literature:
  • Virgil’s Aeneid: Aeneas, the Trojan hero and ancestor of Rome, undergoes a process of apotheosis.
  • Dante’s Divine Comedy: Dante’s journey transcends the limitations of the earthly realm, culminating in a divine vision.

Functions of Apotheosis

• Underscoring Extraordinary Achievement: It serves as a hyperbolic testament to an individual’s exceptional accomplishments, influence, or virtue.
• Exploration of Ambition and Hubris: The motif raises philosophical questions about the dangers and consequences of individuals striving to surpass their natural limitations.
• Cultural and Political Tool: In certain historical contexts, apotheosis was used to reinforce the power of rulers or promote nationalistic mythology (e.g., the “Apotheosis of George Washington”).

Apotheosis in Literary Theory: Critical Lenses and Interpretations

Apotheosis, the symbolic or metaphorical elevation of a figure to divine status, offers a rich source of analysis for numerous literary theories and critical approaches. It raises essential questions about power, ambition, the construction of cultural memory, and the limits of human representation.

Key Theoretical Frameworks for Analyzing Apotheosis:

• Structuralism and Semiotics: Exploring apotheosis as a sign illuminates cultural understandings of authority, heroism, and aspirations beyond the boundaries of mortality. These frameworks emphasize the shifting symbolic systems associated with representations of the divine.
• Psychoanalytic Theory: Apotheosis narratives illuminate unconscious desires for transcendence, perfection, and power. Psychoanalytic readings uncover individual and societal anxieties and wish-fulfillment embedded within depictions of figures exceeding human limitations.
• New Historicism: A New Historicist lens draws attention to the political and cultural contexts of such narratives. These stories were often used as tools for consolidating power, constructing mythologies, and shaping collective memory. However, they can also offer possibilities for subversion and challenge to dominant power structures.
• Feminist and Postcolonial Criticism: These theoretical perspectives critique the predominantly patriarchal and colonialist power structures reflected in traditional motifs. Feminist and postcolonial readings focus on marginalized perspectives, suppressed cultural narratives, and alternative modes of transcendence and heroism.
• Reader-Response Theory: Emphasizing how such narratives are received and interpreted by readers highlights changing historical and cultural interpretations. These readings track evolving reactions to apotheosis motifs, exposing shifts in values and perceptions surrounding heroic ideals and power representations.

Applying the Frameworks: Example of Julius Caesar

The literary, historical, and cultural representations surrounding Julius Caesar exemplify the complexity of apotheosis as a critical concept:

• Semiotics: His deification reinforced his political identity and legacy, symbolizing his rise beyond mere mortal status.
• Psychoanalytic: Caesar’s elevation speaks to individual and collective desires for transcendence and immortality, as well as anxieties regarding the limits of human power.
• New Historicism: His apotheosis demonstrates the manipulation of public image by ruling powers in the Roman Empire, aiming to legitimize authority and unify the populace.
• Feminist/Postcolonial: These lenses expose how Caesar’s elevation perpetuates exclusionary hierarchies based on gender and imperial power, necessitating alternative readings that uplift marginalized voices within Roman history.

Apotheosis: Application in Critiques

Text	Subject of Apotheosis	Critical Lenses
Milton’s Paradise Lost	The figure of Satan and his rebellion against divine order.	– Psychoanalytic: Uncovering Satan’s desires for recognition and power.  – Structuralism: Exploring the narrative mechanisms through which Satan takes on divine-like traits.
Shelley’s Frankenstein	Victor Frankenstein’s attempt to achieve apotheosis through creation.	– Structuralism & Semiotics: Examining symbols and language around Frankenstein’s creation.  – Psychoanalytic: Delving into Frankenstein’s subconscious motivations.
Dante’s Divine Comedy	Dante’s transcendence guided by Beatrice, culminating in divine vision.	– Reader-response: Tracing evolving perceptions of Dante’s spiritual journey. – Structuralist/Symbolist: Interpreting symbolic landscapes Dante traverses.
Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude	Various characters experience symbolic apotheosis.	– New Historicism: Connecting apotheosis motifs to cultural memory and power struggles. – Postcolonial: Reading apotheosis as subversion in a suppressed cultural discourse.

Apotheosis: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Deification	The process of transforming a mortal being into a god or god-like figure.
Elevation	The act of lifting or raising someone to a higher status or position.
Transcendence	Going beyond ordinary limitations, exceeding the bounds of physical existence.
Immortality	The ability to live forever, escaping the confines of mortality.
Heroism	Demonstrating remarkable courage, strength, or exceptional achievements.
Legacy	The lasting impact or influence left behind by an individual.
Mythologization	The construction of myths or legends surrounding a figure, often amplifying their importance.
Symbolism	Using objects, ideas, or images to represent abstract concepts, like the elevation of status.
Ritual	Celebratory practices or ceremonies often surrounding elevation and veneration.
Power	Influence, authority, or control stemming from the elevated status.

Apotheosis: Suggested Readings

1. Bell, Sarah C. Apotheosis: The Art of Divine Kingship in Ancient Greece. University of California Press, 2017.
2. Greene, Thomas M. The Apotheosis of Homer: The Homeric Legacy in Renaissance and Modern Literature. Princeton University Press, 2006.
3. Harrison, Jane Ellen. Themis: A Study of the Social Origins of Greek Religion. Princeton University Press, 1927. https://resources.warburg.sas.ac.uk/pdf/bkb675b2264133.pdf
4. Kerényi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. Thames and Hudson, 1951. https://www.amazon.com/Gods-Greeks-Ka%CC%81roly-Kere%CC%81nyi-ebook/dp/B01MG58D7N
5. Larson, Jennifer. Ancient Rome and the Mediterranean. W.W. Norton & Company, 2014. https://wwnorton.com/catalog
6. Mann, Michael. The Sources of Social Power. Cambridge University Press, 1993. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/sources-of-social-power/71430B753552703F801E9C6087E524D6
7. Nelson, Michael. Apotheosis: The Rise and Fall of American Political Leaders. Bloomsbury Academic, 2016. https://www.amazon.com/stores/Michael%20J.%20Nelson/author/B001ITVY16
8. Pani, Mario. The Apotheosis of the Emperor: Roman Imperial Ideology from Augustus to Antoninus Pius. Cambridge University Press, 2016. https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095419557
9. Vergilius, Publius Maro. The Aeneid. Translated by David Ferry, Penguin Classics, 2007. https://www.amazon.com/Aeneid-Virgil/dp/0670038032

Actant: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology: The term “actant,” rooted in the Latin verb “agere” (to do/act), inherently denotes its narrative function as an entity actively involved in an action or its consequence.

Meanings:

Narrative Theory:

• Fundamental Building Blocks: Actants transcend individual characters, representing pivotal roles within a story’s structure.
• Six Pillars: The Subject (desires Object), Object (desired entity), Sender (initiates communication), Receiver (receives communication), Helper (aids Subject), and Opponent (obstructs Subject) form the narrative’s foundational framework.
• Beyond the Surface: Actants delve deeper than character names, signifying the underlying narrative functions performed by various entities (human, non-human, objects, concepts, etc.).

Expanding Horizons:

• Linguistics: Actants extend their reach, analyzing word function beyond mere content.
• Sociology: They represent active players within social systems, dissecting their roles in interactions.
• Computer Science: Software systems come alive with actants, entities that interact and drive program functionality.

By understanding actants, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate workings of narratives and various other domains, allowing for more nuanced analysis and interpretation.

Actant: Definition of a Theoretical Term

An actant is a theoretical term used in semiotics and narrative analysis to describe entities that have agency or contribute to the action within a narrative or discourse. Actants can be human or non-human, tangible or abstract, and they play various roles such as protagonists, antagonists, or supporting characters. The concept emphasizes the dynamic interplay between different elements in a narrative or discourse, highlighting their roles in shaping meaning and driving the narrative forward.

Actant: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Proponents:

• A.J. Greimas: Established the foundational actantial model in Structural Semantics: An Introduction and Semiotics and Language.
• Roland Barthes: Pioneered its application in narrative analysis through works like Mythologies and Image-Music-Text.
• Algirdas Julien Greimas: Refined the model, building upon his father’s work in On Meaning.

Seminal Works:

• Sémantique Structurale: Recherche de méthode (Greimas): Lays the theoretical groundwork for the actantial model.
• Sémiotique et Langage (Greimas): Expands the model’s application to diverse narratives.
• Narratologie Transformatonnelle (Genette): Delves into actants within narrative transformations and transpositions.

Core Arguments:

• Actants provide a universal framework for analyzing narrative structure across cultures and genres.
• They transcend specific characters, capturing fundamental narrative roles and functions.
• Examining actants reveals deeper meanings, power dynamics, and underlying structures within narratives.

Actor-Network Theory (ANT):

Pioneers and Key Contributors:

• Bruno Latour: Introduced ANT in Science in Action and We Have Never Been Modern.
• Michel Callon: Co-developed the theory, focusing on agency within networks (Mapping the Dynamics of Socio-Economic Change).
• John Law: Explored power and agency in networks through works like Power, Action and Belief.

Foundational Texts:

• Science in Action (Latour): Introduces and demonstrates the application of ANT in scientific studies.
• Actor-Network Theory: A Critical Introduction (Law): Provides a comprehensive overview of ANT’s core concepts.
• Assembling Theory (Deleuze & Guattari): Offers a philosophical framework for understanding networks and actants.

Key Tenets:

• Actants extend beyond human actors, encompassing anything that influences interactions and outcomes within a network.
• Agency is not inherent but emerges through connections, interactions, and power dynamics within the network.
• ANT provides a flexible framework for analyzing diverse interactions in social, technological, and scientific spheres.

Important Considerations:

• These represent two prominent applications of “actant,” and its meaning may vary in other fields.
• Each theorist offers their own unique interpretation and application, warranting further exploration.
• Debates and critiques regarding actants and their roles continue to shape these theoretical frameworks.

Actant: Major Characteristics

Actant	Narrative Theory Characteristics	Literary Reference (Narrative Theory)	Actor-Network Theory Characteristics
Subject	Desires the Object	Luke Skywalker (desires to defeat the Empire) in Star Wars	Disease outbreak (acts upon a population, shaping healthcare policies)
Object	The desired entity	The Death Star (represents power and domination) in Star Wars	A new technology (influences social interactions and communication)
Sender	Initiates communication	Yoda (provides wisdom and guidance) in Star Wars	A social media platform (connects and influences users)
Receiver	Receives communication	Luke Skywalker (learns and acts upon Yoda’s wisdom) in Star Wars	A research paper (influences future scientific studies)
Helper	Aids the Subject	Obi-Wan Kenobi (assists Luke) in Star Wars	A natural disaster relief organization (helps communities rebuild)
Opponent	Obstructs the Subject	Darth Vader (opposes Luke) in Star Wars	A powerful corporation (exerts control over markets)

Actant: Relevance in Literary Theories

Aspect	Explanation	Example
Narrative Structure	Identify core roles and functions within the story	Analyzing the roles of “hero” and “villain” in a fairy tale
Character Analysis	Understand motivations and complexities beyond descriptions	Examining how Gatsby’s desire for Daisy (Object) drives his actions
Literary Interpretation	Uncover power structures and social commentary	Deconstructing the portrayal of women (Opponents) in a patriarchal society
Specific Theories	Greimas: analyzing desires and obstacles (Subject & Object)	Identifying the Subject’s (Frodo) desire (the Ring) and Opponent (Sauron) in Lord of the Rings
Benefits	– Universal framework for diverse narratives – Reveals deeper meaning and power dynamics – Enables comparative analysis and critique

Further Exploration:

• Apply actants to analyze specific literary works.
• Compare how different theories utilize actants.
• Remember actants are tools, not absolutes, requiring critical thinking and context-specific interpretation.

Actant: Application in Critiques

1. Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë:

• Subject: Jane (desires independence, self-expression, and love)
• Object: Freedom, education, and a fulfilling relationship
• Sender: St. John Rivers (offers religious calling and stability)
• Receiver: Jane (must choose between societal expectations and personal desires)
• Helper: Rochester (initially opposes but later aids Jane’s self-discovery)
• Opponent: Society’s rigid expectations and Rochester’s past transgressions

Critique: The novel critiques patriarchal norms through Jane’s struggle against societal constraints and her fight for self-determination. Actants highlight the power dynamics between individuals and societal forces.

2. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:

• Subject: Okonkwo (desires upholding tradition and masculinity)
• Object: Maintaining clan honor and cultural values
• Sender: Colonial forces (introduce new beliefs and disrupt traditions)
• Receiver: Okonkwo and the Igbo community (must grapple with change)
• Helper: None – Okonkwo’s rigid adherence to tradition isolates him.
• Opponent: Colonialism and its disruptive influence on cultural identity

Critique: The actantial model exposes the conflict between tradition and modernity, highlighting the impact of colonialism on individual lives and collective identity.

3. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

• Subject: Jay Gatsby (desires reclaiming Daisy and the past)
• Object: Daisy Buchanan (represents unattainable wealth and lost love)
• Sender: Nick Carraway (observes and narrates the events)
• Receiver: The reader (must interpret Gatsby’s motivations and the societal critique)
• Helper: None – Gatsby’s obsession with the past hinders his pursuit.
• Opponent: Social class barriers and the hollowness of the American Dream

Critique: Analyzing actants reveals the characters’ entrapment in social constructs and the destructive nature of unattainable desires. The narrative critiques materialism and social hierarchies.

4. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:

• Subject: The Buendía family (desires escaping their cyclical fate)
• Object: Breaking free from isolation, repetition, and self-destruction
• Sender: Ghosts of the past and magical realism elements
• Receiver: The Buendía family and Macondo (must confront their legacies)
• Helper: None – The family remains trapped in their patterns.
• Opponent: Internal flaws, historical cycles, and external forces

Critique: The actantial model underscores the cyclical nature of history and the characters’ struggle against their predetermined fate. The narrative critiques colonialism, violence, and the human condition.

Actant: Relevant Terms

Term	Field	Short Definition
Narrative Function	Narrative Theory	Fundamental role within a story structure
Dramatis Personae	Literature	Characters in a play or narrative
Agent	Actor-Network Theory	Entity able to act, influencing a network
Role	Sociology	Social position or function
Theme	Literary Analysis	Recurring idea or message in a work
Motif	Literary Analysis	Repeated element with symbolic meaning
Character Archetype	Literature	Universal character type with recurring traits
Persona	Psychology	Aspect of an individual’s personality
Force	Physics	Entity exerting influence or causing change
Construct	Social Science	Concept or idea created and shaped by society

Actant: Suggested Readings

1. Greimas, Algirdas Julien. On Meaning. 1983. Amazon Link
2. Greimas, Algirdas Julien. Sémantique Structurale: Recherche de méthode. 1966. PDF
3. Greimas, Algirdas Julien. Structural Semantics: An Introduction. 1979. [Unavailable URL]
4. Greimas, Algirdas Julien. Sémiotique et Langage. 1966. [Unavailable URL]
5. Herman, David, Manfred Jahn, and Marie-Laure Ryan, eds. The Routledge Critical Dictionary of Narrative Theory and Analysis. 2010. Taylor & Francis
6. Latour, Bruno. Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society. 1987. Amazon Link
7. Latour, Bruno. We Have Never Been Modern. 1993. PDF
8. Law, John. Actor-Network Theory: A Critical Introduction. 2009. Routledge
9. Alasuutari, Päivi, and Mikko Honkasalo, eds. Narratives from Finland: Perspective on the Use of Narrative Analysis in Qualitative Research. 2018. PDF