Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

“Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish was first published in 1970 in the journal New Literary History. This essay is considered a seminal work in the field of literary theory, as it argues that the meaning and value of a literary text are not inherent in the work itself, but are rather created through the interaction between the text and the reader. Fish’s theory of affective stylistics emphasizes the importance of the reader’s emotional response to the text, and how this response shapes their interpretation of the work. This essay has had a significant impact on the study of literature, and continues to be widely discussed and debated today.

Summary of “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Context
Affective Stylistics	A method of literary analysis focusing on the reader’s experience and psychological effects of language while reading.	“I would first like to demonstrate the explanatory power of a method of analysis which takes the reader, as an actively mediating presence, fully into account…”
Meaning as Event	Meaning is not static but is created through the reader’s experience in the process of reading.	“It is no longer an object, a thing-in-itself, but an event, something that happens to, and with the participation of, the reader.”
Reader-Response Theory	The idea that the reader actively participates in making meaning from the text, rather than passively receiving it.	“What does the sentence do? And what the sentence does is give the reader something and then take it away, drawing him on with the unredeemed promise of its return.”
Temporal Flow of Reading	The experience of reading occurs over time, and meaning is generated progressively as the text unfolds.	“The basis of the method is a consideration of the temporal flow of the reading experience…”
Indeterminacy	The text does not offer a fixed meaning; instead, the meaning may remain unresolved, reflecting the reader’s uncertainty.	“There are two vocabularies in the sentence; one holds out the promise of a clarification… while the other continually defaults on that promise…”
Text as Experience	The text should be viewed as something that occurs to the reader, shaping and being shaped by their reactions.	“Meaning is an event, something that is happening between the words and in the reader’s mind…”
Interaction between Text and Reader	The dynamic relationship between the text and the reader’s mental operations, as the reader interprets and anticipates.	“A reader’s response to the fifth word in a line or sentence is to a large extent the product of his responses to words one, two, three, and four.”
Syntax and Prediction	Readers make predictions about the meaning of a sentence based on its syntax, which are then confirmed or thwarted.	“The reader must be in control of it if he is to move easily and confidently through what follows; and in the context of this ‘knowledge,’ he is prepared…”
Defamiliarization	A technique that forces the reader to see familiar things in an unfamiliar way, increasing their attention to the text.	“Going forward only intensifies the reader’s sense of disorientation.”
Ambiguity	The deliberate use of language that allows multiple interpretations or uncertain meaning.	“It is increasingly difficult to tell what ‘it’ refers to, and if the reader takes the trouble to retrace his steps…”
Reader’s Competence	The idea that readers bring linguistic and literary competence that shapes their reading experience.	“The reader, of whose responses I speak, then, is this informed reader, neither an abstraction, nor an actual living reader…”
Psychological Effects of Language	How language structures impact the reader’s thought processes and emotions during reading.	“The projection of syntactical and/or lexical probabilities… the reversal or questioning of those attitudes…”

Contribution of “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Literary Work	Critique through Affective Stylistics	Application of Fish’s Theory
Ulysses by James Joyce	Fish’s theory highlights the fragmented, disorienting style of Ulysses, where meaning emerges as readers actively construct coherence from the stream-of-consciousness narrative. The reader’s interaction with the chaotic flow becomes central to the interpretation of the text.	Ulysses demands that readers piece together its narrative through their evolving understanding, suggesting that meaning is not found in the text alone but in the reader’s response to its complex structure. The continuous shifts in perspective force readers to be co-creators of meaning through their personal, subjective engagement with the novel’s nonlinear form.
The Turn of the Screw by Henry James	Fish’s approach would emphasize the ambiguity and unresolved tension in The Turn of the Screw, where the text constantly forces the reader to reassess their interpretations of events. Meaning shifts as the reader engages with the uncertainty regarding the supernatural vs. psychological explanations.	Fish’s theory posits that meaning in The Turn of the Screw is not stable but is generated through the reader’s temporal engagement with the ambiguity. As the reader encounters each new detail, they must decide how to interpret the unreliable narration, thus playing an active role in determining whether the story leans towards supernatural horror or psychological delusion. The reader’s involvement in interpretation is essential for constructing the meaning of the text.
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Fish’s theory sees Waiting for Godot as an experience in which meaning is constructed through the reader’s (or audience’s) engagement with its minimalism, repetition, and lack of progression. The text compels readers to fill in interpretive gaps left by the absurdist structure.	In Waiting for Godot, meaning arises through the reader’s experience of time and the lack of traditional narrative. Fish’s theory would suggest that the seeming pointlessness and repetitiveness require the reader to actively create meaning by interpreting the play’s structure and dialogue. The absence of definitive meaning in the text makes the reader’s role central in determining the thematic essence of Beckett’s work.
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Fish’s theory focuses on the layered narrative structure and shifting perspectives in Wuthering Heights. Readers must navigate through the multiple narrators and embedded stories, contributing to meaning through the process of reading and interpreting each layer of the novel.	Wuthering Heights exemplifies Fish’s idea that meaning is produced through the reader’s interaction with the text’s structure. The novel’s time shifts and conflicting perspectives require the reader to construct coherence. The emotional intensity of the characters’ relationships unfolds over time, and the reader’s interpretation evolves with each narrative turn, making them an active participant in generating the text’s meaning. Fish emphasizes the dynamic process of reading as central to meaning-making.

Criticism Against “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

• Overemphasis on Reader’s Subjectivity: Critics argue that Fish places too much emphasis on the reader’s subjective experience, which could undermine the role of the text itself. This approach can lead to an overly relativistic view of meaning, where any interpretation could potentially be valid, eroding textual authority.
• Neglect of Authorial Intent: Fish’s theory downplays the significance of the author’s intentions in shaping meaning, which some scholars believe is crucial for interpreting literary works. The argument here is that Fish’s focus on the reader’s experience disregards the context in which the work was produced and the purpose behind its creation.
• Potential for Interpretive Chaos: By suggesting that meaning arises solely from the reader’s engagement with the text, Fish’s theory opens the door to infinite interpretations, which critics claim could result in a lack of interpretive boundaries. Without any objective basis for interpretation, it becomes difficult to distinguish between strong and weak readings.
• Ignoring Textual Structures and Formal Features: Critics assert that Affective Stylistics overlooks the inherent structures, forms, and devices present in texts. Fish’s focus on the process of reading might disregard the formal elements that contribute to meaning independently of the reader’s reaction.
• Lack of Consistency in Reader Response: Fish assumes that readers will experience texts in largely similar ways, but critics point out that different readers may respond to the same text very differently based on individual backgrounds, cultural contexts, and experiences, which makes the idea of a universal reader response problematic.
• Detracting from Traditional Critical Analysis: Fish’s approach has been criticized for diminishing the value of traditional critical methods, such as historical, psychoanalytic, or structuralist approaches, which engage with texts on a more theoretical or analytical level, beyond the immediate experience of reading.

Representative Quotations from “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish with Explanation

Key Sections	Revised Summary	Page Reference
Introduction	Fish begins by asserting that reading is an activity, and the reader’s role is often forgotten in discussions of meaning.	p. 123
Exclusion of Reader	Critics like Wimsatt and Beardsley, in their article “The Affective Fallacy,” exclude the reader from literary analysis. Fish acknowledges the importance of the reader’s experience, particularly in relation to the psychological effects of reading.	p. 124
Psychological Effects	Fish emphasizes the importance of focusing on the psychological effects a text produces in a reader, rather than treating the text as a static object.	p. 125
Example of Judas Sentence	Fish analyzes a sentence from Browne’s Religio Medici, showing how it creates uncertainty in the reader by disrupting expectations, suggesting that meaning is an event that occurs through the reader’s engagement.	pp. 124-126
Milton’s Sentence	Fish analyzes a line from Paradise Lost, illustrating how the sentence’s double negatives create reader uncertainty, further supporting his argument that meaning is generated through reading.	pp. 126-127
Methodology	Fish introduces his method of analysis: focusing on the temporal flow of reading and the reader’s developing responses to words and phrases as they unfold.	pp. 127-129
Temporal Flow	Fish stresses the importance of the temporal aspect of reading, arguing that meaning arises not from the utterance as a whole but from the reader’s sequential experience.	p. 128
Reversing Sentence Structure	Fish demonstrates how reversing the structure of a sentence can change the reader’s experience and therefore its meaning.	p. 128
Ordinary Language	Fish critiques the tendency of some analyses to dismiss straightforward sentences as “ordinary language,” arguing that even the most simple statements can carry complex psychological effects in the reader.	pp. 128-129
Slow Motion Camera Effect	Fish likens his method to a “slow motion camera” that brings unnoticed events in reading to analytical attention.	p. 129
Contradictory Sentences	Fish compares sentences by Whitehead and Pater, explaining that although they may express similar ideas, they produce very different effects in the reader.	pp. 131-132
Donne’s Sermon	Fish analyzes a sentence from one of Donne’s sermons to show how the sentence’s logic forces the reader to engage in reasoning, challenging the assumption that language can be purely referential.	p. 133
Impact of Syntax on Reading	Syntax plays a critical role in shaping the reader’s experience, as Fish demonstrates through various textual examples, where syntactical choices lead to different kinds of reader engagement.	pp. 135-136
Plato’s Phaedrus	Fish uses Plato’s Phaedrus to illustrate his method, arguing that the reader is guided through the dialogue by continually reassessing previous assumptions, which the text implicitly undermines.	pp. 135-137
Rejection of Internal Coherence	Fish rejects the idea that internal coherence is a reliable measure of a text’s value or meaning, emphasizing the reader’s shifting engagement with the text instead.	p. 137
Response to Objections	Fish anticipates objections to his method, such as concerns about impressionism and subjectivity, and defends the precision and objectivity of analyzing reader responses.	pp. 139-141
Importance of Linguistic Competence	Fish argues that readers share a linguistic competence that allows for a certain predictability in responses, making it possible to generalize about the reading experience.	pp. 141-142
Relation to Transformational Grammar	Fish critiques the deep structure theory in linguistics, arguing that surface structures also play a crucial role in generating meaning through the reader’s experience of the text.	pp. 143-145
Informed Reader	Fish introduces the concept of the “informed reader,” one who is familiar with the conventions of language and literary discourse, and whose responses can be used to analyze texts.	pp. 144-146
Limitations of Evaluation	Fish acknowledges that his method does not lend itself to traditional literary evaluation but is instead focused on description of the reader’s experience.	p. 147
Teaching Method	Fish explains how his method can be applied in teaching to develop students’ sensitivity to the nuances of language and their own responses.	pp. 161-162
Conclusion	Fish concludes that his method transforms minds rather than organizing materials, offering a way to experience language as an event rather than a repository of fixed meanings.	p. 161

Suggested Readings: “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

1. Landa, José Ángel García. “STANLEY E. FISH’S SPEECH ACTS.” Atlantis, vol. 12, no. 2, 1991, pp. 121–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41054642. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
2. Fish, Stanley. “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics.” New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1970, pp. 123–62. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468593. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
3. Ceci, Louis G. “The Case for Syntactic Imagery.” College English, vol. 45, no. 5, 1983, pp. 431–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/376842. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
4. Kintgen, Eugene R. “READER RESPONSE AND STYLISTICS.” Style, vol. 11, no. 1, 1977, pp. 1–18. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45108441. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.

Introduction: “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

“Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1976 in the journal Critical Inquiry. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its innovative approach to psychoanalytic literary criticism. Holland introduces three distinct phases of psychoanalysis—the classical, the ego, and the object relations—and demonstrates how each phase can be applied to the interpretation of literary texts. By examining the relationship between the author’s unconscious and the reader’s subjective experience, Holland offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay between literature and psychoanalysis.

Summary of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Psychoanalytic Criticism	A method of literary criticism that applies psychoanalytic theory to the interpretation of texts.
Latent Content	The hidden or underlying meaning within a text, often explored through psychoanalytic techniques.
Ego Psychology	Focuses on the role of the ego in mediating between the conscious and unconscious, often in defense mechanisms.
Denial	A defense mechanism where uncomfortable realities are avoided by the mind, often explored in literature.
Freudian Symbolism	The interpretation of symbols within a text, often referring to unconscious desires or fears.
Oedipus Complex	A Freudian concept where a child feels a subconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent.
Unconscious Mind	A core Freudian idea involving the part of the mind that holds repressed feelings, thoughts, and desires.
Identity Theory	A theory that integrates personal identity with literary interpretation, linking self-perception and reading.
Defensive Strategies	Psychological defenses like denial or repression used by individuals, reflected in characters and speakers.
Formalism	A method of criticism that focuses on the formal elements of a work (structure, style) rather than external contexts.
Symbolic Decoding	Interpreting symbols in a literary text to uncover unconscious or deeper meanings.

Contribution of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

• Introduction of Psychoanalytic Phases in Literary Criticism
  Holland introduces the idea that psychoanalytic theory, especially as applied to literature, has evolved through three distinct phases: unconscious psychology, ego psychology, and self psychology. Each phase brings a different approach to literary analysis, thus expanding the reach of psychoanalytic criticism.
  • “Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.” (p. 224)
• Bridging Psychological and Literary Analysis
  Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is not only about uncovering unconscious meanings in texts but also understanding the ego defenses and self-identity that contribute to the reader’s and characters’ experiences. This expansion deepens the integration of psychology and literature.
  • “In the third, it is self versus non-self… Freud had entered this third phase… a steadily increasing body of evidence suggests that that is true all through life.” (p. 230)
• Critique of Symbolic Decoding in Psychoanalytic Criticism
  Holland critiques the early form of psychoanalytic criticism, which relied heavily on symbolic decoding. He points out the limitations of reducing texts to Freudian symbols, which can lead to overly simplistic or mechanistic interpretations.
  • “This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.” (p. 227)
• Incorporation of Identity Theory in Literary Interpretation
  The introduction of identity theory allows for a more personalized form of literary criticism, where the reader’s individual identity shapes interpretation. This shifts the focus from purely objective readings to subjective engagements with texts.
  • “We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.” (p. 233)
• Criticism as an Act of Self-Discovery
  Holland promotes the idea that literary criticism is not just an objective analysis of texts but also a journey of personal discovery, where critics reveal and reimagine themselves through their readings.
  • “By combining the two dimensions, we use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.” (p. 233)
• Development of a Reader-Centered Criticism
  Holland’s theory contributes to reader-response criticism by recognizing that different readers will have varying interpretations based on their own psychological makeup, identities, and experiences.
  • “There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.” (p. 233)
• Movement Beyond Formalism
  Holland critiques the formalist approach to literature, which isolates the text from the reader’s personal experience, advocating instead for an approach that incorporates personal and psychological dimensions.
  • “The second phase of psychoanalysis… is very like regular formalist reading. Yet, like regular formalist reading, it leaves us with unsolved problems.” (p. 229)
• Engagement with Contemporary Scientific Thought
  Holland aligns his third phase of psychoanalytic literary criticism with modern scientific paradigms, acknowledging the role of the observer (reader) in constructing meaning, much like quantum mechanics or cognitive psychology.
  • “Even the hardest of sciences today acknowledge the role of the subject.” (p. 231)

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Phase of Psychoanalysis Applied	Key Interpretation/Critique
Wordsworth’s “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal”	First Phase: Unconscious Psychology	The unconscious content of the poem centers on the speaker’s denial of human loss and mortality. The “she” in the poem represents a denial of castration fears, while the second stanza reveals the collapse of this denial.
Shakespeare’s Plays (General)	Second Phase: Ego Psychology	In applying ego psychology, Holland examines how Shakespeare’s characters use ego defenses like repression and denial to navigate internal conflicts, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of their motivations.
Freud’s Case Studies (Anna O.)	Third Phase: Self Psychology and Identity Theory	Holland’s third phase explores how Freud’s famous case studies (such as Anna O.) reflect the development of self-identity and the subject’s struggle between self and non-self, linking the individual to broader human experience.
Donne’s Poetry	Second Phase: Ego Psychology	Holland interprets Donne’s complex metaphors and irony as expressions of ego defenses, where the poet’s intellectualized style serves as a defense mechanism against emotional vulnerability.

Criticism Against “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

• Overemphasis on Subjectivity
  Critics argue that Holland’s focus on personal identity and subjective interpretation in the third phase of psychoanalysis undermines the possibility of finding common or objective meanings in literary texts. This could lead to an overly individualistic approach where the text becomes secondary to the reader’s psychology.

“There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them.”

• Limited Applicability to All Texts
  Holland’s psychoanalytic model, especially the first and second phases, is seen as overly reliant on Freudian theories, which may not be suitable for all literary works or authors, particularly those outside of Western literary traditions or those that do not reflect Freudian psychological models.
• Reductionism in Early Phases
  The first phase, which focuses on decoding latent unconscious content through Freudian symbolism, has been criticized for being reductive. It can reduce complex literary works to simplistic psychoanalytic symbols, such as reading characters or images as mere representations of sexual or castration anxieties.

“This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy.”

• Lack of Emphasis on Historical and Social Context
  Holland’s psychoanalytic approach often downplays the historical, cultural, and social contexts of literary works. Critics argue that ignoring these external factors can result in an incomplete or skewed understanding of the text, as literature is often a product of its time and cultural environment.
• Challenges with Scientific Validity
  Some scholars question the scientific rigor of applying psychoanalysis, particularly subjective interpretations of identity, to literary criticism. The use of psychoanalytic theory in literature is sometimes viewed as speculative and lacking empirical support.
• Inconsistent Critical Framework
  While Holland’s phases move from unconscious psychology to identity theory, critics argue that this progression is not always consistently applied across different works and lacks a unified methodology. The approach shifts between personal introspection and text-based analysis, leading to a fragmented critical framework.
• Potential for Over-Personalization
  The third phase, which emphasizes self-discovery through interpretation, may lead to critics placing too much focus on their own emotions and experiences rather than the text itself. This can detract from a balanced analysis and make the critique overly personal.

“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.”

Representative Quotations from “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.”	Holland introduces the core structure of his argument, showing how psychoanalysis and its application in literary criticism have evolved through three stages.
“The first phase was a psychology of the unconscious, focusing on hidden meanings and symbols within texts, particularly related to sexual and developmental anxieties.”	This outlines the emphasis of the first phase on uncovering hidden or latent meanings using Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex or symbolic representation.
“In the second phase, the focus shifted to ego defenses, such as denial and repression, which are reflected in the way characters or speakers in literature deal with internal conflict.”	Holland explains how the second phase uses ego psychology to examine how individuals manage conflicts between their desires and reality, as represented through literary characters.
“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.”	Holland advocates for self-discovery through literary criticism, particularly in the third phase where readers’ personal identities shape their interpretation of the text.
“This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.”	A critique of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often overemphasizes symbolic analysis, reducing literature to Freudian psychological concepts.
“Identity is the key term. Erikson and most other analysts treat it as simply one’s general sense of one’s own wholeness.”	Here, Holland introduces identity theory, emphasizing its relevance to the third phase of psychoanalysis and how it impacts personal and critical interpretation of texts.
“The denier denied. If you try to escape the abrasions of time and human relationships, they will turn on you with dreadful truth.”	Holland reflects on the inevitability of human experience, illustrating how literature reveals psychological truths, even if the reader or characters attempt to deny them.
“For me, the need to see and understand is very strong.”	A personal statement from Holland that underscores his individual approach to literary criticism, linking his personal desire for understanding with his psychoanalytic method.
“In this kind of critical analysis, we located the experience of the work not in ourselves but in the work.”	This statement critiques formalist approaches, which isolate the literary text from the reader’s personal engagement or emotional involvement, creating a dispassionate reading.
“There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.”	Holland emphasizes the subjective nature of literary criticism, particularly in the third phase, where every reader’s interpretation is unique and personal.

Suggested Readings: “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

1. Holland, Norman N. “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 3, no. 2, 1976, pp. 221–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1342886. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
2. Jones, Mark. “Recuperating Arnold: Romanticism and Modern Projects of Disinterestedness.” Boundary 2, vol. 18, no. 2, 1991, pp. 65–103. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303280. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
3. Holland, Norman N. The Dynamics of Literary Response. Oxford University Press, 1968. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1342886
4. Holland, Norman N. 5 Readers Reading. Yale University Press, 1975. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300019172/5-readers-reading/
5. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010. https://archive.org/details/interpretationofdreams/page/n1/mode/2up
6. Freud, Anna. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence. Karnac Books, 1992. https://www.karnacbooks.com/product/the-ego-and-the-mechanisms-of-defence/2260/
7. Erikson, Erik H. Identity: Youth and Crisis. W. W. Norton & Company, 1994. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393311440

Introduction: “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

“Human Identity” Norman N. Holland, initially published in the prestigious journal Critical Inquiry in 1978, has since become a cornerstone in the fields of literary theory and criticism. Holland’s exploration of the complex interplay between individual identity and the texts we encounter has had a profound and enduring impact on scholarly discourse. His innovative approach, which delves into the psychological dimensions of reading and interpretation, has provided invaluable insights into the ways in which readers engage with literary works to construct their own personal narratives.

Summary of “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Context in the Essay
Primary Identity	A foundational sense of self developed in early childhood, particularly through interactions between mother and child.	Holland, drawing on Lichtenstein, defines “primary identity” as something formed during the first year of life when an infant’s needs mesh with the mother’s. This identity becomes the core of the individual’s later developments. (p. 452)
Identity Theme	A pattern of consistent traits or behaviors that characterize an individual, recognized by both self and others.	Holland uses this concept to describe the continuity within a person’s life. Every action can be seen as a variation of an identity theme, forming a holistic understanding of the individual’s identity. (p. 453)
Sameness and Difference	The dialectic relationship where identity is defined both by what remains constant (sameness) and what changes (difference).	Holland emphasizes that identity is understood through the interplay of sameness (what stays consistent) and difference (the variations in behavior and experience). This dialectic helps individuals recognize changes within the self. (p. 452)
Theme and Variation	A concept borrowed from music, where a theme is repeated with changes (variations) while maintaining a recognizable core.	Holland compares identity to a musical theme with variations. Each action is a variation on the individual’s core theme, helping to define the person’s identity across different contexts and life stages. (p. 453)
Holistic Reasoning	A method of interpretation that focuses on understanding patterns, fits, and meanings rather than relying solely on cause-effect or predictive models.	Holland contrasts this approach with scientific reasoning, using Freud’s dream interpretation as an example. Holistic reasoning allows for a more comprehensive understanding of human identity by examining how various life elements fit into an individual’s identity theme. (p. 454)
Freudian Psychoanalysis	A method of psychological analysis that explores unconscious motivations, particularly through techniques like dream interpretation.	Holland builds on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, particularly Freud’s use of free associations and dream analysis to uncover identity themes and explore the relationship between conscious and unconscious desires. (p. 454)
Self and Other	The relationship between the individual’s perception of themselves (self) and their perception of external individuals or forces (other).	Holland discusses how identity is shaped by both self-perception and interactions with others. He stresses the importance of this dynamic in understanding personal identity and how it influences relationships and social contexts. (p. 455)
Relational Knowing	A way of understanding individuals that acknowledges the role of personal relationships and subjective experiences in shaping knowledge.	Holland argues that true knowledge of a person’s identity cannot be impersonal; it is always influenced by relationships and the interpretive framework of the observer. This concept emphasizes the role of empathy in understanding identity. (p. 455)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	A form of literary analysis that interprets texts through psychoanalytic theories, especially those related to unconscious desires, childhood experiences, and identity.	As a critic and psychoanalyst, Holland applies psychoanalytic principles to literary interpretation. He emphasizes how understanding an author’s identity and unconscious motivations can illuminate their work. (p. 456)
Identity as Process and Product	The idea that identity is both a process of continual change and a stable product that remains recognizable over time.	Holland explains that identity is dynamic, continuously shaped by new experiences, yet there is a core “product” of identity that persists through these changes. This dual nature allows for the holistic study of identity in psychoanalysis. (p. 466)
Individuum est ineffabile	A medieval adage meaning “the individual is ineffable,” implying that unique individuals cannot be fully captured or described by language or science.	Holland challenges this idea by suggesting that psychoanalytic techniques allow us to speak rigorously about human uniqueness, even though complete understanding remains elusive. He proposes identity theory as a way to approach this complexity. (p. 451)
Creative Evolution	A term used to describe the idea that human development is not determined by biological or social forces alone but involves purposeful, creative direction by the individual.	Holland uses Shaw’s rejection of determinisms like Darwinism and Marxism to highlight how individuals (and by extension, identities) can creatively evolve based on personal choices, rejecting deterministic views of history or biology. (p. 457)
Empathy in Psychoanalysis	The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, crucial in psychoanalysis for understanding an individual’s identity.	Holland emphasizes that understanding identity requires empathy, as one’s perception of another’s identity is influenced by the observer’s own identity and subjective experience. (p. 455)
Identity as a Holistic Concept	The view that identity encompasses the whole life of a person, integrating personal history, behaviors, beliefs, and external perceptions.	Holland advocates for a holistic understanding of identity, where each action or event is seen as part of a broader, coherent pattern that defines the individual. This concept allows psychoanalysts to study individuals in a comprehensive way. (p. 453-454)

Contribution of “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Critique Through “Human Identity”	Application of Holland’s Identity Theory
“Hamlet” by William Shakespeare	Hamlet’s indecision and actions are viewed as expressions of his conflicted identity, shaped by the trauma of his father’s death and his complicated relationship with his mother. Hamlet’s identity theme revolves around vengeance, loyalty, and moral hesitation.	Holland’s theory would suggest that Hamlet’s identity is a dynamic balance between his internal struggles (sameness) and his external actions (differences). Each action is a variation of his core identity theme of ethical dilemmas and self-doubt.
“The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Gatsby’s relentless pursuit of wealth and social status represents his identity theme, which is driven by his desire to recreate an idealized version of himself and his past love for Daisy. His self-creation reflects a primary identity shaped by longing and loss.	Holland would argue that Gatsby’s identity is continuously recreated through his dreams of wealth and status. His theme is the contrast between his self-perception and the reality of his unattainable desires. His identity is defined by his need to reconcile these differences.
“Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Brontë	Jane’s journey of self-discovery is driven by her search for autonomy and moral integrity. Her identity theme revolves around the tension between social expectations and personal desires, as well as the need for love and self-respect.	Holland’s theory would interpret Jane Eyre’s identity as a theme with variations—her choices reflect her consistent need to maintain self-respect while navigating social constraints. Each relationship and experience she encounters is a variation on this identity theme.
“A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” by James Joyce	Stephen Dedalus’s development as an artist is an exploration of his evolving identity. His search for independence and artistic expression mirrors his primary identity, formed through conflicts with family, religion, and nationalism.	Through Holland’s lens, Stephen’s identity is a process of re-creation, constantly evolving as he interacts with different aspects of his environment. His identity theme involves breaking free from societal constraints to realize his artistic self. Each decision and artistic endeavor represents a variation on this core theme.

Criticism Against “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Suggested Readings: “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

1. Holland, Norman N. “Human Identity.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 4, no. 3, 1978, pp. 451–69. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343069. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
2. Gardiner, Judith Kegan. “On Female Identity and Writing by Women.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 8, no. 2, 1981, pp. 347–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343167. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
3. Holland, Norman N., and Leona F. Sherman. “Gothic Possibilities.” New Literary History, vol. 8, no. 2, 1977, pp. 279–94. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468522. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
4. Pagan, Nicholas O. “In Memoriam: Norman N. Holland, 1927–2017.” PMLA, vol. 133, no. 5, 2018, pp. 1268–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45179458. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“What is me? What is not-me? What am I responsible for?” (p. 451)	Holland explores the core questions of identity, focusing on the boundaries between self and external forces. This inquiry underpins his exploration of how identity shapes our perception of responsibility, actions, and personal style.
“Identity refers to the whole pattern of sameness within change which is a human life.” (p. 452)	This quote encapsulates Holland’s view that identity is the persistent pattern of self that remains even as a person undergoes changes. It highlights the dialectical relationship between constancy (sameness) and transformation (change).
“Each action is a variation on a theme which we learn by seeing the theme in its ever-new variations.” (p. 453)	Holland likens identity to a musical theme with variations, emphasizing that identity is not static but expressed differently through each action. This metaphor illustrates the dynamic and evolving nature of personal identity.
“We can talk rigorously about unique individuals, but not impersonally.” (p. 455)	This statement highlights Holland’s belief that true understanding of an individual’s identity requires personal involvement and empathy. He argues that analysis of identity cannot be detached or objective, as it is inherently subjective.
“Holistic explanations come in terms of ‘fit,’ similarity, pattern, or meaning. Hence, they do not predict.” (p. 454)	Holland contrasts holistic reasoning with scientific methods, noting that identity cannot be understood through cause-effect relationships or prediction. Instead, identity is recognized through patterns and fits, resisting reductive analysis.
“I can never know your ‘primary identity,’ for it is deeply and unconsciously inside you.” (p. 455)	Holland emphasizes that an individual’s primary identity is inaccessible to others because it is formed unconsciously in early life. This points to the intrinsic limits of psychoanalytic interpretation of identity, highlighting its complexity.
“Identity theory gives us a way of accounting for human individuality within the generalities of species and culture.” (p. 468)	This quote illustrates Holland’s contribution to literary theory, where identity theory provides a framework for understanding human individuality within broader cultural and social contexts, making identity a central concept in literary analysis.
“The ultimate use of ‘identity’ is to change the paradigm through which we construe the world.” (p. 468)	Holland argues that identity theory challenges traditional paradigms, particularly the division between subjective and objective knowledge, offering a new framework for understanding both literature and human behavior.
“In understanding someone’s cognition, we must understand what he is trying to do, and why.” (p. 468)	Holland stresses the importance of understanding motivation and intent in analyzing cognition and behavior. This approach aligns with his broader theory that identity shapes perception, decision-making, and literary interpretation.
“All our knowing, even the most scientific, has become relational.” (p. 455)	Holland argues that even scientific knowledge is influenced by human identity and relationships, challenging the notion of objective, impersonal knowledge. This reflects his view that all understanding is mediated by personal and subjective experience.

Introduction: “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

“Tragedy and Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first published in 2018 in the Modern Theology journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to Eagleton’s exploration of the complex relationship between tragedy and liberalism. Eagleton challenges the traditional understanding of tragedy as a purely aesthetic or individualistic experience, arguing instead that it is deeply intertwined with social and political structures. By examining the tension between the tragic impulse and liberal values, Eagleton offers a provocative and insightful analysis of the enduring power of tragedy in contemporary culture.

Summary of “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

• Critique of Tragedy Theorists’ Approach to Suffering
  Eagleton criticizes the historical treatment of suffering in tragedy, noting how figures like Aristotle and medieval theorists downplay the emotional depth of suffering. He argues that Idealist thinkers such as Nietzsche romanticize tragedy by focusing on notions like “victorious defeat,” where suffering is viewed as a necessary condition for art and heroism. He dismisses this as a form of “cut-price theodicy” that glorifies suffering without fully addressing its emotional or ethical weight.
  • “One gathers the impression that nothing is more spiritually stimulating or therapeutic than breakdown and loss.”
• Williams’ Rejection of Tragic Theodicy
  Eagleton praises Rowan Williams for rejecting the idea that tragedy is meant to offer spiritual consolation or justification. Instead, Williams views tragedy as an event beyond rational explanation, emphasizing the complexity and ambiguity of human suffering. Eagleton agrees that the assumption that enduring the worst implies hope is questionable, pointing to the potential for even greater future suffering.
  • “Tragedy is ‘neither a formless lament nor an emotionally sanitized fiction.’”
• The Role of Language in Tragedy
  Eagleton examines the dual nature of language in tragedy. On one hand, human expression may offer a form of solace in suffering, as suggested by Edgar’s lines in King Lear. On the other hand, these same lines imply that language may not always alleviate suffering and may, instead, hint at the possibility of even greater despair.
  • “Language by means of sounds, or better still words… is a vast liberation because it means that the sufferer is beginning to produce something.”
• Tragedy, Politics, and Liberalism
  Eagleton contrasts Williams’ liberal politics with his own view that not all forms of “otherness” should be accepted or accommodated. He argues that Williams’ liberalism overlooks the necessity of radical political change in some cases, such as the overthrow of apartheid or oppressive regimes. Williams’ view of tragedy as a “ceremony of shared pain” is criticized for not fully engaging with the need for political action and resistance.
  • “There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”
• Empathy and the Limits of Tragic Understanding
  Eagleton warns against excessive empathy within tragedy, particularly toward individuals whose actions are morally indefensible, such as neo-Nazis or CIA torturers. He disputes the idea that tragedy is fundamentally about recognizing and empathizing with all forms of otherness, arguing that not all viewpoints are worthy of respect or accommodation.
  • “Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”
• Theological Insights into Tragedy
  Eagleton highlights Williams’ theological perspective on the limits of tragic understanding. Williams acknowledges that some forms of suffering, especially extreme physical pain, are inherently meaningless and cannot be redeemed through empathy or moral understanding. Eagleton connects this to the concept of the “demonic” in tragedy, which resists redemption and denies the very notion of meaning or value.
  • “Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “Tragedy and Liberalism”
Tragedy	A dramatic genre involving human suffering, often leading to the protagonist’s downfall, intended to evoke catharsis or insight in the audience.	Eagleton critiques how tragedy theorists, such as Idealist philosophers, romanticize suffering, turning it into a triumphalist narrative of “victorious defeat.”
Theodicy	An attempt to justify the existence of suffering and evil in the world, often by suggesting it serves a higher purpose.	Eagleton dismisses “cut-price theodicy” in tragedy, which justifies suffering as spiritually enriching or redemptive without addressing its real emotional impact.
Catharsis	A term from Aristotle’s theory of tragedy, referring to the emotional release or purification that the audience experiences after witnessing a tragedy.	Eagleton suggests that traditional theories of tragedy prioritize catharsis but fail to engage deeply with the reality of suffering.
Dionysian vs. Apollonian	Nietzschean concepts: the Dionysian represents chaos, emotion, and suffering, while the Apollonian represents order, beauty, and reason.	Eagleton discusses Nietzsche’s idea that art sublimates suffering through the Apollonian, but critiques the glorification of the suffering itself.
Romanticism	A movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the sublime, often viewing suffering as a path to personal growth or artistic expression.	Eagleton criticizes how Idealist thinkers from the Romantic tradition, such as Nietzsche, romanticize suffering in tragedy as a necessary component for artistic greatness.
Empathy	The capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing, often regarded as a morally virtuous response.	Eagleton challenges Williams’ view that tragedy should invoke empathy for all forms of “otherness,” warning against empathizing with morally reprehensible figures.
Otherness	The concept of viewing individuals or groups as fundamentally different or alien, often used in discussions of cultural, social, or moral diversity.	Eagleton critiques the liberal tendency to always accommodate “otherness” in tragedy, arguing that some forms of otherness, like moral evil, should be resisted.
Agnosticism (in Tragedy)	The idea of acknowledging uncertainty and the limits of human knowledge, especially regarding future suffering and the nature of tragedy.	Williams emphasizes the “tragic provisionality” of acknowledging our ignorance about what horrors the future may bring, which Eagleton finds valuable.
The Demonic	A force or figure representing chaos, meaninglessness, or malevolence, often beyond redemption.	Eagleton uses this term to describe extreme forms of suffering in tragedy that cannot be redeemed, likening it to Iago’s nihilistic destruction in Othello.
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual rights, equality, and the accommodation of different viewpoints.	Eagleton critiques Williams’ liberalism in the context of tragedy, arguing that it fails to acknowledge when radical change or resistance is necessary to combat moral evil.
Nihilism	The belief that life lacks meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value, often associated with cynicism or moral indifference.	Eagleton contrasts the redemptive potential of tragedy with nihilism, arguing that some forms of evil and suffering are beyond redemption and embody a nihilistic worldview.
Romantic Theories of Tragedy	Theories of tragedy that emphasize individual heroism, the sublimation of suffering into art, and the transformation of pain into personal greatness.	Eagleton critiques Romantic theories of tragedy for transforming suffering into a narrative of personal transcendence, particularly in figures like the Nietzschean Übermensch.
Hegelian Dialectic	The philosophical concept that history progresses through the conflict of opposites, often applied to tragedy as the clash of equally justified but opposing forces.	Eagleton critiques Williams’ endorsement of Hegel’s view that tragedy is the result of equally valid but conflicting positions, arguing that some tragic conflicts are more morally weighted.

Contribution of “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Idealist Theories of Tragedy
   Eagleton challenges traditional Idealist approaches to tragedy, particularly those of Nietzsche and other German theorists, for glorifying suffering as a necessary pathway to artistic and heroic achievement. He argues that these theories reduce tragedy to a form of “cut-price theodicy,” justifying suffering in ways that overlook its real, emotional weight.

“A good deal of such Idealist theorizing is little more than cut-price theodicy.”

• Rejection of Tragedy as Consolation or Redemption
  Eagleton, through his reading of Rowan Williams, asserts that tragedy should not be viewed as offering spiritual consolation, redemption, or reconciliation. Instead, he highlights that some tragedies, particularly those involving severe suffering, cannot be rationalized or explained away, contributing to a more realistic and ethically sensitive understanding of the tragic genre.

“Tragic art in his view is not in the first place about consolation or reconciliation, let alone explanation or justification.”

• Language and the Limits of Expression in Tragedy
  Eagleton adds to literary theory by exploring the role of language in tragedy. He emphasizes that while language can give form to suffering, it can also fail to alleviate or even express the full depth of tragic experiences. This contribution critiques the Romantic ideal that language and art can always transmute suffering into something meaningful.

“Yet pain also marks the limit of the articulable and intelligible.”

• Political Dimension of Tragedy
  Eagleton introduces a political critique into the discussion of tragedy, contrasting liberalism’s tendency to accommodate all forms of “otherness” with the need for decisive political action in the face of moral evils. This contribution expands the scope of literary theory by framing tragedy within the context of social and political change, urging a reevaluation of tragedy’s relevance to real-world injustices.

“There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”

• Challenging Hegelian Dialectics in Tragic Theory
  Eagleton critiques the Hegelian notion that tragedy arises from a conflict between two equally justified positions. He argues that this dialectical framework, often applied to plays like Sophocles’ Antigone, oversimplifies tragedy by assuming all tragic conflicts involve equally valid moral positions. This offers a nuanced challenge to the application of Hegelian thought in tragic theory.

“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”

• Empathy and Moral Boundaries in Tragedy
  Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on empathy within tragedy, particularly the assumption that all forms of “otherness” deserve understanding and accommodation. He introduces a moral boundary to tragic empathy, arguing that certain figures, such as neo-Nazis or torturers, should not be empathized with, thus adding a more ethically rigorous framework to the role of empathy in literary theory.

“Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”

• Theological Insights into Tragic Meaninglessness
  Through his engagement with Williams, Eagleton brings theological insights into literary theory by addressing the notion of meaninglessness in extreme suffering. He argues that some forms of agony, particularly physical pain, resist redemption and meaning, contributing to the discourse on the limits of tragedy’s moral and philosophical interpretations.

“Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”

• Expanding Tragedy Beyond Aesthetic Boundaries
  Eagleton challenges the traditional aesthetic boundaries of tragedy, asserting that the term should not be confined to the artistic realm alone. He argues that real-life tragedies, such as the collapse of a coalmine or a car accident, should also be recognized as tragedies, broadening the scope of what constitutes the tragic.

“Why can’t the collapse of a coalmine or a smash on the roads be seen as tragic?”

• Critique of Liberal Pluralism in Tragic Theory
  Eagleton critiques Williams’ endorsement of liberal pluralism in tragedy, where all viewpoints are seen as equally valid and in conflict with each other. He argues that not all viewpoints deserve respect or recognition, particularly those that embody moral evil. This contribution challenges the trend of applying postmodern pluralism to tragic theory.

“But all viewpoints are by no means to be respected, and tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

Literary Work & Author	Eagleton’s Critique	Key Quote from Eagleton
King Lear by William Shakespeare	Eagleton critiques the notion of finding hope in suffering through language. He explores the ambiguity in Edgar’s line, suggesting it may not represent hope but rather a warning of worse suffering to come.	“Edgar’s declaration may mean that as long as there is still the possibility of human utterance, there can always be worse to come.”
Macbeth by William Shakespeare	He uses Ross’s lines in Macbeth to illustrate the cold comfort that tragedy offers in recognizing that calamity has reached its limit, showing a pessimistic outlook in the tragic genre.	“Things at the worst will cease, or else climb up to what they were before.”
Antigone by Sophocles	Eagleton critiques the Hegelian reading of Antigone, which views the conflict between Antigone and Creon as a clash of equally justified moral positions. He argues that this simplifies the tragedy’s moral complexity.	“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”
Othello by William Shakespeare	Eagleton references the character of Iago to explain how certain forms of evil, such as Iago’s, embody the demonic and are beyond redemption or meaning. This critique contributes to his broader discussion on the limits of tragedy.	“The demonic, as with Iago confronting Othello, is affronted by the very existence of meaning and value.”
The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd	Eagleton critiques the assumption that all tragic conflicts involve equally valid positions. He points out that in works like The Spanish Tragedy, one side is clearly more justified than the other.	“There is an abundance of tragic drama in which… one party is largely in the right of it and the other in the wrong.”
The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster	Eagleton extends his critique of the Hegelian view of tragedy by using The Duchess of Malfi as an example where moral positions are not equally justified, emphasizing that not all tragic conflicts are evenly balanced.	“Antigone is not a paradigm for tragedy in general, as Hegel imagines.”

Criticism Against “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Critique
   Some critics argue that Eagleton places too much emphasis on the political dimension of tragedy, particularly through his critique of liberalism. This focus can be seen as reducing the complexity of tragedy to ideological battles, rather than exploring its broader emotional or existential themes.
2. Narrow View of Liberalism
   Eagleton’s portrayal of liberalism as overly accommodating and passive in the face of moral evil has been critiqued for being a narrow interpretation. Critics suggest that liberalism can, in fact, engage with radical change and resistance, challenging Eagleton’s claim that it fails to address the need for decisive political action.
3. Limited Exploration of Empathy
   Eagleton’s critique of empathy, particularly his caution against empathizing with morally reprehensible figures, has been viewed by some as too restrictive. Critics argue that empathy in tragedy serves to explore the full spectrum of human experience, and limiting it could diminish the moral and emotional complexity of tragic works.
4. Simplification of Theological Insights
   While Eagleton engages with theological insights, particularly through Rowan Williams, some critics argue that his treatment of Christian theodicy and tragedy oversimplifies the theological dimensions. Eagleton’s sharp rejection of redemptive suffering in tragedy may overlook more nuanced theological perspectives on suffering and redemption.
5. Reduction of Hegelian Dialectics
   Eagleton’s critique of the Hegelian dialectic, especially in Antigone, has been criticized for reducing Hegel’s interpretation to a mere balancing of moral positions. Critics argue that Hegel’s philosophy of tragedy is more nuanced and does not simply equate to a clash of equally justified perspectives.
6. Underrepresentation of Emotional and Aesthetic Aspects
   Some have critiqued Eagleton for underrepresenting the emotional and aesthetic dimensions of tragedy. By focusing heavily on political and philosophical critiques, he may neglect the emotional catharsis and aesthetic experiences that are central to the tragic genre.
7. Overreliance on a Marxist Lens
   Eagleton’s Marxist perspective in interpreting tragedy has been seen as limiting by some critics, who argue that his political reading can sometimes overshadow the literary and artistic value of tragic works. This approach risks reducing complex literary texts to mere reflections of class struggle and social conditions.

Representative Quotations from “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A good deal of such Idealist theorizing is little more than cut-price theodicy.”	Eagleton criticizes how Idealist thinkers like Nietzsche romanticize suffering in tragedy, reducing it to a justification for higher spiritual or artistic gain, akin to theodicy.
“Tragic art in his view is not in the first place about consolation or reconciliation.”	Eagleton, referencing Rowan Williams, argues that tragedy should not aim to offer spiritual consolation or reconciliation, but rather reflect the raw, irredeemable nature of suffering.
“Language by means of sounds, or better still words… is a vast liberation because it means that the sufferer is beginning to produce something.”	Eagleton discusses how tragedy uses language as a means to give form to suffering, allowing the sufferer to transform their pain into something that can be expressed and understood.
“There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism for its hesitancy to acknowledge when radical political change is necessary, using this to argue that tragedy often reflects the need for such upheaval.
“Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”	He critiques the liberal view that tragedy is about recognizing and empathizing with “otherness,” arguing that not all forms of otherness, particularly those tied to evil, deserve empathy.
“Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”	Eagleton highlights the limits of tragic meaning, particularly in cases of extreme suffering, which he connects to the “demonic”—a form of nihilism that resists redemption or meaning.
“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”	Eagleton critiques Williams for adhering to the Hegelian view that tragedy emerges from two equally valid conflicting positions, arguing that not all tragedies present morally equivalent conflicts.
“Antigone is not a paradigm for tragedy in general, as Hegel imagines.”	Eagleton challenges the idea that Antigone is a universal example of tragic conflict, arguing that many tragedies involve a clearer moral imbalance between the conflicting parties.
“The demonic… is a form of nihilism or cynicism, one which revels in absurdity, wallows in the farcical and cannot be redeemed because it cannot see the point of redemption.”	Eagleton characterizes the “demonic” as a nihilistic force in tragedy that cannot be redeemed, representing the ultimate meaninglessness of some forms of suffering.
“The orthodox Christian belief is that faith is itself a form of certainty, though not of a scientific or empirical kind.”	Here, Eagleton engages with theological insights, arguing that faith provides certainty in a way that is distinct from scientific certainty, adding a philosophical layer to his analysis of tragedy.

Suggested Readings: “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell, 2003.
2. Williams, Rowan. The Tragic Imagination. Oxford University Press, 2016.
   https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-tragic-imagination-9780198753859
3. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by Shaun Whiteside, Penguin Classics, 1993. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/289021/the-birth-of-tragedy-by-friedrich-nietzsche/
4. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by S. H. Butcher, Oxford University Press, 1951.
   http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html
5. Hegel, G. W. F. Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by T. M. Knox, Clarendon Press, 1975.
   https://archive.org/details/aestheticshegel/page/n5/mode/2up
6. Berlin, Isaiah. Four Essays on Liberty. Oxford University Press, 1969.
   https://global.oup.com/academic/product/four-essays-on-liberty-9780192810343

Introduction: “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

“The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal. Eagleton’s essay has been influential in shaping discussions about the role of rhetoric in literature and literary theory, particularly in the context of postmodernism and the decline of traditional literary criticism. His argument, that rhetoric has been marginalized or dismissed in favor of other critical approaches, has sparked debates about the importance of language and style in understanding literary texts.

Summary of “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

• Poetry as Performative and Rhetorical:
  • Poetry emphasizes the experience of meaning rather than just extracting abstract truths.
  • “No poem reports on an experience without casting a continual sideways glance at itself.”
  • Poetic language is not merely reflective but constitutive of meaning, focusing on its rhetorical effect.
• T.S. Eliot’s Poetic Technique:
  • Eliot’s poetry, such as in “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”, deliberately plays with meaning.
  • The unusual metaphors, such as the evening resembling a “patient etherized upon a table,” serve to illustrate the dislocation of modern sensibility rather than provide direct meaning.
  • “The image concerns form, not content.”
• Poetry’s Corporeal Nature:
  • Poetry engages not just the mind but the body, infiltrating the reader’s unconscious.
  • “The poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
  • The physicality of language in poetry restores the material richness that everyday speech loses.
• Rhetoric’s Decline:
  • Historically, rhetoric analyzed verbal strategies and their effects in social and political contexts.
  • Over time, “rhetoric” became a term for manipulative language, signaling the decline of its true meaning.
  • “It is a symptom of the loss of this legacy that the term ‘rhetoric’ ended up denoting bombastic or manipulative language.”
• The Sensory Basis of Human Rationality:
  • Eagleton draws on Thomas Aquinas’ idea that human rationality is shaped by our bodily existence, suggesting we are inherently poetic beings.
  • “We think the way we do because of the kind of bodies we have.”
• Failure to Grasp Performative Aspects:
  • Many literature students struggle to engage with the rhetorical and performative aspects of texts, focusing too much on content over form.
  • “They are able to produce statements like ‘Heathcliff may be full of erotic energy’ but not, by and large, statements such as ‘The poem’s exuberant tone is curiously at odds with its shambling syntax.’”
• Instrumentalization of Language:
  • The commodification of language in modern society has dulled its aesthetic and rhetorical richness.
  • “Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
• Cultural and Social Influences on Literary Sensitivity:
  • The lack of sensitivity to literary forms is not due to students’ lack of intelligence but is a result of broader cultural and socio-political conditions.
  • “In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”
• Hope for Literary Education:
  • Despite the bleak outlook on the state of rhetoric, Eagleton argues that sensitivity to language and its forms can be taught.
  • “The good news, however, is that sensitivity to verbal forms and devices can most certainly be taught.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Reference from the Article
Rhetoric	The art of persuasion and analysis of verbal strategies and their effects, especially in social and political contexts.	“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”
Performative Language	Language that emphasizes its own form and effect rather than just conveying a meaning.	“What matters is its rhetorical effect, not its abstractable sense.”
Metaphor	A figure of speech that describes one thing as if it were another, used here to highlight human sensory rationality.	“Metaphor…was the most suitable medium for our discourse…we are, so to speak, intrinsically poetic beings.”
Form vs. Content	The distinction between the structure and style of a text (form) and its meaning (content).	“The image concerns form, not content.”
Aesthetic	Initially a term referring to sensation and perception; later associated with art and beauty.	“The opposite of aesthetics is not philistinism but anesthetics.”
Signifier and Signified	Terms from structural linguistics; the signifier is the form of a word, while the signified is the concept it represents.	“Most students of literature…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”
Close Reading	A detailed analysis of a literary text focusing on its form, language, and structure.	“Literary theory may have its vices, but a failure to read closely, with due attention to formal strategies, is not among them.”
Commodification of Language	The reduction of language to a mere tool for communication, stripped of its aesthetic and rhetorical richness.	“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of lived experience in shaping perception and understanding.	“Two centuries later, the term for this sensory rationality would be…phenomenology.”

Contribution of “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from “The Death of Rhetoric”	Reference from the Article
Rhetorical Theory	Eagleton reaffirms the centrality of rhetoric as an analytical tool for understanding language’s performative effects and social function.	“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”
Formalism/New Criticism	The article underscores the importance of form and style, suggesting that the meaning of a text emerges from its rhetorical and formal properties.	“Poetry is the place where the performative, rhetorical dimensions of speech rise to supreme self-consciousness.”
Post-Structuralism	Echoing post-structuralist concerns, Eagleton highlights how meaning is deferred, stressing that language works through its form rather than a fixed meaning.	“Conscious meaning keeps the mind harmlessly preoccupied while the poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
Phenomenology	Eagleton draws from phenomenology, particularly its focus on lived experience and the material nature of language, to stress that poetry engages bodily and sensory experience.	“Language for Wittgenstein takes the shape it does because of the specific form of life with which it is interwoven.”
Marxist Literary Theory	The article critiques the commodification of language under capitalist conditions, linking it to a loss of aesthetic and rhetorical sensitivity in society.	“The sign does not fare well in social orders dominated by a crassly instrumental rationality. It is stripped of its sensuous specificity and reduced to a mere communicative token.”
Structuralism	Eagleton engages with the structuralist notion of the relationship between signifier and signified, emphasizing the importance of analyzing the materiality of the sign.	“Most students of literature…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”
Aesthetic Theory	The concept of aesthetics as a sensory rationality, historically linked to Enlightenment thought, is extended to show how modern societies have lost this sensitivity.	“The aesthetic in its modern sense began life as a kind of prosthesis to Enlightenment reason.”
Critical Pedagogy	Eagleton discusses the challenges of teaching sensitivity to language in a commodified culture, pointing to the need for a more engaged form of literary education.	“Sensitivity to verbal forms and devices can most certainly be taught. The question is who is going to teach it…who will educate the educators.”
Cultural Theory	Eagleton suggests that the decline of rhetorical reading is tied to broader cultural shifts in late-modern civilization, especially regarding language and its commodification.	“In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”

Key Contributions:

1. Rhetorical Theory: Eagleton revitalizes rhetoric as a lens for literary analysis, emphasizing its social and political significance beyond mere stylistic ornamentation.
2. Formalism/New Criticism: He advocates for close attention to form, tone, rhythm, and rhetorical strategies, which are essential to understanding the meaning of a text.
3. Post-Structuralism: Eagleton aligns with post-structuralist views by stressing the indeterminacy of meaning and the centrality of form over content in literary texts.
4. Marxist Literary Theory: The article critiques how capitalist societies devalue language by reducing it to an instrument for communication, thus undermining its aesthetic and performative qualities.
5. Phenomenology & Aesthetic Theory: Drawing on phenomenology, Eagleton emphasizes the embodied and sensory dimensions of language, especially in poetry, where form is as critical as content.
6. Cultural Theory: The piece links the decline of literary sensitivity to the broader socio-political context, particularly under late-modern capitalism, where language becomes commodified.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Focus	Critique Through Eagleton’s Lens	Reference from Eagleton
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot	Form vs. Content and Rhetoric	Eliot’s use of dislocated metaphors (e.g., “patient etherized upon a table”) prioritizes rhetorical effect over determinate meaning.	“What matters is its rhetorical effect, not its abstractable sense.”
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Rhetorical and Performative Dimensions of Language	Hamlet’s final words (“The rest is silence”) emphasize the performative nature of language, reflecting the broader rhetorical framework of the play.	“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Complexity of Form and Sensory Experience	The fragmented form of The Waste Land engages the reader’s sensory experience, emphasizing form over coherence, reflecting modern dislocation.	“The poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Failure to Grasp Performative and Rhetorical Elements	The complex narrative structure and unreliable narrators in Wuthering Heights are often overlooked, though they play a key performative role.	“Most students of literature today…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”

Criticism Against “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

• Overemphasis on Form Over Content:
  • Critics may argue that Eagleton places too much importance on the form and rhetorical elements of a text, potentially downplaying the significance of thematic content and narrative meaning.
• Romanticizing the Past:
  • Eagleton laments the decline of rhetoric in modern civilization, but some may view this as a romanticization of the past, idealizing earlier rhetorical traditions without fully acknowledging the evolution of language and its current uses.
• Neglect of Popular or Non-Elite Texts:
  • The article primarily focuses on high literary works and neglects the performative aspects of more popular or non-elite texts, which may also demonstrate complex rhetorical strategies.
• Cultural Determinism:
  • Eagleton’s argument that the commodification of language is tied to socio-political and economic factors may be seen as overly deterministic, not allowing for individual agency in the use and appreciation of language.
• Lack of Practical Solutions for Teaching Rhetorical Sensitivity:
  • While Eagleton critiques the loss of rhetorical awareness in literary education, he provides limited practical advice for educators on how to reintroduce or teach these skills effectively.
• Dismissal of Modern Theoretical Approaches:
  • Eagleton critiques late-modern language use but may be seen as dismissive of more contemporary literary theories (e.g., postmodernism, deconstruction) that embrace the fluidity of meaning and the transformation of language.
• Elitist View of Language and Literature:
  • Some may argue that Eagleton’s perspective aligns with an elitist view of language, focusing on high art and literary sophistication, potentially alienating more accessible or diverse forms of expression.

Representative Quotations from “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Poetry is the place where the performative, rhetorical dimensions of speech rise to supreme self-consciousness.”	Eagleton emphasizes that poetry is the pinnacle of language’s self-awareness, where the way words are used (rhetoric) is as important as their meaning.
“No poem reports on an experience without casting a continual sideways glance at itself.”	This highlights how poetry reflects on its own form and structure, drawing attention to the act of its creation, not just the content or message it conveys.
“The image concerns form, not content.”	Eagleton explains how in modern poetry (especially in Eliot’s work), images and metaphors are more about their rhetorical and formal effects than any concrete meaning.
“Conscious meaning keeps the mind harmlessly preoccupied while the poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious.”	The quotation illustrates Eagleton’s view that poetry operates on a deeper, unconscious level, affecting the reader’s emotions and instincts rather than delivering clear meaning.
“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”	Here, Eagleton recalls the classical meaning of rhetoric as not just style, but a means of analyzing the broader social and political implications of language.
“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”	He criticizes the way modern society treats language, reducing it to a functional tool rather than appreciating its rich, performative potential.
“The aesthetic in its modern sense began life as a kind of prosthesis to Enlightenment reason.”	This reflects Eagleton’s argument that the concept of aesthetics originally developed as a way to bridge reason and sensory experience, helping rationality connect with lived experience.
“Most students of literature today…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”	Eagleton critiques the current state of literary education, arguing that many students cannot appreciate the formal properties of language (signifier) in relation to meaning (signified).
“In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”	He suggests that literary sensitivity is shaped by larger socio-political and cultural forces, not just literary theory or academic teaching.
“To eradicate the past is to help abolish the future, since the past…contains precious emancipator resources for ages to come.”	Eagleton expresses concern about the modern disregard for history, arguing that the loss of memory and tradition undermines society’s potential for progress and liberation.

Suggested Readings: “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
2. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
3. Barthes, Roland. S/Z: An Essay. Translated by Richard Miller, Hill and Wang, 1974.
   https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780374521677/sz
4. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674467262

·  Academic Articles:

• Jameson, Fredric. “Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism.” New Left Review, no. 146, 1984, pp. 53-92.
• Ricoeur, Paul. “The Function of Fiction in Shaping Reality.” Man and World, vol. 12, no. 2, 1979, pp. 123-141.
  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01252424
• Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction. Methuen, 1984. https://www.routledge.com/Metafiction-The-Theory-and-Practice-of-Self-Conscious-Fiction/Waugh/p/book/9780416326304

Introduction: “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

“Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1993 in the journal Contemporary Psychoanalysis. This article highlights the importance of literature and literary theory in the field of psychoanalysis. Holland argues that literature can serve as a valuable tool for understanding the human psyche, and that literary theory can provide a framework for interpreting literary texts in a psychologically meaningful way. He emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between psychoanalysis and literary studies, and explores the ways in which these two fields can inform and enrich each other.

Summary of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Psychoanalysis Phases	The three phases in psychoanalysis: conscious-unconscious (Freud), ego-nonego (ego-psychology), and self-other (object-relations and contemporary approaches).
Historical Criticism	Early 19th-century approach that treats literary characters and events as real, with language acting as a transparent medium to historical or authorial contexts.
New Criticism	A mid-20th-century critical approach that focuses on analyzing the text’s structure and form as an entity in itself, without considering external references.
Postmodern Criticism	Contemporary criticism focusing on the relationship between the text and its audience, often embracing ambiguity, intertextuality, and playful self-awareness.
Object-Relations Theory	A third phase of psychoanalysis focusing on the dynamic interactions between the self and others, used to explore identity and relationships in literature.
Reader-Response Theory	A theory emphasizing the reader’s role in interpreting a text, focusing on personal emotional reactions and subjective responses to the literature.
Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism	A critical approach that explores how gender and socially constructed roles influence the writing and reading of texts, often critiquing male dominance.
Sublimation	A defense mechanism where unconscious desires (often sexual) are transformed into socially acceptable or creative activities, applied in literary interpretation.
Oedipus Complex	A Freudian concept where a child experiences desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, frequently applied in character analysis.
Primal Scene Fantasy	A psychoanalytic idea involving a child’s imagined or real witnessing of sexual relations between parents, used to analyze unconscious dynamics in texts.

Contribution of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

• Introduction of a Three-Phase Model for Psychoanalysis in Literature
  Holland divides the development of psychoanalytic theory into three distinct phases: conscious-unconscious, ego-nonego, and self-other. This model expands the scope of psychoanalytic criticism by recognizing evolving approaches within psychoanalysis and how these approaches can be applied to literary analysis.

“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”

• Integration of Psychoanalysis with Various Literary Theories
  Holland demonstrates how psychoanalysis can be applied to different phases of literary criticism: historical, New Criticism, and postmodern. His approach shows that psychoanalysis can work in tandem with these literary frameworks to analyze texts, allowing for a deeper understanding of both the text and the reader’s engagement with it.

“Now we have three phases of psychoanalysis and three phases of literary criticism.”

• Emphasis on Reader-Response Theory and Psychoanalysis
  Holland contributes to reader-response criticism by emphasizing the active role of the reader in literary interpretation. He argues that the reader’s unconscious processes shape their understanding of the text, making reading a highly personal and subjective experience.

“Instead of saying the poem acts out a sublimation, these third phase psychoanalytic critics would say, The reader acts out a sublimation by means of the poem.”

• Focus on the Relationship Between Text and Reader in Postmodern Criticism
  Holland’s work aligns with postmodern theories that question the fixed relationship between the text and its reader. He argues that the literary text is no longer seen as an end in itself but as a medium through which readers project their psychological processes and interpretations.

“The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”

• Advancing the Concept of Text as a Psychological Process
  Holland’s idea that a text can function as a psychological entity, similar to the human mind, allows critics to analyze not just the content of a text but also its form as a manifestation of unconscious processes. This concept advances psychoanalytic literary theory beyond simple character analysis to a broader analysis of the text’s form and the reader’s psychological interaction with it.

“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”

• Application of Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theories in Literature
  Holland incorporates newer psychoanalytic theories, such as object-relations and self-psychology, into the analysis of literature. This extends psychoanalytic literary criticism by allowing for more nuanced explorations of identity, relationships, and the self within texts.

“Contemporary psychoanalytic approaches such as object-relations theory, self-psychology (Kohut), and feminist critiques.”

• Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism
  Holland highlights how feminist psychoanalytic critics address gender dynamics in both the reading and writing of literature. His inclusion of feminist theory demonstrates the adaptability of psychoanalysis to explore how literature shapes and is shaped by gendered experiences.

“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”

• Challenges the Limitations of Traditional Psychoanalytic Criticism
  By emphasizing the importance of individual and subjective responses to texts, Holland critiques the reductionist tendencies of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often focused narrowly on authorial intent or character analysis.

“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly. Psychoanalysis can only apply to a person.”

• Bridge Between Psychoanalysis and Literary Criticism
  Holland’s most significant contribution is his formulation of a bridge between psychoanalysis (which focuses on people and their minds) and literary criticism (which focuses on texts and language). He argues that this bridge is the interaction between the writer, the reader, and the text itself.

“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Book Title	Phase of Psychoanalysis	Critique Focus
Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Holland applies Freud’s Oedipus complex to critique the character of Oedipus and the audience’s unconscious identification with his guilt and incestuous desires. Freud’s theory illuminates the psychological impact on the audience.
Hamlet (Shakespeare)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Freud’s Oedipal analysis is extended to Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father. Holland critiques Hamlet’s delay as stemming from repressed desires toward his mother, similar to Freud’s psychoanalysis of unconscious drives.
Ulysses (James Joyce)	Second Phase (Ego-Nonego)	Holland critiques the modernist structure and narrative techniques in Joyce’s Ulysses using ego-psychology, analyzing how the text reflects complex internal conflicts and defenses of the characters through stream-of-consciousness.
Emily Dickinson’s Poetry	Third Phase (Self and Other)	Holland uses object-relations theory to explore Dickinson’s poems as reflecting a complex interaction between imagination (revery) and reality, with a focus on the reader’s psychological response to the symbolic language of the text.

Criticism Against “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

• Over-reliance on Psychoanalytic Theory
  Critics argue that Holland’s focus on psychoanalysis, particularly Freudian concepts, limits the scope of literary interpretation. Some feel that his theories overemphasize unconscious drives at the expense of other factors like cultural, historical, or political contexts.
• Reduction of Literary Texts to Psychological Models
  Holland’s application of psychoanalytic phases can be seen as reductive, as it often seeks to explain complex literary works purely through psychological frameworks. This may ignore other aspects of the text, such as aesthetic form, linguistic innovation, or broader thematic concerns.
• Ambiguity in Reader-Response Criticism
  While Holland advocates for a reader-response approach, some critics find his reliance on the reader’s psychological projections to be too subjective. This raises concerns about the validity of literary analysis when it becomes entirely dependent on individual reactions, potentially leading to a lack of consistent interpretive standards.
• Neglect of Contemporary Critical Theories
  Holland’s work is seen by some as being out of step with newer critical theories like deconstruction, post-colonialism, and queer theory. His emphasis on psychoanalysis may limit engagement with these diverse, contemporary approaches that challenge the traditional psychoanalytic focus on universal experiences.
• Inadequate Bridging Between Psychoanalysis and Literature
  Although Holland attempts to bridge psychoanalysis and literature through the interaction of writers, readers, and texts, critics argue that his model often lacks clarity in demonstrating how psychological theories directly enhance literary understanding without imposing artificial connections.
• Limited Engagement with Textual Formalism
  Some critics feel that Holland downplays the importance of formal elements like narrative structure, syntax, and style, which are crucial to understanding literature. His psychoanalytic focus can sometimes overshadow the technical and formal analysis of literary texts.
• Oversimplification of Complex Psychoanalytic Theories
  While Holland integrates psychoanalysis into literary criticism, some argue that he oversimplifies intricate psychoanalytic theories, particularly Lacanian and post-Freudian developments, reducing their depth in favor of more generalized interpretations.

Representative Quotations from “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Psychoanalysis does not deal with texts but with persons.”	Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is fundamentally about human psychology, and when applied to literature, it must focus on the psychological experiences of the author, character, or reader rather than the text itself.
“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”	This outlines Holland’s categorization of the development of psychoanalysis, marking the evolution from Freud’s theories to contemporary psychoanalytic schools.
“In POMO, everything has quotation marks around it. The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”	Holland critiques postmodernism for its playful, ambiguous approach to art and literature, where meaning is decentralized and left for the audience to interpret, reflecting the postmodern skepticism of fixed meaning.
“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”	This highlights how feminist critics use psychoanalytic frameworks to explore the gendered nature of literature, addressing issues of male dominance in both the creation and interpretation of texts.
“The postmodern art is jokey and tricky. It self-consciously builds on other art forms.”	Here, Holland describes postmodern art and literature as self-referential and ironic, with a focus on intertextuality and the relationship between the work and its audience, rather than the work standing as a self-contained entity.
“Reader-response critics address the real reactions of real people.”	Holland advocates for reader-response theory, where the focus shifts from the author and the text to how individual readers interact with and interpret a literary work based on their personal experiences and psychology.
“Psychoanalytic criticism was a considerable advance over first phase, but there is that peculiar assumption that the poem is a mind that the critic can see.”	Holland critiques second-phase psychoanalytic criticism for its tendency to treat the text itself as if it were a mind, leading to oversimplified interpretations that assume direct parallels between textual structure and psychological processes.
“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”	This quote reflects Holland’s view that literature can be understood as a reflection of psychological processes, particularly ego functions, which readers internalize and process through their own mental frameworks.
“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly.”	Holland asserts that psychoanalysis must focus on people, not texts. Therefore, literary critics must find ways to apply psychological analysis to authors, characters, or readers rather than to words or narrative structures alone.
“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”	This highlights Holland’s central thesis that the connection between psychoanalysis and literature lies in the interaction between readers and texts, where personal, psychological experiences shape literary interpretation and meaning.

Suggested Readings: “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

1. Holland, Norman N. The Dynamics of Literary Response. Oxford University Press, 1968.
2. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by A.A. Brill, Macmillan, 1913.
3. Lacan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Translated by Bruce Fink, W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.
4. Showalter, Elaine. The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830–1980. Pantheon Books, 1985.
5. Flynn, Elizabeth A., and Patrocinio Schweickart, editors. Gender and Reading: Essays on Readers, Texts, and Contexts. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. https://www.amazon.com/Gender-Reading-Essays-Readers-Contexts/dp/0801833064
6. Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Translated by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1980.
   https://www.amazon.com/Desire-Language-Semiotic-Approach-Literature/dp/0231048077
7. Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, 1991.
   https://www.amazon.com/Postmodernism-Cultural-Late-Capitalism-Theories/dp/0822310902
8. Wright, Elizabeth. Psychoanalytic Criticism: A Reappraisal. Routledge, 1998.
   https://www.routledge.com/Psychoanalytic-Criticism-A-Reappraisal/Wright/p/book/9780415156818
9. Brooks, Peter. Psychoanalysis and Storytelling. Blackwell, 1994.
   https://www.amazon.com/Psychoanalysis-Storytelling-Peter-Brooks/dp/0631186783

Introduction: “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

“Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton was first published in 1982 as part of the Royal Institute of Philosophy Lecture Series (Volume 14). This essay holds significant importance in the realms of literature and literary theory due to its insightful exploration of Pierre Macherey’s Marxist approach to literary analysis. Eagleton delves into Macherey’s concept of the “transcendental unconscious” and its implications for understanding the underlying ideological structures at play within literary texts. By examining Macherey’s work, Eagleton sheds light on the ways in which literature can both reflect and challenge dominant social and political ideologies, offering valuable insights for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

• Macherey’s Critique of Neo-Hegelianism:
  • Pierre Macherey attempts to liberate Marxist literary criticism from neo-Hegelian and empirical ideologies.
  • He emphasizes moving away from the concept of the “author as producer” that focuses on art’s relation to its material base and superstructure.
  • Quotation: “Macherey’s project is nothing less than the liberation of Marxist criticism from every taint of Hegelianism and empiricism.”
• Macherey’s Althusserian Approach:
  • He applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, distinguishing criticism from its object, the text.
  • For Macherey, criticism produces a new discourse that reveals what the text does not explicitly say, unlike empirical criticism that treats the text as a spontaneous given.
  • Quotation: “Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”
• Text as a Determinate Object:
  • The literary text is seen as a determinate object shaped by specific conditions and labor. The author does not “create” but “discovers” the narrative, indicating that the text has its own necessity that cannot be altered.
  • Quotation: “The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”
• Internal Contradictions and Ruptures:
  • According to Macherey, every text is characterized by internal ruptures and contradictions, which are essential to its identity. These internal diversities are not merely a reflection of an underlying unity but the very structure of the text itself.
  • Quotation: “The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”
• Silences and Absences in the Text:
  • Macherey argues that the truth of a literary work lies not in what it explicitly states, but in its silences and absences. This absence becomes a key feature of the text, revealing the gaps and limits in the ideological structure.
  • Quotation: “The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”
• Distancing Ideology Through Literary Form:
  • The contradictions within the text reveal its ideological limits, showing how the text distances itself from ideology. However, this distancing does not automatically subvert ideology; it can also support it, depending on the historical and ideological context.
  • Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends… upon the historical and ideological situation in which the text is situated.”
• Rejection of Structuralism:
  • Macherey critiques the structuralist approach, which seeks to decode hidden meanings within the text. For him, the significance of the text is not found in its “depth” but in its external relation to ideology and other texts.
  • Quotation: “The work hides nothing, keeps no secret, is entirely ‘readable’ and offered to view.”
• Literary Text as an Active Force:
  • The literary text does not merely reflect ideology but actively engages with it, transforming it in the process. This interaction reveals the ideological absences and contradictions that underlie the work.
  • Quotation: “The literary work, in thus transforming the ideological illusion, implicitly yields a critique of its own ideological status.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
Author as Producer	A Marxist concept emphasizing the role of the author in relation to the material base and superstructure, often seen as politically indeterminate in certain contexts.	“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”
Epistemological Break	A concept by Althusser, applied by Macherey to establish a radical distinction between literary criticism and the text it analyzes.	“Macherey’s intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”
Text as a Determinate Object	The idea that the literary text is not a reflection of the author’s intent but the result of specific historical and material conditions, with its own internal necessity.	“The literary object is determinate, and so can be the object of rational study.”
Internal Ruptures	The concept that a literary work is characterized by contradictions and breaks, which are essential to its structure and meaning.	“The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”
Silences and Absences	Refers to the unspoken elements within a text that reveal deeper ideological tensions and contradictions, shaping the text’s meaning.	“Criticism…makes speak the text’s silences.”
Normative Illusion	A critical error that measures the text against an ideal model or normative expectations, ignoring the text’s specific materiality and conditions of production.	“The normative illusion constitutes a refusal of the object as it is: it ‘corrects’ it against an independent, pre-existent model.”
Ideological Contradiction	The idea that texts do not merely reflect ideology but engage with its contradictions, revealing ideological limits and absences.	“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits.”
Empiricism	A critical approach critiqued by Macherey for treating texts as given objects, which can be known merely through observation without transformation.	“Scientific criticism is the antagonist of empiricist critical ‘knowledge’.”
Form as Distantiation	The idea that literary form distances itself from ideology, potentially subverting or supporting it based on historical and ideological contexts.	“Form distantiates the ideological.”

Contribution of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton  to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critique of Empiricism in Literary Criticism:
  • Eagleton highlights Macherey’s rejection of empiricist approaches that treat the text as a given object to be passively interpreted. Instead, Macherey advocates for a transformative critique where criticism actively produces new knowledge by engaging with the silences of the text.
  • Quotation: “Criticism…is a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”
• Rejection of the “Author as Creator” Concept:
  • The theory disputes the romanticized idea of the author as a creator who imposes unity on the text. Macherey sees the author as a discoverer rather than an inventor, operating under the constraints of ideological and narrative structures.
  • Quotation: “It is mere mystification to speak of the author as a ‘creator’.”
• Focus on Internal Contradictions and Silences:
  • Macherey introduces the concept that the contradictions, ruptures, and silences within a text are integral to its meaning. These silences reveal the ideological limits within the text, moving beyond traditional readings that seek a unified meaning.
  • Quotation: “The task of criticism is to theorize the necessity of this diversity.”
• Text as a Site of Ideological Conflict:
  • Macherey views the literary text not as a reflection of ideology but as an active space where ideology is produced and contested. This positions the text as a battleground of conflicting ideologies rather than a passive vessel of ideological content.
  • Quotation: “The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”
• Contribution to the Althusserian Tradition:
  • Macherey applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, focusing on how criticism and literature belong to different realms of knowledge production. This epistemological break is a radical departure from both Hegelian dialectics and empiricism.
  • Quotation: “His intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”
• Revolutionary Approach to Literary Form:
  • Macherey challenges traditional formalist theories, proposing that form is not a mere reflection of ideological content but a distancing mechanism that reveals the ideological tensions and absences within a text.
  • Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”
• Criticism as a Science:
  • He proposes that criticism is not simply a hermeneutic task of interpreting a text’s hidden meanings, but rather a scientific process of constructing new knowledge that highlights the conditions of a text’s possibility, including its inherent contradictions.
  • Quotation: “Scientific criticism…establishes a decisive rupture between itself and the object, distancing itself to produce a new knowledge of it.”
• Literature as Ideological Production, Not Reproduction:
  • Eagleton emphasizes Macherey’s view that literature does not reflect reality or ideology but produces it. This is a key distinction in Marxist theory, asserting that literature actively shapes and transforms the ideological world rather than simply mirroring it.
  • Quotation: “Rather than ‘reproducing’ ideology, the text produces it, setting it in motion and endowing it with a form.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Macherey’s Theory	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
Jules Verne’s Fiction	Verne’s fiction attempts to represent bourgeois progress but is ideologically constrained to use images from the past. This contradiction creates an internal ideological torsion.	“Verne’s fiction ‘wants’ to represent bourgeois progress as a march forward to the future, yet finds itself enforced to represent this march in images bound to the past.”
Henry James’ Novels	James’ aesthetic redefinition of fiction as organic form is tied to material shifts in literary production but does not necessarily reflect an ideological transformation.	“The aesthetic redefinition of fiction as ‘organic form’ which develops in late nineteenth-century England…is not clear how such material mutations become an active element.”
Thackeray’s Henry Esmond	While this novel differs in its production mode from Thackeray’s serialized works, it does not fundamentally alter his ideological stance, illustrating the gap between form and ideology.	“Though this difference of productive mode undoubtedly impresses itself on the novel’s form, it leaves the ‘Thackerayan ideology’ essentially intact.”
Tolstoy’s Works (Lenin’s Critique)	Tolstoy’s work is described as a selective mirror of the Russian Revolution, reflecting fragmented and partial images rather than a straightforward ideological reproduction.	“If Tolstoy’s work is indeed a mirror, then it is an angled, selective one thronged by fragmented images, as notable for what it does not, as for what it does, reflect.”

Criticism Against “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton  

• Risk of Formalism:
  • Macherey’s focus on literary form as a site of ideological distantiation can lead to a Marxist variety of formalism, where form is treated as having an essential and unchanging function.
  • Quotation: “Though his contention that form distantiates the ideological is suggestive, why should this distantiation automatically be subversive?”
• Neglect of Reader Reception:
  • Macherey’s early work focuses solely on the production of the text, neglecting the role of reader reception and the historical context in which a text is interpreted. This overlooks how texts “live” through their interactions with readers.
  • Quotation: “His early work…completely suppresses the reality of the literary text as an historically mutable practice which ‘lives’ only in the process of its transaction with particular readers.”
• Overemphasis on Ideology as Homogeneous:
  • Macherey, following Althusser, tends to treat ideology as a non-contradictory and homogeneous illusion. This downplays the internal contradictions and class struggles that shape ideology, leading to an overly rigid understanding of how texts engage with ideology.
  • Quotation: “Ideology, however, has no such homogeneity…it is certainly homogenizing in tendency, but it nowhere, fortunately, has the success which Macherey assigns to it.”
• Abstract View of Ideology and Art:
  • By focusing on how texts distort or transform ideology, Macherey’s theory risks treating literary works as abstract constructions, distancing them from the material and historical realities they engage with.
  • Quotation: “Macherey’s formalism is in part a result of his Althusserian notion of ideology…as a structure of absences rather than something engaged with historical contradictions.”

Representative Quotations from “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”	Macherey views criticism as an active process that transforms the text, rather than merely uncovering an already present truth.
“The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”	This challenges the traditional view of the author as the unifying force of a text, emphasizing instead the text’s own internal structure and necessity.
“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”	Macherey’s theory focuses on the ideological gaps and contradictions within a text, showing how the text exposes the limits of its own ideology.
“Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”	Here, Eagleton emphasizes that the distancing function of form does not always lead to subversion; its impact is contingent on historical context.
“Every work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”	Macherey asserts that every literary text is internally divided, characterized by contradictions and ruptures, rather than a harmonious unity.
“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”	Eagleton critiques the applicability of the “author as producer” concept, arguing that it may not be relevant across all periods of literary history.
“The work’s ‘necessity’ is not an initial ‘given’ but a product…the meeting-place of several diverse ‘lines of necessity’.”	The text’s internal necessity is not pre-determined by the author but emerges from the interaction of various conflicting elements within the work.
“The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”	Rather than simply reflecting ideology, Macherey suggests that literary texts actively produce ideology, while also exposing its limitations.
“It is necessary to determine what a text lacks—lacks without which it would not exist, would have nothing to say.”	This quotation highlights the importance of the absences in a text, which are crucial to its meaning and existence according to Macherey’s theory.
“The postulate of the work’s unity, which has always more or less haunted bourgeois criticism, must be unequivocally denounced.”	Macherey rejects the notion that literary works possess a unified meaning, a view prevalent in traditional, bourgeois criticism.

Suggested Readings: “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory.
2. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/lenin-philosophy.htm.
3. Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978. https://www.routledge.com/A-Theory-of-Literary-Production/Macherey/p/book/9780415772860.
4. Lukács, Georg. The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature. MIT Press, 1971. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262620208/the-theory-of-the-novel/.
5. Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic. Methuen Drama, 1964. https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/brecht-on-theatre-9780413388001/.
6. Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations: Essays and Reflections. Schocken Books, 1968. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/176085/illuminations-by-walter-benjamin/.
7. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/.
8. Balibar, Étienne, and Pierre Macherey. Reading Capital. NLB, 1970. https://www.versobooks.com/products/1718-reading-capital.
9. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/marxism-and-literature-9780198760610.

Introduction: “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1982 in the New Left Review journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its provocative exploration of the decline of literary criticism in the late 20th century. Eagleton, a renowned literary theorist and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, argues that criticism has become increasingly marginalized and irrelevant in a postmodern era dominated by consumerism and cultural relativism. His essay challenges the prevailing assumptions about the role of criticism and offers a provocative vision for its future.

Summary of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation
Humanistic/Utopian Tradition	A tradition in socialist thought that views literature as politically relevant because it can help restore creative capacities oppressed by capitalism.
Negative Hermeneutics	A critical approach that uses literature to expose and demystify ideological contradictions, viewing literature as a tool for ideological critique.
Demystification	The process of revealing and critiquing hidden ideologies within cultural products (like literature) that support capitalist or bourgeois society.
Philology	The study of texts through linguistic, historical, and textual criticism, often seen as a more rigorous, technical, and professional approach to literature.
Bourgeois Humanism	A tradition in literary studies, particularly associated with figures like Arnold and Leavis, emphasizing the humanistic and moral dimensions of literature.
Positivism	An empirical approach that seeks to apply scientific methods to literary criticism, aiming for objective and systematic analysis.
Rhetoric	Eagleton advocates for reviving rhetoric, the study of how discourse (any form of communication) produces effects, linking it to the analysis of power and ideology.
Discourse	Broadly refers to any form of communication (literature, film, advertisements, etc.), focusing on its ideological effects and the ways it constructs social relations.
Cultural Studies	A proposed replacement for traditional literary studies, encompassing a broader analysis of cultural practices, ideologies, and discourses beyond just literature.
Ideology Critique	The analysis of how cultural products, including literature, reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies, often used in Marxist criticism.
Liberal Humanism	A tradition in literary criticism focused on the moral, ethical, and humanizing effects of literature, often criticized for its idealistic or abstract approach to literature.
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that analyzes cultural phenomena (including literature) through the underlying structures and systems (such as language or signs) that shape them.
Signifying Practices	Refers to the ways in which signs, symbols, and discourses create meaning within cultural and ideological contexts.
Performative	A term from speech act theory (introduced by Austin), focusing on how discourse not only describes the world but also acts to produce effects in the world.

Contribution of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Framework
D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers	Critique through Negative Hermeneutics: Instead of focusing on its literary qualities, Eagleton would argue for using Sons and Lovers to reveal the ideological contradictions in Lawrence’s representation of family and individual desire. This novel could be seen as crystallizing middle-class anxieties around sexuality and social mobility under capitalism. Quotation: “Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”
William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Experience	Critique through Utopian-Humanistic Tradition: Blake’s poetry, particularly in Songs of Innocence and Experience, could be analyzed as an expression of the human spirit’s creative potential, oppressed by industrial capitalism. Eagleton would likely see value in Blake’s visionary literature for restoring awareness of human capacities that capitalism represses. Quotation: “Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism and realisable under socialism.”
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	Cultural Critique and Rhetoric: Through Eagleton’s framework, Pride and Prejudice could be critiqued not only for its subtle social critique but for its role in reinforcing class ideologies and bourgeois morality. The novel’s discourse on marriage and class mobility can be analyzed as a reflection of how literature produces and sustains bourgeois ideology. Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place. By rhetoric, I mean the study of the ways in which any discourse whatsoever produces its effects.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Destabilization of the Literary Canon: Eagleton would critique Ulysses not for its modernist innovations but for how literary critics and institutions have canonized it as a symbol of high culture, reinforcing elitist distinctions between “literature” and other cultural forms. Joyce’s work, though experimental, does not inherently possess more value than other forms of discourse like advertisements or films. Quotation: “You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”

Criticism Against “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Representative Quotations from “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literary studies are a non-subject.”	Eagleton critiques the lack of a unified method or coherent subject in literary studies, arguing that the field is fragmented and inconsistent in its methodologies and objectives.
“Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism.”	This quotation reflects the utopian-humanistic tradition in socialist thought, where literature is seen as having the potential to reawaken human creativity, which is otherwise suppressed under capitalist systems.
“Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”	Eagleton questions why literature, particularly high literature, is chosen as the primary tool for demystifying ideology when other cultural forms, such as advertisements or popular media, may have a more direct impact on people’s lives.
“Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”	Eagleton advocates for a shift from traditional literary criticism to the study of rhetoric, which he defines as analyzing how any form of discourse produces its effects, including ideological and social influences.
“The unity of the object is every bit as illusory as the unity of the method.”	Here, Eagleton critiques the notion that literature is a stable and unified object of study, arguing that the definition of “literature” is arbitrary and ideologically constructed, just as there is no singular method that governs its study.
“Rhetorical critics are unashamed pluralists: anything which contributes to the goal of political transformation is acceptable.”	Eagleton promotes a pluralistic approach to criticism, arguing that any method or discourse that aids in political transformation is valid, rejecting the idea that literary criticism must adhere to strict or traditional methods.
“Socialism is moral or it is nothing.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the core of socialism, and by extension socialist literary criticism, is moral in nature. It is motivated by the ethical objection to the exploitation and degradation of human lives under capitalist systems.
“You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”	Eagleton critiques the arbitrary nature of literary canon formation, suggesting that what counts as “literature” is not an inherent quality of texts but a decision made by those in positions of cultural power.
“It is a unity not of discourses or objects but of intentional practices.”	Eagleton argues that the “unity” of literary studies should not be found in methods or objects (i.e., literary texts), but in the political intentions and practices of those who engage with the discipline.
“The study of what has traditionally been called literature will not of course merely dissolve within this new space.”	Although Eagleton calls for a shift towards cultural studies and rhetoric, he acknowledges that the study of traditional literature will not disappear entirely but will become one part of a broader, more inclusive field focused on cultural critique.

Suggested Readings: “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
2. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
   https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious
3. Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Routledge, 1978.
   https://www.routledge.com/A-Theory-of-Literary-Production/Macherey/p/book/9780415386636
4. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977.
   https://global.oup.com/academic/product/marxism-and-literature-9780198760610
5. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971.
   https://monthlyreview.org/product/lenin_and_philosophy_and_other_essays/
6. Eagleton, Terry. The Function of Criticism: From The Spectator to Post-Structuralism. Verso, 1984.
   https://www.versobooks.com/products/1118-the-function-of-criticism
7. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Pantheon Books, 1972.
   https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/173185/the-archaeology-of-knowledge-by-michel-foucault/
8. Said, Edward W. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Harvard University Press, 1983.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674961876
9. Lentricchia, Frank. After the New Criticism. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
   https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/A/bo5960662.html
10. “Terry Eagleton on The Function of Criticism.” Verso Books Blog, 27 Feb. 2017.
    https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/3127-terry-eagleton-on-the-function-of-criticism

Introduction: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

 “Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the interplay between Marxist and Freudian thought offers a profound understanding of how these intellectual frameworks can illuminate the complexities of human morality and behavior.

Summary of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevant Context in Eagleton’s Essay
Ideology	A system of ideas that unconsciously shape and constrain the subject’s thinking, creating illusions about the nature of reality.	Eagleton argues that “ideology” is central to understanding how individuals are unknowingly shaped by social structures. Marxism critiques ideology by showing how it hides true social relations, while Freud exposes the unconscious forces that shape human behavior.
Subjectivity	The experience of being a coherent, autonomous individual, which, according to both Marx and Freud, is an illusion produced by ideology and unconscious forces.	Eagleton explains how the subject, while believing themselves to be the master of their thoughts and actions, is actually decentered by unconscious processes (Freud) and shaped by social formations (Marx). He emphasizes the need to recognize that individuals are not truly in control of their own discourse or consciousness.
Historical Materialism	Marxist theory that social and economic structures determine the development of human societies and their ideologies.	Eagleton references Marxism’s focus on historical materialism as the basis for understanding social formations and their reproduction, contrasting it with psychoanalysis as a tool for understanding individual subject formation. He notes that Marxism traditionally lacks a fully developed theory of the subject, which psychoanalysis can help provide.
Unconscious	In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness, influencing thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.	The essay argues that unconscious forces, such as repressed desires and drives, play a major role in shaping the subject’s speech and actions. Eagleton connects this to the way ideology operates, suggesting that just as unconscious drives influence behavior, ideology shapes consciousness in ways subjects cannot fully comprehend.
Oedipus Complex	Freudian concept referring to the child’s unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, crucial to the development of the ego.	Eagleton refers to the Oedipus complex to explain how individuals are constituted as “sexed” beings through processes of repression and identification, which in turn integrate them into the social order. This complex also exemplifies the way subject formation involves the repression of knowledge, both personal and social.
Symbolic Order	A Lacanian concept referring to the domain of language and social laws that the subject enters after the Oedipus complex, in which meaning is structured by difference.	Eagleton uses this term to describe how individuals are caught in a network of signifiers that endlessly defer meaning. The symbolic order is the realm of language, where identity and meaning are always constructed in relation to absent or excluded terms. This creates an ongoing “lack,” which drives desire and destabilizes the subject’s coherence.
Castration Complex	The psychoanalytic concept of the child’s realization of sexual difference and the anxiety this produces, leading to repression and the formation of the unconscious.	Eagleton likens this complex to other fundamental losses (such as birth, separation from the mother, etc.) that shape human subjectivity. He uses it to illustrate how language and culture impose a continual chain of losses, absences, and lacks that disrupt any sense of subjective unity or completeness.
Desire	In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious drive that is never fully satisfied, continually moving the subject from one object or signifier to another.	Eagleton draws on Freud and Lacan to argue that desire is structured by lack and that language itself generates this movement of desire. This process reveals the subject’s dependence on absence and difference, contradicting the illusion of wholeness or control in both personal and ideological discourse.
Cultural Revolution	A Marxist concept referring to the transformation of social and individual consciousness as part of the larger political revolution.	Eagleton suggests that Marxism, beyond political revolution, must involve a “cultural revolution,” which entails the transformation of individual subjectivity and consciousness. He implies that psychoanalysis can inform this process by addressing the deep-seated psychological resistances to such transformation.

Contribution of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Marxism (Eagleton’s Lens)	Critique through Psychoanalysis (Eagleton’s Lens)
Great Expectations by Charles Dickens	Through a Marxist perspective, the novel illustrates class struggle and social mobility. Pip’s journey from a poor orphan to a gentleman reflects the ideologies of capitalism. The “ideological” illusion Pip suffers from—believing wealth and status can lead to happiness—can be critiqued as masking the exploitative class structures of Victorian England.	Pip’s internal conflict and guilt can be analyzed through Freud’s theory of the unconscious. His desire for social advancement, driven by his love for Estella, can be seen as rooted in repressed desires and the Oedipal complex. Pip’s obsession with becoming a gentleman reflects deeper anxieties about identity, desire, and his relationship with parental figures like Joe and Miss Havisham.
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	The novel’s portrayal of Heathcliff’s rise to power could be interpreted as a Marxist critique of the capitalist drive for ownership and control. Heathcliff’s revenge on the Earnshaw and Linton families illustrates how class oppression and economic inequalities drive individuals to destructive actions.	Heathcliff’s obsession with Catherine and his violent behavior can be analyzed through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis. His destructive tendencies could be seen as an expression of repressed desires and unresolved childhood trauma. The novel’s focus on intense emotions, violence, and love mirrors Freud’s notion of the death drive (Thanatos) and Eros in human behavior.
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Marxist critique would focus on the ideological forces shaping Hamlet’s indecision and the political power structures in Denmark. The play reflects feudal and class power relations, where Hamlet is caught between his princely duties and his moral qualms, mirroring larger societal contradictions.	Freud’s psychoanalytic interpretation of Hamlet famously focuses on the Oedipus complex. Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father’s death can be linked to repressed desires for his mother, Gertrude. His struggle with madness and internal turmoil reflects the unconscious forces at play, where Hamlet’s ego is torn between the id (desires) and the superego (moral expectations).
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	A Marxist critique would emphasize the novel’s exploration of the American Dream as an ideological construct. Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and status masks the inherent inequalities of capitalist society. The novel critiques the false promises of class mobility, with Gatsby’s downfall symbolizing the failure of this ideology.	Gatsby’s obsessive desire for Daisy can be analyzed through psychoanalysis as a manifestation of deeper unconscious desires. His fixation on the past and his idealized image of Daisy reflect Freud’s concept of the repetition compulsion, where Gatsby is driven by unresolved desires and emotional wounds. The symbolic death drive is present in Gatsby’s reckless pursuit, ultimately leading to his tragic demise.

Criticism Against “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

• Overemphasis on Ideology and Repression:
  • Critics argue that Eagleton’s interpretation places excessive emphasis on ideology, viewing individuals primarily as passive products of unconscious and social forces, downplaying human agency and individual autonomy.
• Limited Scope of Morality Discussion:
  • Some may criticize the work for offering an insufficient exploration of morality itself. Eagleton’s Marxist and Freudian analysis focuses more on how morality is shaped by external forces, but less on the content of moral principles or how individuals might challenge these ideologies.
• Reductionism in Psychoanalysis:
  • Eagleton’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis has been critiqued for its reductionist approach. Critics argue that Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex and repression oversimplify complex human behaviors and ignore other psychological or philosophical explanations.
• Tension between Marxism and Psychoanalysis:
  • The attempt to merge Marxist historical materialism with Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized for being problematic, as the two frameworks may not be fully compatible. While Marxism focuses on social structures, psychoanalysis emphasizes individual psychology, creating a potential conceptual mismatch.
• Neglect of Humanism and Ethical Agency:
  • Some critics believe that Eagleton’s approach neglects humanism and ethical agency, reducing morality to ideological constructs rather than considering the potential for moral progress or ethical behavior outside of ideology and repression.
• Pessimism in the Concept of Subjectivity:
  • Eagleton’s portrayal of subjectivity as fundamentally shaped by absence, lack, and repression, influenced by Lacan and Freud, has been criticized for its pessimism. This perspective can be seen as overly fatalistic, suggesting that humans are perpetually alienated from their desires and true meaning.
• Christianity vs. Marxism Conflation:
  • Eagleton’s analysis of the relationship between Christianity and Marxism, particularly the argument that Marxism needs a discourse of love beyond its materialist framework, has been criticized as overly idealistic or inconsistent with the materialist foundations of Marxist thought.

Representative Quotations from “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”	This statement highlights the importance of social and political change in achieving true morality. Eagleton argues that morality is often constrained by the dominant ideology.
“The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”	This quotation emphasizes the role of psychoanalysis in understanding the formation of individual identity and consciousness.
“The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”	This quote reflects Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and the limitations imposed by our unconscious desires.
“The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”	This statement emphasizes the tragic nature of human existence, as revealed by Freud’s analysis of the ego’s internal conflicts and limitations.
“The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”	This quote highlights the power of social structures to shape individuals’ lives without their conscious awareness.
“To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”	This statement emphasizes the fundamental nature of desire as a result of language and its inherent lack of meaning.
“When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”	This quote illustrates the fragmented nature of the subject, as revealed by the unconscious’s influence on our discourse.
“The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”	This statement highlights the unconscious nature of many of our actions and beliefs, both as individuals and as members of society.
“The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”	This quote challenges the humanist notion of the individual as a fully autonomous agent, emphasizing the role of social structures in shaping identity.
“The gospel may be true or it may not be; but if Freud is right, as I think he is, then nothing short of the gospel will save us.”	This statement suggests that the Christian gospel, despite its unrealistic nature, may be the only hope for salvation in a world shaped by Freud’s tragic vision.

Suggested Readings: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.
2. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Standard Edition, Volume 4, Hogarth Press, 1953.
3. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Bruce Fink, Norton, 2006.
4. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971.
5. Žižek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. Verso, 1989.