Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1967 in the journal New Blackfriars, is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton argues that liberalism, while valuable in promoting individual rights and freedoms, ultimately fails to address the underlying social and economic inequalities that perpetuate injustice. He critiques liberalism’s emphasis on formal equality and its neglect of the structural power imbalances that shape society. This essay helped to establish Eagleton as a leading figure in Marxist literary criticism and continues to be widely discussed and debated in academic circles.

Summary of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• The Focus on Liberal Christian Tradition
  Terry Eagleton critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book as a significant contribution to liberal Christian thought. It successfully connects psychological, literary, and Christian insights to explore themes like love, freedom, and maturity in personal relationships. However, Eagleton argues that the book is deeply embedded in the liberal tradition, focusing on personal experience and neglecting broader societal structures, politics, and history.
• The Limits of Individualism and Personal Experience
  Eagleton notes that Haughton’s focus is primarily on individual experience and the psychological dimensions of human relationships. This leads to a narrow interpretation of what it means to be human. While the personal aspects are sensitively handled, the exclusion of political and historical struggles, collective actions, and broader social commitments weakens the analysis of humanity.
• Critique of Christian Liberalism’s Inward Focus
  According to Eagleton, Christian liberalism, as represented in Haughton’s work, emphasizes an inward spiritual experience over external social realities. This creates a dualism between the personal and societal, where external actions and institutions are seen as mere aids to personal spiritual growth, rather than integral components of human experience. Eagleton argues that Christianity should integrate personal and political dimensions rather than treating them separately.
• The Problem of Liberalism’s Open-Endedness
  Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on openness and exploration without commitment to specific truths or actions. He draws parallels to Mill, Arnold, and Leavis in this regard, suggesting that Haughton’s perspective prioritizes openness and self-exploration over firm commitment to political or religious truths. This results in a version of Christianity that lacks depth and fails to address real social change.
• The Dualism of Flesh and Spirit
  Haughton’s approach reinforces a Cartesian dualism between flesh and spirit, where the body and social institutions are necessary but secondary to the spiritual life. Eagleton challenges this view, asserting that Christian and political radicalism involve transforming the “flesh” or material reality into a language through which the spirit is expressed. This holistic view contrasts with the liberal tendency to separate the inward and external aspects of life.
• Inadequate Integration of the Social and Political
  Eagleton contends that liberal Christianity, as portrayed in Haughton’s book, alienates political and social behaviors from the authentic self. He argues that political and social structures are not external constraints but integral parts of human experience and freedom. By relegating politics to the external, liberalism fails to engage with the full complexity of human life.
• The Role of Rules and Culture
  Eagleton praises Haughton’s metaphor of learning the rules of perspective in art, suggesting that this is an insightful description of how human culture works. Humans internalize rules and conventions that make their experiences meaningful. However, Eagleton believes Haughton undercuts this insight by treating rules as superficial scaffolding rather than essential structures for human life and relationships.
• The Need for Radical Transformation
  In conclusion, Eagleton calls for a more radical approach that surpasses the limits of liberalism. He argues that a true Christian and political radicalism must integrate personal experience with social and political realities, rather than treating them as separate or in opposition. Until this integration is achieved, liberalism will remain limited in its ability to effect meaningful social change.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “The Limits of Liberalism”
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual freedom, personal rights, and open inquiry.	Eagleton critiques the liberal Christian tradition, which emphasizes personal experience over broader political and social realities.
Dualism	The division of two opposing forces or concepts, such as body vs. spirit or individual vs. society.	Eagleton highlights the dualism in Haughton’s work between inward spiritual life and external social structures.
Christian Liberalism	A strand of Christianity that emphasizes personal spirituality and exploration, often at the expense of dogma.	Eagleton critiques this focus for its lack of engagement with political and social action.
Dogma	A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.	Eagleton contrasts liberalism’s open-endedness with the commitment and exclusivity often associated with Christian dogma.
Individualism	The focus on the individual’s self-expression and autonomy, often in contrast to collective or societal norms.	Eagleton critiques Haughton for prioritizing individual spiritual growth over social or political engagement.
Sacrament	A religious ceremony regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward and spiritual divine grace.	Eagleton discusses how Haughton downplays the role of material and social structures in favor of inward spiritual authenticity.
Romanticism	A literary and cultural movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature.	Eagleton references Romanticism when critiquing Haughton’s view of personal spiritual freedom as opposed to broader social institutions.
Political Radicalism	A belief in fundamental societal change, often through revolutionary or profound structural transformation.	Eagleton contrasts Christian liberalism’s personal focus with political radicalism, which seeks to transform society as a whole.
Cartesian Dualism	A philosophical term referring to Descartes’ division between mind (spirit) and body (flesh).	Eagleton critiques the dualism in Haughton’s work that separates the flesh (social reality) from the spirit (authentic inner life).
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities beyond the literal meaning.	Eagleton discusses how external actions and social institutions can be seen as symbols through which spiritual life is expressed.
Situational Ethics	The idea that ethical decisions should be based on the context of a situation rather than fixed moral rules.	Eagleton identifies this approach in Haughton’s work, where external actions and moral codes are considered secondary to inward authenticity.
Cultural Alienation	The feeling of being estranged from the dominant values or norms of society.	Eagleton argues that Haughton’s liberalism leads to a political alienation where personal authenticity is separated from social engagement.

Contribution of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

This excerpt from Eagleton’s “The Limits of Liberalism” critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book “Trying to be Human.” Here are some key points of Eagleton’s argument, focusing on specific theories from the text:

• Limited Scope: Eagleton argues Haughton focuses too narrowly on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context (p. 353). He suggests a more complete picture requires considering collective action and social struggles (p. 353).
• Liberal Oversimplification: Eagleton criticizes Haughton’s portrayal of Christianity as solely promoting openness, exploration, and self-discovery. He argues Christianity also has a history, doctrines, and commitments that define it (p. 354).
• Individual vs. Societal: Eagleton finds fault with Haughton’s view of Christianity opposing social structures and institutions. He argues that authentic human relationships and communication exist within these structures, not entirely separate from them (p. 354-355).
• False Duality: Eagleton criticizes the book’s portrayal of a split between “spirit” and “flesh.” He argues that external structures like laws, customs, and institutions are not just limitations but also the language through which the spirit expresses itself (p. 354-356).
• Importance of Rules: Eagleton disagrees with the book’s suggestion that rules and codes are merely external constraints on authenticity. He argues that interiorizing them is essential for human culture and authentic living (p. 356-357).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique
Rosemary Haughton’s Trying to be Human	Overemphasis on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context.
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty	Liberal emphasis on individual rights and freedoms without considering the structural power imbalances that shape society.
Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy	Liberal belief in the power of culture to improve society without addressing underlying social and economic inequalities.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Liberal portrayal of the clash between East and West as a conflict between individual freedom and cultural tradition, neglecting the power dynamics of colonialism.

Criticism Against “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• Narrow Focus on Personal Experience
  Eagleton is criticized for placing too much emphasis on the personal, psychological, and individual dimensions of Christianity, neglecting broader societal, political, and historical perspectives.
• Overemphasis on Dualism
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism often hinges on a dualistic view of personal versus societal, or flesh versus spirit, which some critics argue oversimplifies the relationship between individual and collective experience.
• Lack of Engagement with the Positive Aspects of Liberalism
  Critics might argue that Eagleton fails to acknowledge the strengths of liberalism, such as its emphasis on personal freedom, individual rights, and openness to multiple viewpoints, which can be seen as vital in a pluralistic society.
• Dismissal of Exploration and Openness
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s emphasis on openness, exploration, and personal honesty may be seen as too harsh, especially since these values are often considered crucial for intellectual and spiritual growth.
• Insufficient Consideration of Modern Liberal Thought
  Eagleton’s critique largely focuses on traditional liberalism without sufficiently addressing the evolution of liberal thought, especially its more recent attempts to incorporate social justice, political activism, and institutional change.
• Heavy Reliance on Christian Radicalism
  Some critics may argue that Eagleton’s call for a more radical, politicized version of Christianity is overly idealistic and may not resonate with the practical realities of contemporary faith communities.
• Tendency to Romanticize Radicalism
  Eagleton’s preference for political radicalism over the more gradual, reformist tendencies of liberalism might be criticized for romanticizing revolutionary change without fully accounting for the complexities and risks involved.
• Overgeneralization of Liberalism’s Limitations
  Eagleton’s blanket critique of liberalism as being disconnected from real social change might overlook the fact that liberal values have played a significant role in progressive reforms and political movements throughout history.

Representative Quotations from “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The liberal tradition is not the only one in modern Christianity, and when it stands alone, as it does here, it demonstrates at once its strengths and failures.”	Eagleton acknowledges both the strengths and weaknesses of the liberal Christian tradition, indicating that its focus on individual experience can be valuable, but insufficient without addressing broader societal issues.
“The meaning of the human, the book implicitly suggests, is precisely in this deeper entry into an understanding of felt relationship.”	Eagleton critiques Haughton’s narrow focus on personal relationships as the core of humanity, ignoring the political and collective dimensions that shape human experience.
“The Christian life is characterized as a search, an exploration… But like radical politics, it unites this openness with a closedness.”	Eagleton points out that while exploration is important in Christianity, it must be coupled with commitment to certain truths or actions, a balance lacking in liberalism’s constant openness.
“The liberal, unending openness, objectified to a goal— a dogma— by an English liberal tradition…is no more satisfying in itself than the closed and killing dogmatism of the English Communist Party.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism’s tendency toward indefinite openness without firm commitments, comparing it to the opposite extreme of rigid dogmatism, which is equally unsatisfactory.
“The second, major defect of Christian liberalism is an option for the inward against the external, the personal against society.”	This quote captures Eagleton’s central criticism of liberalism’s inward focus on personal spirituality at the expense of engaging with external social and political realities.
“The fact that these are not scaffolding, but the structure of the spirit, the ways in which human life becomes real and formulable, is then blurred over.”	Eagleton argues that external structures like social institutions are not mere aids to spirituality but essential elements that give form and meaning to human life, a nuance overlooked in Haughton’s liberal view.
“Politics…deals with the outside aspects of humanity, the personal-authentic-psychological with the real inwardness.”	This reflects Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s separation of politics from personal authenticity, suggesting that political behavior is as integral to human identity as inward spiritual experience.
“Human beings live by actively interiorizing rules, codes, conventions…which make that experience humanly possible.”	Eagleton emphasizes the importance of social conventions and rules in shaping human experience, countering the liberal preference for spontaneous, unstructured personal freedom.
“Christians are virtuous not by rejecting rules and codes…but by coming to act spontaneously in accordance with them.”	Eagleton highlights the Christian ideal of internalizing moral and social rules, aligning them with personal virtue, contrasting this with liberalism’s tendency to reject external rules.
“When rules are set against authenticity, a whole set of dualisms follow: law against spontaneity, politics against the individual, flesh against spirit.”	This quote summarizes Eagleton’s critique of the false dualisms created by liberalism, where rules and societal structures are seen as opposed to personal authenticity and spiritual freedom.

Suggested Readings: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. “The Limits of Liberalism.” New Blackfriars, vol. 52, no. 613, 1971, pp. 353-357. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.1971.tb06692.x.
2. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1869.
3. Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy. Smith, Elder & Co., 1869.
4. Fromm, Erich. The Sane Society. Rinehart, 1955.
5. Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. Chatto & Windus, 1948.
6. Forster, E. M. Two Cheers for Democracy. Edward Arnold & Co., 1951.

Introduction: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of literary theory. His exploration of the role of criticism in society and its relationship to power has had a profound impact on scholars and students alike. The book’s second edition, reprinted by Verso in 1984, solidified its status as a foundational text in literary studies.

Summary of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

9. Criticism’s Future:

• Eagleton envisions a future where criticism plays a central role in fostering creative activity by developing a rich intellectual atmosphere. While criticism itself may not offer the same fulfillment as creative work, it lays the foundation for future generations of artists and thinkers.
• Reference: Criticism prepares the groundwork for a “promised land” of creative activity, even if the critic does not directly participate in it (p. 49).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Text
Criticism	The analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literary works.	Eagleton argues that criticism involves seeing “the object as in itself it really is” and establishing a current of true ideas that influence creative work. He sees it as a crucial precursor to creation, forming the intellectual environment in which creative genius can flourish.
Creative Power	The ability to produce original literary or artistic work, considered the highest form of human intellectual activity.	Eagleton recognizes that the creative power is superior to criticism but asserts that criticism is necessary for the creative power to have the intellectual materials (ideas) it needs to work with effectively.
Disinterestedness	A critical approach that is free from political, practical, or personal bias.	Eagleton insists that criticism should remain disinterested, meaning that it should not serve practical or political interests. Instead, it should focus purely on the intellectual task of understanding and spreading the best knowledge and ideas.
Intellectual Atmosphere	The environment of ideas and knowledge within which creative works are produced.	According to Eagleton, great creative epochs arise when there is a rich intellectual atmosphere. Criticism helps build this atmosphere by developing and circulating ideas that can inspire and nourish creativity.
Epoch of Creation	A period in history marked by significant and original creative activity.	Eagleton argues that epochs of creative power are rare and often rely on the intellectual work done in preceding times of criticism. He refers to past creative periods like those of Aeschylus and Shakespeare as examples of times when criticism had already prepared the necessary intellectual climate.
Synthesis	The combination of ideas to form a cohesive and comprehensive whole.	Eagleton describes the role of creative genius as one of synthesis, meaning that it works by combining existing ideas in new and effective ways, rather than by discovering new ideas (which is more the work of philosophers).
Intellectual Progress	The advancement of knowledge, understanding, and the quality of ideas within a culture or society.	Eagleton sees criticism as central to intellectual progress, helping society move beyond narrow or outdated ideas by critically engaging with the best ideas available, regardless of their practical or political consequences.
The Practical Spirit	A mindset focused on the utility and application of ideas in everyday, political, or economic life.	Eagleton criticizes the “practical spirit” of English society, which prioritizes practical outcomes over intellectual exploration. He argues that criticism must avoid becoming entangled with this spirit in order to truly contribute to intellectual and cultural progress.
Free Play of the Mind	The unrestrained exploration of ideas for their own sake, without concern for practical applications.	Eagleton champions the “free play of the mind” as essential to criticism. He argues that criticism should value ideas in themselves, seeking to understand them without regard to whether they serve practical, political, or economic interests.
Creative Epochs	Periods in history when literature and art flourish, producing great works.	Eagleton asserts that such epochs require a rich intellectual environment prepared by criticism. He contrasts epochs of creation with epochs of intellectual stagnation, where criticism has failed to establish the necessary intellectual atmosphere for creativity.
Intellectual and Spiritual Expansion	A period where thought and culture grow dynamically, embracing new ideas and perspectives.	Eagleton contrasts this with periods of concentration, where society turns inward and intellectual stagnation occurs. He suggests that criticism should aim to foster intellectual and spiritual expansion by engaging with ideas disinterestedly and promoting fresh, true ideas.
Philistinism	A derogatory term for the rejection or undervaluing of culture, intellectual pursuits, and the arts.	Eagleton uses “Philistinism” to describe the tendency in English society to prioritize practical concerns over intellectual and cultural activities, a mindset that he argues criticism should actively work to counter.

Contribution of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory/Theory	Eagleton’s Contribution	Reference from “The Function of Criticism”
New Historicism	Eagleton’s emphasis on the intellectual and historical context shaping literary creation aligns with New Historicism, which views literature as a product of its historical circumstances. He highlights how literature cannot exist in a vacuum and requires a rich intellectual atmosphere shaped by criticism.	Eagleton discusses how great literary epochs depend on the “power of the moment” and the intellectual conditions surrounding them (p. 29).
Marxist Literary Theory	Eagleton contributes to Marxist theory by discussing the material and intellectual conditions necessary for great creative works to emerge. He argues that criticism plays a role in establishing an intellectual climate, which in turn allows for the flourishing of literature, suggesting a dialectical relationship between society and art.	“The critical power… tends to establish an order of ideas” and enables the creation of literature by ensuring the best ideas of the time are available (p. 28).
Cultural Materialism	Eagleton’s insistence on the importance of cultural and intellectual forces in shaping literary production resonates with Cultural Materialism. He critiques English society’s fixation on practical concerns, arguing that criticism must remain disinterested and independent from political or economic interests.	Eagleton critiques the “practical spirit” of English society and emphasizes the importance of criticism being independent of practical concerns (p. 36).
Poststructuralism	Eagleton critiques the hierarchical relationship between creative and critical power, which challenges traditional notions of authority in literature. He argues that criticism is not subordinate to creation but essential to enabling the conditions for creation, which resonates with poststructuralist decentering of authority.	Eagleton challenges the idea that “the critical power is of lower rank than the creative” and argues for the value of criticism in enabling creation (p. 27).
Reader-Response Theory	Although Eagleton does not directly engage with Reader-Response Theory, his emphasis on criticism shaping intellectual climates implies that critics influence how texts are understood. By establishing currents of true ideas, criticism affects how readers and future critics interpret and engage with literary works.	Eagleton discusses how criticism helps create “a current of true and fresh ideas,” which impacts the way literary works are received and understood by readers and critics (p. 37).
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Debate	Eagleton contrasts Romanticism’s focus on creativity with Enlightenment ideals of reason and critical inquiry. He criticizes Romantic thinkers like Wordsworth for undervaluing criticism, suggesting that Enlightenment-style critical effort is essential for sustained creativity, thus engaging with the Romanticism-Enlightenment debate.	Wordsworth’s view of criticism as inferior to creative activity is critiqued, as Eagleton argues that the critical effort is necessary to produce substantial and long-lasting creative work (p. 27).
Humanism	Eagleton contributes to the humanist tradition by emphasizing the role of criticism in fostering intellectual growth and human perfection. He suggests that criticism helps individuals and societies to move beyond self-satisfaction and toward a more profound understanding of ideas and culture, a key tenet of humanist thought.	Eagleton states that criticism should “lead man towards perfection” by engaging with the best ideas and fostering an intellectual climate that values excellence (p. 37).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Example of Critique Using Eagleton’s “The Function of Criticism”
William Wordsworth’s “The Prelude”	Critique would focus on how Wordsworth’s poetry could have benefited from a richer intellectual atmosphere. Eagleton suggests that Wordsworth, despite his creative genius, lacked a broader engagement with literature, especially German thinkers like Goethe, which limited the philosophical depth and variety of his poetic thought.
Lord Byron’s “Don Juan”	Eagleton would critique Byron’s work for its lack of critical foundation, arguing that while Byron possessed strong creative power, his poetry lacks the intellectual rigor and knowledge of life and the world that would sustain it. The absence of a strong critical environment left Byron’s work comparatively “empty of matter.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s “Faust”	Eagleton praises Goethe as an example of how strong critical engagement enriches creative output. Goethe’s work, particularly “Faust,” would be seen as nourished by his intellectual engagement with life, literature, and criticism. Goethe’s wide-ranging learning and synthesis of ideas serve as a model for how criticism fosters enduring creativity.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound”	Shelley’s poetry, like Byron’s, would be critiqued for its incoherence, which Eagleton might attribute to a lack of sufficient critical foundation. Although rich in passion and energy, Shelley’s work suffers from an intellectual environment that failed to fully engage with the complexities of modern thought, making his poetry less coherent and less enduring.

Criticism Against “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Ideas: Critics argue that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere is excessive, neglecting the importance of other factors such as social, cultural, and historical contexts in shaping literary production.
2. Underestimation of Creative Intuition: Some contend that Eagleton downplays the role of intuition and creative genius in literary creation. They argue that great works of art often emerge from subconscious impulses rather than conscious intellectual effort.
3. Historical Specificity: Critics have questioned the generalizability of Eagleton’s claims. They argue that his observations about the relationship between criticism and creativity may not hold true in all historical and cultural contexts.
4. Limited Definition of Criticism: Eagleton’s definition of criticism as “the free play of the mind on all subjects” has been criticized as overly narrow. Some argue that criticism can also involve other forms of engagement, such as interpretation, evaluation, and social commentary.
5. Neglect of Power Dynamics: Critics have suggested that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere overlooks the power dynamics that shape literary production and reception. They argue that factors such as class, race, and gender can significantly influence the production and consumption of literature.
6. Overemphasis on Western Canon: Some critics have accused Eagleton of privileging Western literature and Western intellectual traditions. They argue that his analysis does not adequately account for the diverse literary traditions and critical practices found around the world.

Representative Quotations from “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The critical power is of lower rank than the creative. True; but…men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art.”	Eagleton acknowledges that creative work is often valued more than criticism but argues that critical activity also involves creativity, as it engages with intellectual ideas and helps shape the conditions for future creativity.
“Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims.”	Eagleton stresses that criticism should remain detached from political, practical, and material interests. This disinterestedness allows criticism to focus purely on intellectual growth and avoid being manipulated by external pressures or interests.
“Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more.”	Criticism’s primary role is to disseminate and understand the best knowledge and ideas available. Eagleton suggests that it must stay within its own domain and not become involved in broader political or practical applications.
“It is the business of the critical power…to see the object as in itself it really is.”	This statement reflects Eagleton’s belief that criticism should strive to understand works of literature and art in their purest form, without distorting them to fit preconceived notions, ideologies, or practical agendas.
“The exercise of creative power in the production of great works of literature…is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible.”	Eagleton argues that not all historical moments are ripe for great creative works. The conditions necessary for such works—such as the intellectual atmosphere and critical foundation—must be in place, and these are shaped by criticism.
“Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps…when criticism has done its work.”	Eagleton asserts that criticism often precedes periods of creative flourishing. The critical analysis and circulation of ideas help to build the intellectual climate that fosters the production of great literary works.
“The grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.”	Here, Eagleton defines the role of literary creation as combining and presenting ideas rather than discovering new ideas, which he views as more of a philosophical endeavor. Critics help by making those ideas available for synthesis by creative geniuses.
“A free play of the mind upon all subjects, being an essential provider of elements, without which a nation’s spirit must, in the long run, die of inanition.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the intellectual freedom to explore ideas is crucial for the health of a society’s culture and spirit. Without such freedom, both the creative and critical faculties will stagnate.
“Men may have the sense of exercising free creative activity in criticising.”	Eagleton reframes the role of criticism by suggesting that, although it is often seen as secondary to creation, it too is a form of creative engagement. Critics can exercise their intellectual faculties in meaningful and innovative ways.
“Disinterestedness…means simply keeping aloof from what is called ‘the practical view of things.'”	Eagleton stresses the need for criticism to be objective and detached, focused solely on the intellectual and artistic value of works rather than their practical applications or immediate societal benefits. This helps criticism remain pure in its purpose.

Suggested Readings: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Arnold, Matthew. The Function of Criticism at the Present Time. Cambridge University Press, 2005. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511802072.006.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
3. Habermas, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. MIT Press, 1989.
   https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262581080/the-structural-transformation-of-the-public-sphere/
4. Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Methuen, 1980.
   https://www.routledge.com/Critical-Practice/Belsey/p/book/9780415329266
5. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780-1950. Columbia University Press, 1983.
   https://cup.columbia.edu/book/culture-and-society/9780231057011
6. Said, Edward W. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Harvard University Press, 1983.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674961876
7. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
   https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/

Introduction: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory, marking a shift away from traditional approaches and embracing a more politically conscious and interdisciplinary perspective. Eagleton’s essay challenges the notion of English literature as a unified and timeless body of work, instead arguing that it is a socially constructed discourse shaped by historical, political, and economic forces. This groundbreaking insight has had a profound impact on the field of literary studies, inspiring scholars to examine literature within broader cultural and ideological contexts.

Summary of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

• Colonial Modernism as a Literary Revolt
  Eagleton explores how Irish and American writers like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used their outsider status to challenge and transform English literary traditions. These writers, free from the emotional ties to England, “objectify and appropriate” its traditions to their own ends, positioning themselves both “inside and outside” the dominant discourse. This allowed for a “profoundly dialogical” form of modernism, where peripheral figures like Joyce and Synge exploited English conventions while subtly mocking them. As Eagleton notes, modernist writers “revealingly inhabit English culture” but maintain a critical distance from it.
• English Literary Tradition as Imperialist and Nationalist
  The Victorian era’s English literature reflected the anxieties of the imperial middle class, attempting to establish a unified national identity. However, this identity was challenged by three interrelated events: World War I, modernism, and shifts in capitalist production. Eagleton argues that modern English literature “was violently assailed” by these global forces, creating a tension between national cultural formations and a rising internationalism. This led to English literary criticism adopting a regressive stance, turning back toward an “imaginary past” rather than engaging with the radical modernist movement.
• Modernism vs. Englishness
  Eagleton discusses how modernism, rooted in cosmopolitanism and transgression, collided with English nationalism. He draws a distinction between modernism’s borderless, international vision and the insular, reactionary nature of the English literary establishment, represented by figures like F.R. Leavis. The struggle of modernism to find acceptance in England is explained by the nation’s “resistance to subversive cultural forms” and its focus on maintaining national identity through literary realism and liberal empiricism. This resulted in modernism being seen as a foreign aberration and pushed to the margins of English culture.
• The Decline of Empire and the Collapse of “Englishness”
  Eagleton posits that English literature’s global significance was buttressed by the reach of the British Empire, which allowed the English language to “subsume all regional particularities” and position itself as a universal medium. However, with the decline of empire, English literature began to lose its global guarantee. Eagleton refers to this as the “pathetic farce” of Commonwealth Literature, marking the diminishing global relevance of English literature. The “loss of empire” marked a significant blow to the cultural ideology of Englishness.
• Postmodernism and the Erosion of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton highlights how postmodernism has further threatened the ideology of “Englishness.” He identifies the audio-visual dominance of contemporary culture as symptomatic of this threat, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs traditional literary forms, it also exposes the “increasing irrelevance” of English literary discourse. Eagleton notes the irony that postmodern theories of cultural relativism and intertextuality have arisen at a time when Englishness is “culturally speaking, pretty much like North America,” stripped of its unique identity and authenticity.
• Theory as the New Battleground
  In the absence of a vibrant national literature, Eagleton argues that critical theory has become the new space for contesting cultural and political ideas. He draws a parallel between the earlier struggles of modernism and contemporary theory, suggesting that the debates over “high modernism” are being re-enacted within literary criticism today. The rise of theory represents a shift away from traditional Englishness and towards a more international, politically charged discourse.

Quotations:

1. “It is the colonised and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”
2. “English literature was violently assailed by three phenomena: the Great War, the explosion of modernism, and the mutation of the capitalist mode of production.”
3. “Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Context
Modernism	A movement in literature and the arts characterized by a break with traditional forms.	Eagleton examines how modernist writers like Joyce and Eliot, positioned outside the English tradition, challenged and subverted its conventions, bringing in international and cosmopolitan elements.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	Eagleton connects the rise of English literature with British imperialism and shows how colonized writers used the English language to critique and subvert imperial culture.
Liberal Humanism	An ideology that emphasizes the autonomy of the individual, moral values, and universal truths.	Eagleton argues that the English literary tradition is steeped in liberal humanism, which is increasingly irrelevant in the postmodern and post-colonial world.
Postmodernism	A cultural, artistic, and literary movement characterized by a rejection of traditional narratives, embracing relativism and fragmentation.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, poses a significant threat to the ideology of “Englishness,” especially as it undermines fixed narratives and notions of cultural stability.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality.	Eagleton highlights the cosmopolitan nature of modernist writers, who transcended national boundaries and engaged with diverse literary traditions.
Parody	A work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work, often as a form of critique.	Eagleton describes how modernist writers like Joyce parodied English literary conventions, using them as tools to both inhabit and critique English culture.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.	Eagleton links the rise of English literature and its academic study to the British Empire’s desire to create a cohesive national identity, now challenged by post-colonial and global developments.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over others, culturally, politically, or ideologically.	Eagleton sees the English literary tradition as an expression of bourgeois, imperial hegemony, which is now being undermined by modernist and postmodernist forces.
Avant-garde	Works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, particularly in art and literature.	Eagleton discusses how modernist writers, operating from the margins, adopted avant-garde techniques to break away from bourgeois and imperialist literary traditions.
Nativism	A policy or belief that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants or colonizers.	Eagleton refers to the conservative reaction of English critics who sought to defend “native” Englishness against the perceived threats of modernist cosmopolitanism and colonial influence.
Discourse	Written or spoken communication, often associated with power structures and ideologies.	Eagleton examines the “discourse” of English literature as a form of cultural power, historically used to support imperialism and liberal humanism.
Cultural Relativism	The idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than judged against the criteria of another.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, embraces cultural relativism, challenging the universalizing tendencies of liberal humanism and the English literary tradition.
Realism	A literary movement aimed at representing everyday experiences and conditions as they are, without idealization or romanticism.	Eagleton argues that English literature’s traditional attachment to realism was a defense against the disruptive forces of modernism and the declining empire.
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding between nations.	Eagleton identifies modernism’s internationalism as opposed to the insular nature of the English literary tradition, which sought to preserve a national cultural identity.
Aesthetic Elitism	The belief that certain art forms, styles, or cultural products are inherently superior to others.	Eagleton critiques how modernist and colonial writers often became isolated due to their aesthetic elitism, resulting from their marginalized cultural positions.

Contribution of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “The End of English”	Key Concepts from Eagleton’s Text
Ulysses by James Joyce	Eagleton would view Ulysses as a quintessential example of a colonial modernist work, where Joyce, a peripheral Irish writer, subverts and appropriates the English language. Joyce’s complex narrative form challenges imperialist traditions of language and identity.	– Modernism – Colonial Modernism – Subversion of English Literary Tradition
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s The Waste Land embodies the modernist breakdown of national and cultural boundaries. Eagleton might critique Eliot’s cosmopolitan approach, where fragments of different cultures are appropriated and integrated, reflecting the collapse of English cultural hegemony.	– Cosmopolitanism – Breakdown of National Formations – Modernism’s Challenge to “Englishness”
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Eagleton might argue that Waiting for Godot exemplifies the post-colonial condition of alienation from one’s own language. Beckett, an Irish writer, writes in French, signaling the dislocation of identity and language central to modernism and post-colonialism.	– Disinheritance from Mother Tongue – Post-Colonial Alienation – Modernist Deracination
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Through Eagleton’s lens, Mrs Dalloway can be critiqued for its bourgeois liberal humanism, focusing on the internal consciousness of individuals. Eagleton would argue that Woolf’s modernist technique remains anchored in the subjective experience of the imperial center.	– Liberal Humanism – Bourgeois Consciousness – Resistance to Radical Modernist Subversion of Imperial Norms

Criticism Against “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Ideology:Critics argue that Eagleton focuses too heavily on the political and ideological implications of literature, often overshadowing aesthetic and literary qualities. This Marxist approach reduces literature to merely a tool for class struggle and imperialist critique, ignoring the artistic innovations and individual expressions in the works he critiques.
2. Reductionist View of English Literature: Eagleton’s argument that English literature is primarily a product of Victorian imperialism and bourgeois ideology is seen as reductionist by some scholars. They claim that this perspective overlooks the diversity of English literary traditions, which include dissenting voices and works critical of empire and nationalism.
3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Voices: While Eagleton discusses postcolonialism and the subversion of the English literary tradition, some critics suggest that he doesn’t fully engage with postcolonial writers from non-Western regions. His focus remains on Irish, American, and European modernists, neglecting voices from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.
4. Neglect of Feminist Perspectives: Eagleton’s critique largely overlooks feminist perspectives in literature, failing to engage with how gender intersects with imperialism and modernism. Scholars argue that his analysis of works like Mrs. Dalloway underplays the role of gender in shaping narratives of identity and alienation within English literature.
5. Postmodernism Critique Oversimplified: Some critics claim that Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernism as a threat to “Englishness” lacks nuance. They argue that postmodernism is more than just a critique of national identity; it offers valuable insights into fragmentation, plurality, and the complexities of cultural production in a globalized world.
6. Binary Between National and Cosmopolitan Literature: Eagleton establishes a rigid binary between English national literature and modernist cosmopolitanism. Critics argue that this dichotomy oversimplifies the relationship between local and global influences in literature, failing to recognize how even English writers were shaped by cosmopolitan movements and global exchanges.
7. Nostalgic for Marxist Criticism: Some critics view Eagleton’s critique as overly nostalgic for the Marxist critical tradition, particularly his longing for the kind of politically engaged criticism associated with movements like Scrutiny. This focus on a specific type of Marxist literary criticism is seen as outdated in a more pluralistic academic environment.

Representative Quotations from “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”	Eagleton argues that writers from colonized or peripheral nations, such as Ireland and America, have taken over the English literary tradition, challenging the imperial center by appropriating and subverting its language and conventions.
“English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”	Eagleton critiques how English literature, as a discipline, emerged from imperialist and bourgeois concerns, particularly in the Victorian era, where it was used to forge a cohesive national identity and justify colonial domination.
“Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”	This highlights how modernist writers broke down traditional boundaries, not just in literary form but in cultural and political spheres, moving away from the rigid nationalisms that defined English literary tradition and embracing cosmopolitanism.
“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”	Eagleton argues that the British Empire allowed English literature to resist modernism’s destabilizing forces. The global reach of the English language enabled the country to maintain its cultural hegemony even as modernist and internationalist movements threatened national boundaries.
“Post-modernism, whether it knows it or not, is the appropriate coding of this real historical situation.”	Eagleton suggests that postmodernism reflects the current historical condition, particularly the disintegration of national and imperial identities, and the global commodification of culture. It captures the fragmented, decentered nature of contemporary capitalism.
“Liberal humanism, already in the process of being historically superseded, remains the major subjacent ideology of English studies.”	He critiques how liberal humanism—focused on universal values and individual morality—continues to dominate English literary studies, even though it has become irrelevant in the face of modern and postmodern cultural shifts.
“The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”	This emphasizes the paradox of capitalism, where national identities are manipulated to maintain political control, while global economic activities erode those very identities, creating a tension within capitalist societies.
“The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”	Eagleton points out that in the postmodern age, the concept of “native Englishness” is no longer tenable, and this collapse clarifies the cultural and ideological conflicts between global capitalism and its political opponents.
“Criticism confronts the unenviable destiny of becoming its own avant-garde, doubly estranged from its contemporary cultural moment.”	Eagleton argues that English literary criticism has become increasingly disconnected from contemporary cultural production. In trying to preserve past traditions while opposing modernism, criticism has become an avant-garde movement of its own, detached from the realities of current culture.
“The experiences of both modernism and colonialism were kept at bay, but in the latest historical irony now offer to repossess the metropolitan culture from inside in the shape of post-modernism.”	Eagleton identifies a historical irony: while English literature resisted both modernism and colonialism, these forces have now returned in the form of postmodernism to challenge and undermine the core ideologies of English culture from within.

Suggested Readings: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
2. ___ After Theory. Basic Books, 2004.
3. ___ Culture and the Death of God. Yale University Press, 2014.
4. ___ The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
5. ___ The Function of Criticism. Verso, 2005.
6. ___ The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. ___ Why Marx Was Right. Yale University Press, 2011.
   
   

Introduction: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1998 in the journal Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. This article holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its critical examination of the term “postcolonialism” itself. Eagleton challenges the assumptions and limitations of the concept, arguing that it often obscures rather than illuminates the complex realities of postcolonial experiences. His essay has sparked important debates and continues to influence discussions on postcolonial theory and its applications.  

Summary of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Critique of the Term “Postcolonialism”:
   • Eagleton opens by emphasizing how postcolonial theorists often start by questioning the very concept of postcolonialism. The term is viewed as oversimplified, falsely homogeneous, and problematic in addressing ongoing forms of colonization, both direct and indirect.
   • He asserts that postcolonialism is criticized for presenting a chronological issue where the colonial condition still persists. It “suggests a confident posteriority to a condition which still prevails in transformed guise” (Eagleton, 1998).
2. Distinction Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton differentiates between two forms of postcolonialism: the political-economic reality of former colonies and the academic, theoretical construct labeled ‘postcolonialism’.
   • The latter has its roots in Western intellectual history and operates within the scope of modern theoretical concepts. “‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish western theoretical concepts” (Eagleton, 1998).
3. Hostility Toward Essentialism:
   • A major aspect of ‘postcolonialism’ is its hostility to essentialism, which includes the rejection of a universal human nature. Postcolonialists reject liberal humanist ideals that generalize human experiences, preferring to focus on cultural differences.
   • Eagleton challenges this approach by pointing out its inherent contradictions, such as replacing one form of essentialism with another when cultural difference is emphasized over universal humanity.
4. Criticism of Key ‘Postcolonial’ Concepts:
   • Concepts such as hybridity, non-exclusivity, and openness to the Other are integral to ‘postcolonialism’. However, Eagleton argues that such ideals can be hypocritical because they implicitly assume the value of a common humanity, a notion they outwardly reject.
   • Furthermore, Eagleton notes that not all forms of hybridity or difference are positive, citing examples such as exclusionary nationalist movements (Mussolini vs. Mozambique).
5. Rejection of Totalities:
   • Eagleton critiques postcolonial theorists for their rejection of systematic thinking and totalities. He points out that, in the real world, social and economic systems are interconnected and can have widespread consequences (e.g., a crisis in Asia affecting the West).
   • He criticizes postcolonialism for ignoring this reality, stating that the dismissal of totalities is a weakness in the face of global economic and political interconnectedness.
6. Suppression of Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton accuses ‘postcolonialism’ of sidelining class struggle in favor of cultural identity politics. He notes that postcolonial discourse has played a role in displacing socialist ideas and class-based political movements.
   • The focus on cultural identity, he argues, has emerged partly due to the difficulty of addressing more significant political conflicts in the West.
7. Culturalism and Political Ethic:
   • Eagleton views ‘postcolonialism’ as a form of culturalism that inflates the importance of cultural factors in global politics. He critiques the tendency to focus on identity and marginality rather than on economic issues such as trade agreements and military alliances.
   • He suggests that the acknowledgment of cultural difference, while necessary, should not overshadow the broader ethical imperative of human solidarity and reciprocity.
8. Conclusion – The Conflict Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton concludes by calling for a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’, arguing that while openness, dialogue, and hybridization are important, ‘postcolonialism’—as the theoretical construct—should ultimately “lose out.”
   • He emphasizes that solidarity and coherence in political action are necessary for addressing real-world inequalities, implying that the academic focus on cultural hybridity is insufficient.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Postcolonialism	Refers to the political, cultural, and economic conditions of former colonies after they gained independence, often addressing the lingering effects of colonialism.	“There is obviously a lot of the globe which used to be colonized directly and is now colonized by other means…” (Eagleton, 1998)
‘Postcolonialism’	A theoretical framework, rooted in Western intellectual history, that critically examines postcolonial conditions using contemporary concepts such as hybridity, identity, and cultural difference. This version is more abstract and controversial.	“At the same time, there is a particular theoretical agenda known as ‘postcolonialism’…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Essentialism	The belief in an intrinsic, unchanging human nature or characteristics. In postcolonial theory, it is rejected as a means of suppressing cultural difference and homogenizing identities.	“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Hybridity	A key concept in postcolonial theory, hybridity refers to the mixing of cultures, identities, and ideas resulting from colonial encounters. Postcolonialists often view this as positive, but Eagleton questions its universal virtue.	“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Non-exclusivity	The idea that identities or cultures are not rigidly defined and can be open to multiple influences. This concept is aligned with the postcolonial emphasis on fluidity and rejection of fixed categories.	“Non-exclusivity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Multiplicity	Refers to the postcolonial idea that identities and realities are plural, diverse, and cannot be reduced to singular narratives.	“Multiplicity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Transgressiveness	A postcolonial term denoting the act of crossing cultural, social, or political boundaries, often associated with resistance to established norms and power structures.	“Take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of… transgressiveness…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Culturalism	A concept Eagleton critiques, where cultural factors are given disproportionate importance in explaining global inequalities, often sidelining economic and political dimensions.	“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism, which inflates the significance of cultural factors in human affairs.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Anti-Essentialism	The rejection of the idea of a universal human nature or essence. Postcolonialists often argue that this view allows for the recognition of cultural difference without resorting to generalizations.	“A fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’… means rejecting the idea of a general common humanity, or human nature, as a liberal humanist stratagem for suppressing cultural difference.” (1998)

Contribution of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critiques the Term “Postcolonialism”:
  • It oversimplifies diverse situations (Bullet point 1).
  • It suggests a false sense of “post” – colonialism still exists in new forms (Bullet point 2).
  • It focuses on trendy Western theories instead of the realities of postcolonial societies (Bullet point 3).
• Distinguishes Between “Postcolonialism” and “‘Postcolonialism'”:
  • “Postcolonialism” refers to the actual state of former colonies (exploitation by new means) (Bullet point 1).
  • “‘Postcolonialism'” refers to a specific theoretical approach with limitations (Bullet point 3).
• Highlights Issues with “‘Postcolonialist'” Theory:
  • Overemphasis on cultural factors and identity over economic realities (Bullet points 4 & 5).
  • Disdain for class struggle as a concept (Bullet point 6).
  • Neglect of global power structures like the IMF (Bullet point 5).
  • Preference for celebrating difference over human solidarity (Bullet point 5).

Overall Argument:

Eagleton argues that “‘postcolonialism'” theory, while well-intentioned, suffers from limitations. It prioritizes trendy Western ideas and cultural factors over the harsh realities of ongoing economic exploitation faced by former colonies. He suggests a more nuanced approach that acknowledges both cultural complexities and the importance of class struggle and global economic structures.

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Using Eagleton’s Concepts	Relevant Concept
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Eagleton’s critique would focus on the way Conrad presents a Eurocentric perspective of Africa, where colonial subjects are either marginalized or dehumanized. While postcolonialism addresses this imbalance, ‘postcolonialism’ might analyze it through modern theoretical constructs like hybridity and cultural difference.	Eurocentrism, Hybridity
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Eagleton would likely praise the novel for exposing the consequences of colonialism, particularly its psychological impact on the colonized, while critiquing ‘postcolonialism’ for overly theoretical discussions on identity politics and hybridity that may overshadow material concerns like class and economic exploitation.	Culturalism vs. Class Struggle
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Eagleton would acknowledge Achebe’s exploration of colonial disruption in traditional African society but might critique ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too heavily on cultural identity, potentially overlooking the broader economic systems of exploitation highlighted in the novel.	Cultural Identity, Class Struggle
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Eagleton might critique Forster’s novel for presenting cultural encounters between British and Indian characters through a lens of essentialism and cultural difference. While postcolonialism addresses this, ‘postcolonialism’ may overly focus on hybridity and dialogue, downplaying the material inequalities of the British Empire.	Essentialism, Hybridity vs. Materialism

Criticism Against “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Oversimplification of Postcolonialism:
   • Critics argue that Eagleton oversimplifies the vast and complex field of postcolonial theory by reducing it to a binary between postcolonial reality and ‘postcolonial’ theoretical abstraction.
2. Dismissal of Cultural Identity Politics:
   • Eagleton’s critique of postcolonialism as a form of “culturalism” is seen as dismissive of the significance of cultural identity in postcolonial struggles. Critics contend that he undermines the importance of recognizing marginalized identities and their fight against cultural hegemony.
3. Excessive Focus on Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton’s emphasis on class struggle as the primary lens for analyzing postcolonial societies is criticized for being overly Marxist, neglecting the specificities of race, ethnicity, and culture, which are central to postcolonial analysis.
4. Inadequate Engagement with Postcolonial Theorists:
   • Some critics suggest that Eagleton does not engage deeply enough with key postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, or Homi Bhabha, whose works are foundational in shaping the field of postcolonial studies.
5. Undervaluation of Hybridity and Difference:
   • Eagleton’s skepticism toward concepts like hybridity, multiplicity, and transgressiveness is seen by some as reactionary. Postcolonial theorists argue that these ideas are crucial for understanding the fluid, dynamic identities and conditions of postcolonial societies.
6. Neglect of Global Economic and Political Systems:
   • Although Eagleton criticizes ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing on cultural factors, some critics point out that his essay itself lacks substantive analysis of the global economic and political systems that sustain neocolonialism.
7. Elitism and Overly Theoretical Approach:
   • Eagleton’s language and critique are sometimes viewed as elitist, catering more to an academic audience and lacking practical relevance for real-world postcolonial struggles and movements.
8. Binary Opposition Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Critics argue that the binary opposition between postcolonialism (as reality) and ‘postcolonialism’ (as theory) in Eagleton’s essay is artificial, as both aspects are interrelated and influence each other.
9. Minimization of the Role of Cultural Studies:
   • Eagleton’s critique downplays the role of cultural studies in postcolonialism, which has been instrumental in exploring how colonial power is exercised not just politically and economically but also through culture, media, and representation.

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There must surely be in existence somewhere a secret handbook for aspiring postcolonial theorists…”	Eagleton humorously critiques the formulaic nature of postcolonial writing, where theorists begin by questioning the legitimacy of the term “postcolonialism.”
“The term ‘postcolonialism’ won’t do because it falsely homogenizes a set of diverse conditions…”	Eagleton points out the flaws in the term “postcolonialism,” arguing that it simplifies and generalizes complex historical and cultural situations.
“There is something called postcolonialism and … something called ‘postcolonialism’ too.”	He makes a distinction between the real political-economic conditions of postcolonial societies and the theoretical, intellectual construct labeled ‘postcolonialism.’
“‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish concepts.”	Eagleton critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for relying heavily on trendy Western theoretical concepts rather than focusing on concrete material conditions.
“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism.'”	This highlights the postcolonial rejection of universal human nature and emphasis on cultural difference, a key critique Eagleton engages with.
“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity, transgressiveness…”	Eagleton challenges the overuse of concepts like hybridity and multiplicity in ‘postcolonialism,’ arguing that they are often applied without critical examination of their actual value in specific contexts.
“Not all differences are positive, not all exclusions are pathological.”	Eagleton warns that the celebration of difference in postcolonial theory can be simplistic, and some exclusions, such as rejecting harmful ideologies, can be necessary.
“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism…”	He critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too much on cultural identity and symbolism while neglecting larger material and economic realities, which he views as more pressing in global power dynamics.
“Class struggle is now embarrassingly passé, whereas the affirmation of cultural identity is not.”	Eagleton points out that ‘postcolonialism’ has shifted attention away from class-based political struggles to cultural identity, which he believes is a less urgent political focus in many postcolonial contexts.
“It would be enheartening… to see this welcome new journal staging a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’.”	Eagleton encourages a critical dialogue between the real conditions of postcolonialism and the theoretical concerns of ‘postcolonialism,’ calling for a more grounded approach to addressing global inequalities.

Suggested Readings: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204
2. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.
   https://archive.org/details/orientalism00said
4. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674177642
5. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
   https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648
6. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
   https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Postcolonialism%3A+An+Historical+Introduction-p-9780631200693
7. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
   https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth00fanorich
8. “Postcolonial Studies @ Emory.” Emory University.
   http://postcolonialstudies.emory.edu/
9. “Postcolonial Web.” National University of Singapore.
   http://www.postcolonialweb.org/
10. Huggan, Graham. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins. Routledge, 2001.
    https://www.routledge.com/The-Postcolonial-Exotic-Marketing-the-Margins/Huggan/p/book/9780415207270

Introduction: “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

“The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared on the pages of the influential journal Cultural Critique in the winter of 1985-1986. This groundbreaking piece, published in the second issue of the journal, significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the complex relationship between the subject and the literary text challenged prevailing assumptions and offered a new perspective on the role of literature in shaping our understanding of the world.

Summary of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

1. Introduction to the Context
   Terry Eagleton introduces the essay’s context, aimed at educators grappling with applying modern cultural theory in British schools, particularly those in multiracial, working-class urban areas. He outlines how English literature is being taught through a critical lens in a pedagogical framework aimed at rethinking traditional ideologies.
   “The struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)
2. Production of Subjects and Subjectivity
   Eagleton argues that society produces human subjects through various institutions like the family, church, and school. Literature plays a significant role in producing “subjectivities” – ways of being that align with societal needs. The creation of subjects is thus historically contingent, just like the production of goods.
   “There is a history of techniques for the production and reproduction of human subjects.” (p. 96)
3. Literature as a ‘Moral Technology’
   Eagleton introduces the idea of literature as a “moral technology,” which shapes and assesses subjective emotional and moral responses, often in ways that serve social control. Literature, in this framework, molds subjects to conform to societal norms.
   “The particular function of a moral technology is to map, measure, assess, and certify the emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity.” (p. 97)
4. Depoliticizing Subjectivity
   The essay emphasizes how literature, particularly in liberal humanist education, creates a depoliticized form of subjectivity, which is an end in itself. This subjectivity may appear free and autonomous but is subtly bound to capitalist ideologies, presenting itself as a form of control.
   “We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)
5. Literature as Formalism
   Eagleton discusses literature as a form of “moral formalism,” where the focus is not on specific moral content but on the cultivation of sensibility, imagination, and creativity. These traits are seen as universal values that are abstract and detached from any concrete political or social reality.
   “Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)
6. Liberal Humanism’s Ideological Function
   Liberal humanism, Eagleton argues, masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity. However, this growth is constrained within a political framework that prioritizes maintaining the existing social order. Literature, under this ideology, fosters a form of subjectivity that aligns with capitalist society.
   “Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)
7. Contradictions in Liberal Humanism
   Eagleton points out that liberal humanism is self-contradictory in its desire for peace, justice, and personal growth, while simultaneously failing to address the necessary conflicts and breaks required to achieve these goals. Liberal humanism favors gradualism, ignoring the transformative potential of political action.
   “Liberal humanism appears to speak only of growth, gradualism, evolutionary continuity.” (p. 102)
8. Critique of ‘Immediate Experience’
   Eagleton criticizes the liberal humanist emphasis on “immediate experience” as abstract and detached from political reality. He argues that every experience is shaped by social and historical contexts, making the notion of pure personal growth or experience nonsensical outside a political framework.
   “‘Immediate experience’ in itself is nothing; it is only by the political interpretation of experience that existence becomes fruitful.” (p. 103)
9. Language and Power
   Eagleton concludes by noting that language is not merely a medium for creative exploration but a tool of power and struggle. He warns that the liberal humanist view of language and literature as tools for personal enrichment ignores their role in political and social conflicts.
   “Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Moral Technology	A set of practices and techniques in literature aimed at shaping and instilling specific moral values and behaviors in individuals.	“A moral technology consists of a particular set of techniques and practices for the instilling of specific kinds of value, discipline, behaviour…” (p. 97)
Subjectivity	The way human subjects are produced and shaped by social institutions like literature, forming an individual’s internal self.	“The production of subjects/subjectivities is just as historically relative and changing as the production of economic goods.” (p. 96)
Depoliticized Subjectivity	A form of subjectivity created by literature that appears to be autonomous but is actually bound to societal control mechanisms.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized…this form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity.” (p. 99)
Liberal Humanism	A literary ideology that values individual growth, creativity, and personal experience, but which conceals its support for the status quo.	“Liberal humanism works as a literary ideology…believing as they do that it is the one enclave of freedom.” (p. 100)
Literary Formalism	The emphasis on the aesthetic and emotional response to literature, rather than its specific moral or political content.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)
Imaginative Sympathy	A concept in liberal humanism that stresses empathetic understanding of others’ experiences, often abstracted from political context.	“‘Imaginative sympathy’ in itself is nothing…Only when imbued with a specific social and historical content can we know what we are arguing about.” (p. 104)
Kantian Morality	Refers to Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, which focuses on formal moral principles without specifying particular ethical content.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…treat others as ends not means, universalise your actions…which could be given a whole number of specific historical contents.” (p. 98)
Cultural Theory	Contemporary theoretical approaches to analyzing literature, focusing on how culture and power shape the production and reception of texts.	“Modern critical ideas translated into terms intelligible to children and televisually attractive.” (p. 95)
Creative Transformation	The idea that genuine change in society comes not from gradual growth but from conflict and radical breaks with the status quo.	“There is one major way in which men and women in our society have over the years experienced creative transformation…at the end of a policeman’s truncheon.” (p. 104)

Contribution of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton  to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Contribution by Eagleton	Quotation/Reference
Marxist Literary Criticism	Eagleton argues that literature is a form of “moral technology” that shapes subjectivities according to the needs of the dominant social order. He critiques how liberal humanism conceals power relations in literature.	“What these techniques at once map and produce…are certain forms of value and response” (p. 97); “Liberal humanism… masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity” (p. 100).
Ideology Critique	Eagleton’s essay analyzes how literature functions ideologically to produce depoliticized subjects. He critiques the illusion of literary subjectivity being “free” when it is, in fact, bound to capitalist ideology.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all” (p. 99); “This is what is meant by saying that in a liberal capitalist society we are now ‘free.'” (p. 99).
Post-structuralism	The essay challenges the liberal humanist view of literature as a space for universal moral truths and emphasizes that subjectivity itself is socially constructed, contingent, and political.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order” (p. 99); “What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility.” (p. 100).
Formalism (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism, which values the aesthetic and emotional response over the political or moral content of literature. He argues that this formalism ultimately serves the interests of the ruling class.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object… Literature is a formalism.” (p. 99).
Kantian Morality (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques the Kantian notion of morality as abstract and formal, arguing that it resonates in the depoliticized, contentless subjectivity fostered by literature in capitalist society.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…could be given a whole number of specific historical contents” (p. 98); “What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99).
Critical Pedagogy	The essay highlights the political implications of teaching literature and critiques how literature education in schools shapes students’ subjectivities in ways that conform to the needs of capitalist society.	“We do not teach our children to revere water-sprites or regard authority as evil because these responses would be naturally disruptive of our particular social order.” (p. 98).
Cultural Studies	Eagleton emphasizes that literature is a cultural product that serves social and political functions, rather than an isolated aesthetic experience. This aligns with the focus of cultural studies on power and ideology.	“Literature is a technology… for mapping, measuring, assessing and certifying emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity” (p. 97).
Post-Marxism	Eagleton’s arguments engage with the post-Marxist critique of culture, emphasizing the constructed nature of subjectivity and the ideological role of literature in reproducing capitalist values.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100).

Key Contributions:

1. Marxist Critique of Literature and Subjectivity
   Eagleton expands on Marxist theory by arguing that literature is instrumental in producing subjectivities that align with the needs of capitalist society. He critiques how literature depoliticizes the subject and hides power relations. “Any society will produce those modes of subjectivity which it deems in general appropriate to the furtherance of its own ends.” (p. 98)
2. Critique of Liberal Humanism
   Eagleton’s analysis challenges the liberal humanist belief in the autonomy of literature and the individual. He exposes how literature, under this ideology, actually serves capitalist interests by creating subjects who are supposedly “free” but are, in fact, shaped by dominant ideologies. “This form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity – which is to say, the place where we are bound most firmly to the capitalist social order.” (p. 99)
3. Post-structuralist Influence
   Eagleton’s notion that subjectivity is socially constructed rather than innate aligns with post-structuralist ideas about the instability of meaning and the role of power in shaping identity. He critiques the “universal” subjectivity promoted by liberal humanism. “The very form of our subjection lies in our trust in a subjectivity transcendental of all determinations.” (p. 100)
4. Critique of Aesthetic Formalism
   Eagleton critiques the literary tradition that privileges form over content, suggesting that this detachment from political and social realities helps maintain the existing social order. “The task of the moral technology of Literature is to produce an historically peculiar form of human subject who is sensitive, receptive, imaginative and so on… about nothing in particular.” (p. 99)
5. Pedagogical Implications
   By addressing how literature is taught in schools, Eagleton contributes to critical pedagogy, arguing that education in literature shapes students into subjects that conform to the existing social order. “In this ideological climate, the struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton  

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Theories	Key Concepts from Eagleton
King Lear by William Shakespeare	Eagleton argues that although King Lear contains themes of solidarity with the oppressed, liberal humanist readings often fail to transform these moral insights into political action. The play is instead interpreted as fostering a personal emotional experience, depoliticizing its revolutionary potential.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	From an Eagletonian perspective, Pride and Prejudice can be seen as reinforcing bourgeois subjectivity by promoting values of social decorum, individual growth, and personal morality that align with capitalist ideology. The novel trains readers to value personal virtue over systemic change, thus depoliticizing the subject.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99); “Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave…” (p. 100)
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	In Eagleton’s framework, The Great Gatsby may be critiqued as illustrating the moral emptiness of capitalist society. While the novel critiques the American Dream, it does so through a focus on personal failure and disillusionment, which leads to a depoliticized understanding of broader class conflict.	“What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value… It teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99); “The workings of the particular moral technology…” (p. 97)
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Eagleton would critique Wuthering Heights as a novel that, while engaging in complex portrayals of passion and social conflict, ultimately reinforces traditional class and gender hierarchies through its emotional focus. The readers are trained to focus on personal emotional responses rather than critically engaging with the oppressive social structures within the novel.	“What is important is just the production of a specific form of subjectivity, about which we can say… that it is sensitive, creative, imaginative and so on.” (p. 99)

Explanation of Critiques:

1. Depoliticization of Morality
   In King Lear, despite the play’s potential to inspire political solidarity with the oppressed, Eagleton’s framework critiques how literary criticism tends to focus on personal emotional responses, thereby weakening its political potential.
2. Reinforcement of Bourgeois Subjectivity
   Pride and Prejudice trains readers to embrace personal virtues and individual morality that fit into capitalist social structures, leading to the production of bourgeois subjectivity.
3. Moral Emptiness in Capitalist Society
   In The Great Gatsby, Eagleton’s perspective would highlight the way literature critiques societal ideals like the American Dream but does so by focusing on individual experiences of failure, which removes the political context of class struggle.
4. Subjectivity Focus Over Political Critique
   Wuthering Heights provides intense emotional experiences but, under Eagleton’s critique, is seen as producing subjectivity that prevents readers from questioning class and gender hierarchies, thus reinforcing oppressive social structures.

Criticism Against “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

• Overemphasis on Ideology
  Eagleton’s critique of literature as a “moral technology” shaping subjectivities primarily for social control might be seen as overly deterministic. Critics argue that not all literature operates as a tool of ideological reproduction, and many literary works foster critical thinking and social change rather than simply reinforcing dominant ideologies.
• Reduction of Literary Experience to Politics
  By focusing heavily on the political implications of literature, Eagleton might be criticized for reducing the complexity of literary experience to political and ideological dimensions. Critics could argue that Eagleton overlooks the aesthetic, emotional, and imaginative value that literature offers to readers beyond its ideological function.
• Dismissal of Individual Agency
  Eagleton’s argument that subjectivity is constructed almost entirely by social forces could be criticized for downplaying individual agency. His view might be seen as too structuralist, implying that readers have little capacity to resist or reinterpret the ideological messages embedded in literary works.
• Narrow View of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton critiques liberal humanism for its supposed role in depoliticizing subjectivity, but some might argue that this view oversimplifies the diverse and often critical perspectives within liberal humanist thought. Not all liberal humanists ignore political and social critique, and many engage with literature as a means of questioning and transforming societal norms.
• Lack of Engagement with Reader Response
  Eagleton’s essay focuses on how literature shapes subjectivity in line with social and political ideologies, but it does not adequately consider how individual readers might actively interpret, resist, or challenge these ideologies. Critics may argue that Eagleton’s analysis neglects the role of reader response theory, which emphasizes the active role of readers in constructing meaning.
• Generalization of Literature’s Role
  Eagleton’s argument that literature functions as a tool of social control may be seen as a generalization. Critics could argue that literature’s role varies widely across time periods, genres, and cultures, and that his analysis doesn’t account for this diversity or for works that actively challenge dominant power structures.
• Undermining the Aesthetic Value of Literature
  Eagleton’s focus on literature as a form of ideological control may be criticized for undermining its aesthetic value. Critics might argue that literature also serves as an art form with intrinsic value, not just as a means of shaping or controlling subjectivity within a political framework.
• Disregard for the Complexities of Literary Creation
  Some may argue that Eagleton’s view of literature as part of an ideological apparatus overlooks the creative and complex process of literary creation. Authors often engage in nuanced and multifaceted ways with their cultural and political environments, which Eagleton’s framework may not fully capture.

Representative Quotations from “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Among the various modes of production in any society, one of the most central is the mode of production of human subjects.” (p. 96)	Eagleton establishes that societies produce subjects through institutions, including literature. This highlights how literature functions within the broader social system to shape individual identities and subjectivities.
“Literature is a moral technology.” (p. 97)	This summarizes Eagleton’s argument that literature is a tool used to instill specific moral values and behaviors, often serving the interests of social control and power structures.
“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques how literature creates a form of subjectivity that appears autonomous but is actually depoliticized, serving the interests of the dominant class by disconnecting personal experiences from political contexts.
“Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)	This critique of liberal humanism suggests that it falsely portrays subjectivity as a free, internal space, while ignoring the broader social and political forces that shape individuals.
“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)	Eagleton highlights how capitalist ideology operates invisibly, creating an illusion of freedom while subtly binding individuals to the system of power and control.
“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism for prioritizing the subjective response to a work over its actual content, which can depoliticize literature by focusing on personal emotions rather than its social implications.
“What literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99)	Eagleton argues that literature does not promote specific moral values, but rather a general disposition of being moral, which he sees as problematic because it detaches morality from concrete social and political realities.
“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response… is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)	This quotation underscores Eagleton’s critique of liberal humanism: while literature may contain radical content, the form in which it is taught or received often prevents readers from translating that into political or moral action.
“What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility, indifferent to any particular moral or political contents.” (p. 100)	Eagleton critiques the liberal humanist notion of the subject as free and autonomous, arguing that this conception of subjectivity is abstract and disconnected from any real-world social or political issues.
“Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)	Eagleton stresses the dual nature of language, viewing it not only as a tool for communication and creativity but also as an instrument of power and control within social and political struggles.

Suggested Readings: “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
2. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
   https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470694192
3. Eagleton, Terry. “The Rise of English.” Falling into Theory: Conflicting Views on Reading Literature, edited by David Richter, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000, pp. 34-40.
   https://archive.org/details/fallingintotheory
4. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971.
   https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm
5. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977.
   https://archive.org/details/marxismliteratur00will
6. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010. https://archive.org/details/interpretationof0000freu

Introduction: “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

“The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1988 in the journal Poetics Today, is considered a significant contribution to the field of literature and literary theory due to its incisive analysis of the concept of aesthetics and its ideological underpinnings. Eagleton argues that aesthetics, far from being a neutral or objective category, is deeply intertwined with social, political, and economic structures. By examining the historical development of aesthetics and its relationship to various cultural and philosophical discourses, Eagleton offers a compelling critique of the notion that art and beauty are autonomous and independent of broader social concerns.

Summary of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

• Aesthetics and Power:
  • Aesthetics is not solely about art but a broader “program of social, psychical, and political reconstruction.”
  • Eagleton links aesthetics to the political concept of hegemony, stating, “It denotes instead a whole program of social, psychical and political reconstruction on the part of the early European bourgeoisie.”
• Aesthetics as a Discourse of the Body:
  • Aesthetics mediates between sensation and reason, initially introduced by Baumgarten as a “sister of logic.”
  • Aesthetics is the bridge between material life (the body, sensations) and intellectual life (reason and thoughts), addressing how reason and sensibility integrate to dominate human experience.
• Shift from Coercion to Hegemony:
  • Eagleton interprets the aesthetic as a method to “rule and inform our sensuous life from within while allowing it to thrive in all its relative autonomy,” transitioning from coercive power to consensual hegemony.
• Schiller and Aesthetic Education:
  • Friedrich Schiller’s work focuses on social hegemony, advocating for the modulation of the psyche through aesthetics, making it a subtle yet powerful force for ideological control.
  • “The aesthetic modulation of the psyche” plays a central role in softening Kant’s rigid rationalism, blending ethics and aesthetics into a cohesive system of social control.
• Aesthetics and Manners:
  • Aesthetics are involved in disciplining the body and converting morality into style. “Manners,” as Eagleton describes, are a “crucial hinge between ethics and aesthetics.”
  • Social practices become aestheticized, where “ethical ideology loses its unpleasantly coercive force and reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.”
• Aesthetic as Social Control:
  • The aesthetic subject internalizes the law as “the very principle of its free identity” and works “all by itself,” resembling the self-regulating subject in Althusser’s ideological theory.
  • Aesthetic judgments mask deeper ideological control, as noted by Eagleton, “Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation… is the aesthetic.”
• The Sublime and the Beautiful:
  • Eagleton contrasts beauty as a “consensual power” with the sublime, which is “coercive.”
  • This distinction reflects the tension between the softer, hegemonic forms of power (beauty) and more overt, authoritarian forms (sublime).
• Ideology and Aesthetic Judgment:
  • Aesthetic judgments, Eagleton argues, are “constative” but fundamentally performative and ideological, operating as emotive utterances while posing as objective truths.
  • This duality ties aesthetics to ideology, where subjective experiences are universalized and enforced as societal norms.
• Hegel and the Aestheticization of Reality:
  • Hegel sought to reconcile subjectivity and freedom with the alienation experienced by individuals in bourgeois society. He projected “subjectivity into the object itself” to achieve unity, leading to an “aestheticization of the whole of reality.”
• Aesthetics and Bourgeois Ideology:
  • Eagleton points out that bourgeois ideology uses aesthetics as a means to make the world feel more hospitable, even though bourgeois values often contradict this.
  • The aesthetic provides a sense of community and unity in bourgeois society, standing in for the failures of both the coercive state and fragmented civil society.
  • However, Eagleton notes the precariousness of this unity, commenting on how “human unity must be…rooted in nothing more resilient than the vagaries of aesthetic judgment.”
• Critique of Bourgeois Individualism:
  • Aesthetics emerges as a critique of bourgeois individualism, and while it serves as an ideological tool for the ruling class, it also offers glimpses of utopian critique, particularly in its potential for fostering empathy and shared human experience.
• Conclusion – Aesthetics and Materialism:
  • Eagleton concludes by suggesting that aesthetics, originally a “supplement to reason,” now poses a threat to reason, challenging the division between reason and sensation.
  • He foresees the next stage of aesthetic thought moving toward a materialist perspective, citing the works of Marx and Freud, who approach aesthetics from the vantage of the “laboring body” and the “desiring body.”

Key Quotations:

1. “The aesthetic, in other words, marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”
2. “Aesthetics is thus the ‘sister’ of logic, a kind of inferior feminine analogue of reason, at the level of material life.”
3. “The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”
4. “Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Argument
Aesthetics	A philosophical study of beauty and taste, focusing on the senses and emotions, particularly how they mediate our perception of art and life.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, aesthetics is framed as a project of social, political, and psychical reconstruction by the bourgeoisie, transcending mere art to serve as an ideological tool.
Hegemony	A form of power that is maintained through consensual domination rather than overt coercion.	Eagleton argues that aesthetics functions as a form of hegemony, subtly governing individuals’ sensuous life and ensuring that ideology is internalized without force.
Sublime	A concept associated with overwhelming, awe-inspiring experiences, often invoking fear or admiration.	Eagleton contrasts the “sublime” with the “beautiful” to highlight two forms of power: the sublime as coercive authority, while beauty serves as consensual, pleasurable hegemony.
Beautiful	Aesthetic judgment focused on harmony, balance, and pleasure, typically evoking a sense of consensual approval.	Represents a consensual, agreeable form of social control in Eagleton’s analysis, in contrast to the more oppressive nature of the sublime.
Ideology	A system of ideas and ideals that shapes individuals’ perceptions of reality and social structures.	Eagleton explores how aesthetics operates ideologically, shaping individuals’ internal lives, making social control seem natural and consensual.
Materialism	The philosophical belief that reality is primarily composed of physical, material elements, often contrasted with idealism or abstract concepts.	Eagleton traces the aesthetic to a form of “incipient materialism,” focusing on the sensuous, bodily experiences that ground social reality.
Hegemony vs. Coercion	A distinction between power exercised through voluntary consent (hegemony) versus power enforced through fear or violence (coercion).	Eagleton argues that aesthetics marks a historical shift from coercion to hegemony, as social control becomes internalized in everyday life through aesthetic experiences.
Lawfulness without Law	The idea that rules and norms can be internalized and followed without overtly acknowledging their authority, akin to the “unconscious” following of social codes.	Eagleton uses this concept to explain how bourgeois subjects regulate themselves, turning aesthetic and ethical norms into unspoken, internalized behaviors.
Phenomenology	A branch of philosophy that explores subjective experiences and consciousness as the primary means of understanding reality.	Eagleton references Husserl’s phenomenology to highlight how aesthetics reflects the structures of everyday life and consciousness, deeply tied to lived experience.
Political Unconscious	A concept from Fredric Jameson, referring to the hidden ideologies embedded in cultural forms that reflect societal power structures.	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, are embedded with ideological content that reflects the political unconscious, regulating social behaviors and beliefs.
Kantian Aesthetics	Immanuel Kant’s view that aesthetic judgments are disinterested and universally valid, grounded in the harmony between the faculties of understanding and imagination.	Eagleton critiques Kantian aesthetics for its idealism but notes that it serves bourgeois ideology by providing a model for how individual subjectivity can align with universal social norms.
Ethical Relativism	The belief that moral principles are not absolute but are culturally or individually determined.	Eagleton discusses how aestheticizing moral judgments risks slipping into ethical relativism, undermining the bourgeoisie’s control over moral values.
Sensuous Representation	A representation of ideas or experiences through sensory perception and emotional response.	Eagleton critiques Hegel for underestimating the ideological power of sensuous representation, which plays a crucial role in maintaining bourgeois social order through aesthetics.
Universal Subjectivity	The notion that aesthetic judgments reflect universal human experiences, rather than being limited to individual perspectives.	Eagleton critiques this as an ideological function of aesthetics, where the subject is led to believe that their personal, subjective experiences reflect universal truths, masking the societal forces behind those experiences.
Civil Society vs. State	Civil society refers to the realm of private individuals and economic relationships, while the state is a coercive, public authority.	Eagleton shows how aesthetics resolves the problem of fractured bourgeois civil society, providing a “third realm” where communal unity is achieved through shared aesthetic experiences, bypassing the state’s coercive authority.
Imaginary (Lacan)	A concept in Lacanian psychoanalysis that refers to a realm of illusions and images where the subject misrecognizes itself as whole and unified.	Eagleton uses Lacan’s Imaginary to describe how the aesthetic allows the bourgeois subject to misperceive the fragmented social reality as harmonious, thus serving as an ideological tool for masking contradictions in society.
Moral Sense Theory	A theory, particularly associated with British philosophers like Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, that moral judgments are based on innate feelings or “senses.”	Eagleton contrasts the aesthetic-based “moral sense” theory with rationalist approaches to morality, noting its potential for both ideological control and subversion of bourgeois values.

Contribution of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “The Ideology of the Aesthetic”
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	– Aestheticization of Social Norms: The characters in Pride and Prejudice operate within rigid social structures, where manners and decorum reflect the ideological construction of morality. Elizabeth Bennet’s wit and judgments are shaped by an aesthetic sensibility that aligns with Eagleton’s idea of “manners,” where “moral ideology reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.” Austen critiques the superficiality of social norms, but these norms are nonetheless aestheticized, embedding class and gender hierarchies in daily interactions.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	– Colonial Ideology and the Sublime: The novel’s portrayal of the African wilderness as a terrifying and incomprehensible force reflects the sublime in Eagleton’s terms—coercive and crushing. Marlow’s aesthetic judgments about the African landscape are ideological, presenting Europe as rational and civilized while the African wilderness is portrayed as chaotic and dangerous. The aesthetic of the sublime here masks the colonial ideology, which justifies exploitation and domination through the contrast between the “civilized” and the “savage.”
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Aestheticization of the Bourgeois Ideal: The Great Gatsby embodies Eagleton’s critique of how bourgeois society turns ethics into aesthetics. Gatsby’s pursuit of Daisy is not just emotional but framed as an aesthetic quest, turning her into a symbol of wealth, beauty, and social status. The novel critiques the American Dream, showing how its ideals of freedom and success are aestheticized and commodified, making Gatsby’s obsession with Daisy an ideological reflection of class and materialism.
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	– Sensuous Experience and Bourgeois Hegemony: Wuthering Heights can be read through Eagleton’s lens as a critique of how aesthetics internalizes ideological control. The novel’s intense focus on emotional and sensory experiences—particularly in the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff—reflects Eagleton’s notion of sensuous particularity. The wildness and raw emotion of the characters contrast with the bourgeois values of control and order, highlighting a tension between natural human passion and the socially imposed hegemony of class and property relations. This tension questions the ideology of social conformity.

Criticism Against “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

• Reduction of Aesthetics to Ideology:
  • Critics argue that Eagleton reduces the entire field of aesthetics to a mere tool of bourgeois ideology, neglecting the complexities and nuances of aesthetic experience. By viewing all aesthetic judgments through the lens of power and ideology, he overlooks the autonomy of art and its potential for subversion and resistance.
• Overemphasis on Marxist Framework:
  • Eagleton’s analysis is heavily reliant on Marxist theory, which some critics feel limits his ability to engage with aesthetic theory in a broader, more interdisciplinary way. This rigid Marxist lens might oversimplify the historical and cultural dimensions of aesthetics, focusing primarily on class and power dynamics.
• Neglect of Aesthetic Pleasure and Artistic Value:
  • By focusing on the ideological functions of aesthetics, Eagleton is accused of downplaying or ignoring the intrinsic pleasures and values that people derive from art and beauty. His analysis tends to disregard the emotional and subjective responses individuals have to art, reducing aesthetic pleasure to a function of social control.
• Simplification of Kant and Other Philosophers:
  • Eagleton’s critique of philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Edmund Burke is seen by some as overly reductive. Critics claim that he simplifies complex philosophical concepts, particularly Kant’s notion of “disinterestedness,” to fit his argument about bourgeois ideology, thus missing the depth and subtleties of their aesthetic theories.
• Insufficient Engagement with Postmodern Aesthetics:
  • Eagleton’s focus on the Enlightenment and bourgeois aesthetic theory is critiqued for not adequately addressing postmodern developments in aesthetics. The text has been seen as somewhat dated or lacking engagement with more contemporary critiques of aesthetics that explore postmodernism, globalization, or digital culture.
• Overgeneralization of Bourgeois Society:
  • Some critics suggest that Eagleton tends to overgeneralize the bourgeoisie’s use of aesthetics, implying a monolithic control over art and culture. This neglects the diversity within bourgeois culture and the potential for alternative interpretations and uses of aesthetics within different social contexts.
• Undermining Aesthetic Autonomy:
  • Eagleton is criticized for undermining the idea of aesthetic autonomy— the belief that art can exist independently of politics and ideology. By treating all aesthetics as fundamentally ideological, he dismisses the possibility that art and aesthetic experiences could transcend social and political constraints.

Representative Quotations from “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Aesthetics is born as a discourse of the body.”	Eagleton emphasizes that aesthetics originally relates to sensory experiences and physicality, rather than purely intellectual or artistic pursuits. This materialist approach highlights how aesthetics interacts with bodily sensations, making it a crucial part of understanding power and social control.
“Aesthetics marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”	This quote connects aesthetics to the concept of hegemony, suggesting that aesthetics allows the ruling class to maintain power through consent rather than overt force. Eagleton frames aesthetics as a tool for subtle social control, aligning with Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony.
“The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”	Eagleton explains the bourgeois class’s dilemma: by exposing power through political victories, they risk making the law (and thus power structures) subject to contestation, which is why aesthetics becomes a way to “naturalize” law and make it seem inherent and unquestionable.
“Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation from property to propriety is the aesthetic.”	Aesthetic experience becomes a way of transforming abstract power structures into something felt and experienced in everyday life. The shift from “property to propriety” indicates how the bourgeoisie uses aesthetics to regulate behavior and social norms, linking material and moral worlds.
“Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”	Here, Eagleton suggests that when people find pleasure in their social roles and behaviors, it indicates that hegemony has been internalized. Aesthetics plays a role in making submission to social order feel natural and even enjoyable, masking the ideological control beneath it.
“The aesthetic is thus the first stirrings of a primitive, incipient materialism.”	Eagleton ties the emergence of aesthetics to materialism, suggesting that aesthetic experience deals with the material, bodily world rather than abstract ideals. This highlights how aesthetics is rooted in the sensory and the tangible, which makes it an important tool for shaping social realities.
“Aesthetic judgment conceals an essentially emotive (subject-oriented) content within an apparently referential form.”	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, may appear to be objective or universal, but they are deeply tied to subjective emotions and ideological values. This masking of subjectivity as objectivity plays a key role in the functioning of ideology within aesthetics.
“The sublime—that which crushes us into admiring submission—is coercive.”	Eagleton contrasts the beautiful (consensual power) with the sublime (coercive power). The sublime, like oppressive authority, overwhelms the individual and demands submission, highlighting a form of aesthetic experience that mirrors authoritarian control.
“The Kantian subject of taste… is in effect the infantile narcissist of the Lacanian mirror phase.”	By linking Kantian aesthetics to Lacan’s mirror stage, Eagleton critiques Kant’s theory of aesthetic judgment, suggesting that it reflects a narcissistic misrecognition of unity and harmony. This shows how aesthetics can foster a false sense of self and social coherence, masking deeper contradictions.
“What is from one viewpoint an absolute rightness is from another viewpoint just something I happen to feel.”	This quote captures the ideological nature of aesthetic judgments, where something that seems universally valid is actually a subjective experience. Eagleton critiques how aesthetics presents personal tastes and values as if they were universally binding, thus reinforcing ideological norms.

Suggested Readings: “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

1. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 2001.
   https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm
2. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
   https://archive.org/details/gramsci-prison-notebooks
3. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
4. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Judgment. Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing, 1987.
5. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
6. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Wiley-Blackwell, 1990.
7. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Alan Sheridan, W. W. Norton & Company, 1977.
   
   

Introduction: “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

“Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton is an influential essay that first appeared in the Spring 2000 issue of the journal New Literary History. This essay is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory because it revisits and challenges the traditional Marxist concept of the base and superstructure. Eagleton argues that the relationship between these two concepts is much more complex and dynamic than previously thought. He emphasizes that the base (the economic system) and the superstructure (the cultural and ideological systems) are not simply cause and effect but rather mutually influence and shape each other. This essay has been widely discussed and debated, and it continues to be an important resource for understanding the complex interplay between economics and culture.

Summary of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Money as a Meta-Good
   • Eagleton opens by discussing how money functions as a “meta-good” in capitalist society. It facilitates the pursuit of various desires and lifestyles without effort. He humorously imagines an alien visitor baffled by the contradiction in human behavior, where money is considered vital but also despised: “The alien would soon find himself puzzling over the performative contradiction between what we said about money and what we did with it” (Eagleton, 232).
2. Contradictions in Economic and Cultural Perceptions
   • Eagleton argues that the discrepancy between money’s importance and contempt is a “genuine conundrum” about its ontological status. He references Marx’s “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts” to explore the paradoxical nature of money as both “everything and nothing” (233). This reflects the larger base-superstructure contradiction between economic reality (base) and cultural morality (superstructure).
3. Wealth and Power as Necessary Conditions
   • Drawing from the philosopher Francis Hutcheson, Eagleton explains that wealth and power are not fundamental human desires but essential conditions for achieving other aspirations. He asserts that money is “the capacity of capacities,” a tool that enables various human goals (234).
4. The Economic Base and its Role in Culture
   • Eagleton emphasizes that while the economic base is not the most “precious thing in life,” it is a necessary condition for most human activities, including cultural production. He notes that even socialism requires advanced material conditions, as “socialism is only possible on the basis of reasonably advanced material conditions” (234). Without this, attempts to develop a socialist state could lead to authoritarianism.
5. Culture’s Relative Autonomy from Material Conditions
   • Eagleton critiques both left-wing and right-wing views on the relationship between culture and material conditions. He argues that culture becomes relatively autonomous as a result of material conditions, stating, “art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (235). This autonomy allows culture to critique its surrounding conditions.
6. Base and Superstructure Model
   • Eagleton defends the base-superstructure model, arguing that it is not inherently hierarchical or deterministic, but acknowledges its limitations. He critiques the simplistic view that the superstructure (law, culture, ideology) is entirely determined by the economic base, noting that “a school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces” (239).
7. Superstructures and Social Contradictions
   • According to Eagleton, superstructures arise because the economic base is internally contradictory, and their role is to manage these contradictions in favor of the ruling class. He states, “superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity…generates certain social contradictions” (239). Thus, the superstructure is a flexible concept, not rigidly tied to specific institutions or functions.
8. Cultural Materialism and the Future of Socialism
   • Eagleton discusses the concept of “cultural materialism,” which seeks to reconcile the material base with cultural development. He notes that socialism’s long-term goal is to create conditions where people can live by culture rather than economics: “the project of socialism is to try to lay down the kinds of material conditions in which…they will be able to live by culture a great deal more than they do now” (240).
9. Historical Materialism and the Role of Culture
   • In the final sections, Eagleton ties his argument to historical materialism, asserting that the economic is foundational, but culture will become increasingly important as society progresses beyond scarcity and toil. He ends by quoting Oliver Goldsmith to emphasize that culture is “superfluity” built into human nature, necessary yet not reducible to purely economic terms (237-240).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Usage in the Text
Base and Superstructure	A Marxist concept where the “base” refers to the economic foundation of society (productive forces and relations) and the “superstructure” refers to cultural, legal, political, and ideological institutions.	Eagleton revisits the base-superstructure relationship, emphasizing that while the superstructure is influenced by the base, it has relative autonomy. He critiques reductive interpretations of the model, arguing for a more nuanced, dialectical view.
Materialism	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of material conditions (economic and social factors) in shaping society and human consciousness.	Eagleton supports a historical materialist perspective, arguing that the economic base shapes culture and consciousness but allows culture some independence under specific material conditions.
Cultural Materialism	A critical theory that examines the relationship between material conditions (the base) and cultural forms, emphasizing the historical context of culture.	Eagleton discusses how culture, while shaped by material conditions, can become relatively autonomous, especially in modern capitalist societies. He explores how culture resists commodification through ideological autotelism.
Dialectics	A method of analysis based on contradiction and change, often associated with Marxist theory. It seeks to understand how conflicting forces (thesis and antithesis) lead to new syntheses.	Eagleton uses a dialectical approach to argue that the contradictions between the economic base and cultural superstructure are essential to understanding their relationship, showing how autonomy and dependency co-exist in culture.
Autonomy	In Marxist theory, cultural or ideological autonomy refers to the idea that certain aspects of the superstructure (like art and culture) may operate independently of direct economic influence.	Eagleton emphasizes the relative autonomy of culture, arguing that culture can critique and resist its material conditions despite being economically determined to some extent.
Commodity Fetishism	A Marxist concept where social relations between people are expressed as economic relations between commodities, obscuring the true labor relations that produced them.	Though not explicitly mentioned, Eagleton alludes to commodity fetishism when discussing the paradoxical nature of money, where it is both “everything and nothing,” masking the true social relations behind its acquisition.
Use-Value vs. Exchange-Value	Use-value refers to the practical usefulness of an object, while exchange-value refers to its value in a market context as a commodity.	Eagleton contrasts use-value and exchange-value when discussing art. He argues that art, as a commodity, resists commodification by asserting its autotelism (self-justification), becoming an image of what life could be like under different conditions.
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve to justify the interests of the dominant social group, often obscuring the true nature of social relations.	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal ideologies that downplay the importance of power and material conditions, advocating for a Marxist interpretation that reveals the economic roots of cultural and social systems.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that emphasizes the role of material economic conditions in shaping history and human society. History progresses through the development of productive forces and class struggles.	Eagleton’s essay is grounded in historical materialism, exploring how economic development (the base) shapes culture (the superstructure) and how contradictions within the base necessitate the development of the superstructure.
Performative Contradiction	A situation where there is a discrepancy between what people say and what they do, often revealing underlying ideological conflicts.	Eagleton discusses the performative contradiction in society’s attitude toward money, which is both essential and despised, reflecting deeper contradictions between the material base and the moral superstructure.

Contribution of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Revisiting and Nuancing Marxist Theory
   • Eagleton’s essay significantly contributes to the ongoing conversation within Marxist Literary Theory, specifically concerning the relationship between the economic base and the cultural superstructure. He addresses how traditional Marxist theory has often been misinterpreted or reduced to economic determinism. Eagleton critiques this simplification by emphasizing the dialectical nature of the relationship: “The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth” (Eagleton, 237). By reaffirming the model’s relevance, Eagleton defends its continued applicability in analyzing culture in a capitalist society, arguing that the superstructure can have a degree of autonomy while still being rooted in the base.
2. Cultural Materialism and the Role of Autonomy
   • Eagleton extends the theory of Cultural Materialism by explaining how culture, while economically conditioned, gains relative autonomy under certain historical conditions. This autonomy allows culture to critique its own material origins, a point of significant importance for literary criticism. He states, “Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (Eagleton, 235). This idea that culture can resist commodification while being produced within a capitalist economy has shaped how scholars think about the political function of literature and art.
3. Critique of Postmodernism and Liberal Theories
   • Eagleton’s essay also engages with Postmodernist and Liberal Theories by critiquing their suspicion of power and material conditions. He argues that only a materialist framework, rooted in economic realities, can fully explain culture’s contradictions. He writes, “Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power. It is selflessness here which is ideological” (Eagleton, 235). Eagleton’s critique of these theories contributes to the broader debate on ideology, reminding literary theorists of the importance of material conditions in shaping culture, rather than abstract notions of autonomy or individualism.
4. Revitalizing the Base-Superstructure Debate in Cultural Criticism
   • Eagleton revitalizes the Base-Superstructure Debate within cultural and literary criticism by highlighting the dynamic, rather than static, relationship between these spheres. He dismantles the misconception that the superstructure is simply a passive reflection of the base, asserting instead that cultural forms actively interact with and sometimes resist their economic conditions. As he points out, “Superstructures are necessary in a Marxist view…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions” (Eagleton, 239). This approach encourages literary critics to explore the nuanced ways in which literature and other cultural forms are influenced by, but also challenge, their economic foundations.
5. Autotelism and Resistance to Commodification in Literature
   • Eagleton introduces the concept of Autotelism—the idea that literature and art, in asserting themselves as ends in themselves, resist the commodification that defines their economic context. He argues that literature, by claiming “to be its own end, ground, and raison d’être,” opposes the commodifying tendencies of capitalism (Eagleton, 235). This concept contributes to Aesthetic Theory and Marxist Criticism, offering a way to understand how literary texts can be politically resistant despite being produced within a commodified cultural economy.
6. Historical Materialism and Literary Theory
   • Eagleton’s reaffirmation of Historical Materialism—the idea that material conditions shape history and culture—has significant implications for literary theory. He suggests that the study of literature must always consider the historical and material context of its production: “It is what we do which lies at the bottom of our language games” (Eagleton, 238). This grounding of literary criticism in material conditions aligns with Marxist Historicism, pushing literary theorists to interrogate the socio-economic contexts that give rise to particular literary forms and genres.
7. Criticism of Reductionism in Cultural Theories
   • Eagleton critiques the reductionism often found in Culturalist Theories, which either sever culture from its material base or reduce culture entirely to an expression of economic conditions. He argues that culture is neither completely autonomous nor entirely determined by the base but operates within a dialectical relationship with it: “The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic” (Eagleton, 240). This dual perspective, where culture is understood both as a product of material conditions and as having a degree of independence, encourages more complex readings of literary texts in relation to their socio-economic contexts.
8. Superfluity and Culture as Surplus
   • Eagleton’s idea that culture is a kind of “superfluity” or surplus to biological needs also contributes to Cultural and Literary Theory. He draws on Marx’s concept of surplus value to explain how culture, though not necessary for survival, is integral to human expression and civilization: “Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need” (Eagleton, 237). This framing challenges literary theorists to consider the role of excess and surplus in cultural production, offering new ways to think about art and literature as both products of and reactions to material surplus.
9. Integration of Marxist Aesthetic Theory
   • Eagleton’s essay integrates Marxist Aesthetic Theory into his analysis, particularly through the concept of art as a critique of its own conditions. He argues that art, in asserting its autonomy, becomes a form of critique against the utilitarianism of capitalism: “Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique” (Eagleton, 235). This perspective contributes to literary theory by positioning art and literature as sites of resistance within a capitalist economy, thus encouraging scholars to explore the political potential of literary forms.

Examples of Critiques Through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton
Charles Dickens’ “Hard Times”	Critique of Capitalism and Material Conditions: Dickens’ portrayal of the industrial town of Coketown reflects the harsh material conditions of the working class. Through Eagleton’s lens, Hard Times can be seen as exposing the contradictions of capitalism, where economic forces dominate human life. The novel depicts how the economic “base” shapes the moral and educational institutions (superstructure), but Dickens also critiques the inhumanity of the system through characters like Stephen Blackpool, highlighting how cultural responses (literature) can act as resistance to the commodification of life.
James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”	Autonomy of Art and Culture: In Joyce’s novel, Stephen Dedalus’s pursuit of artistic independence mirrors Eagleton’s concept of cultural autonomy. Stephen’s journey away from family, religion, and nation can be interpreted through Eagleton’s idea of art asserting its autonomy from the superstructure. Stephen’s decision to live as an artist reflects the tension between economic/material pressures and cultural aspirations, where the artist seeks to escape commodification and the restrictions of the dominant ideologies of religion and nationalism.
Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”	Superstructure and Ideology in the Legacy of Slavery: Morrison’s Beloved reveals how the superstructure of the post-slavery American society continues to perpetuate ideological control over the African-American community. Through Eagleton’s framework, the novel critiques the material base of slavery and its lingering effects on culture and identity. The characters’ trauma represents the contradictions in the economic base of slavery that demanded the repression of black bodies and the shaping of cultural memories. The ghost of Beloved can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved social contradictions of this historical base-superstructure relationship.
Virginia Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse”	Art and Domestic Life under Capitalism: Woolf’s To the Lighthouse can be read through Eagleton’s analysis of how culture gains autonomy but remains tied to material conditions. The novel portrays the intricate dynamics of family life within the framework of early 20th-century capitalism. Mr. Ramsay’s concerns with intellectual and economic success reflect the pressures of the base, while Mrs. Ramsay’s nurturing role reveals how the superstructure of gender and domestic ideology is shaped by these economic realities. Through Woolf’s exploration of art (Lily Briscoe’s painting), we see the tension between art’s autonomous form and the material conditions of life, mirroring Eagleton’s concept of art resisting commodification while being grounded in the base.

Criticism Against “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Economic Determinism
   • While Eagleton critiques overly deterministic interpretations of the base-superstructure model, some critics might argue that his framework still places too much emphasis on the economic base as the primary determinant of cultural and ideological forms. This could lead to reductive readings of literature and culture, where complex cultural phenomena are overly simplified as reflections of economic conditions.
2. Limited Scope of Cultural Autonomy
   • Eagleton’s claim that culture gains “relative autonomy” from the economic base may be criticized for not fully accounting for the true independence of cultural production. Some critics might argue that Eagleton’s view of autonomy is too constrained by Marxist orthodoxy, not allowing for a fuller recognition of how culture can operate independently of economic forces.
3. Neglect of Postmodernist Insights
   • Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernist skepticism toward power and ideology may be seen as overly harsh. Critics could argue that postmodernism offers valuable insights into the fragmentation of power and the multiplicity of cultural narratives, which Eagleton seems to downplay in favor of a more unified, Marxist view of cultural production.
4. Simplistic View of Superstructure Functions
   • Eagleton’s approach to the superstructure, which he argues functions primarily to manage social contradictions in favor of the ruling class, may be viewed as reductive. Critics might claim that this overlooks the complexity and diversity of superstructural institutions, many of which may serve purposes beyond simply maintaining the status quo.
5. Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Perspectives
   • Eagleton’s analysis, like much Marxist theory, tends to focus primarily on Western capitalist societies. Some critics may point out that his framework does not sufficiently engage with non-Western or postcolonial contexts, where the relationship between base and superstructure may operate differently due to different historical and material conditions.
6. Resistance to Post-Marxist Theories
   • Eagleton’s insistence on the continued relevance of the base-superstructure model may be critiqued by those who favor post-Marxist or neo-Marxist theories, which incorporate more flexible, pluralistic approaches to culture and economics. Some might argue that Eagleton’s defense of the model is outdated in light of these more contemporary frameworks.
7. Potential for Ideological Dogmatism
   • By maintaining a strong commitment to historical materialism, Eagleton runs the risk of promoting a somewhat dogmatic approach to literary and cultural criticism. Critics may argue that his reliance on Marxist categories limits the scope of analysis, potentially excluding alternative perspectives on culture that do not fit neatly into the base-superstructure dichotomy.
8. Underdeveloped Treatment of Aesthetic Experience
   • Although Eagleton touches on the autonomy of art and culture, some critics may argue that his treatment of aesthetic experience and the role of art in society is underdeveloped. The focus on the political and economic aspects of culture may overlook the personal, emotional, and subjective dimensions of literary and artistic works.
9. Ambiguity in Defining Cultural Autonomy
   • Eagleton’s concept of “relative autonomy” may be seen as ambiguous or vague, leading to confusion about the exact relationship between culture and material conditions. Some critics may argue that he does not provide a clear enough framework for determining how and when culture can resist or transcend economic forces.

Representative Quotations from “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth.”	Eagleton humorously acknowledges that the base-superstructure model is widely rejected in contemporary theory, but argues for its continued relevance. He critiques the dismissal of Marxist theory and calls for a more nuanced understanding of its contributions to analyzing culture and economics.
“Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic.”	This paradoxical statement highlights Eagleton’s argument that culture gains autonomy by becoming deeply intertwined with the economic base. Art can critique its own conditions while still being economically produced, which is key to understanding culture under capitalism.
“Superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions.”	Here, Eagleton explains why superstructures exist in Marxist theory. They are not independent phenomena but arise from the contradictions within the economic base, helping to manage and maintain the stability of the ruling class’s interests.
“Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power.”	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal theorists for their abstract distrust of power, arguing that power is not inherently negative. He suggests that materialist thinkers must recognize the importance of power in shaping and sustaining cultural and social structures.
“One thing which only money can buy is of course socialism.”	This ironic statement underscores the necessity of advanced material conditions for establishing socialism. Eagleton draws on Marxist theory to argue that socialism cannot succeed without sufficient productive forces, which must be developed under capitalism.
“Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need.”	Eagleton emphasizes that culture exists beyond mere survival needs, as something that exceeds material necessity. He argues that culture is a form of surplus, not required for basic biological functioning but essential for the richness of human life.
“A school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces.”	This quote exemplifies Eagleton’s view that not all functions of institutions are superstructural. Certain activities within institutions may serve ideological purposes, while others do not, highlighting the complexity of how the base and superstructure interact in specific contexts.
“The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic.”	Eagleton advocates for a materialist approach to cultural criticism that recognizes both the cultural artifact’s aesthetic value and its embeddedness in material conditions. This “double optic” involves examining how art is shaped by, and can resist, its economic context.
“Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique.”	Eagleton discusses how the relative autonomy of art under capitalism allows it to act as a form of critique. By becoming less directly tied to state or elite control, art can offer resistance to dominant ideologies and critique the social conditions from which it emerges.
“The economic is certainly foundational in the sense that it is what most men and women, most of the time, have had to concern themselves with.”	Eagleton reinforces the Marxist argument that the economic base is foundational to human life. He asserts that material concerns have historically dominated human activity, influencing the superstructure and shaping social and cultural institutions.

Suggested Readings: “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.  https://www.routledge.com/Marxism-and-Literary-Criticism/Eagleton/p/book/9780415285841
2. Williams, Raymond. Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory. NLB, 1973.
3. Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Verso, 2005.
4. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
5. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
6. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. MIT Press, 1971.
   
   

Introduction: “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

“Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1975 in the journal New Left Review. This essay is considered a seminal piece in the field of literary theory, particularly in the intersection of literature and sociology. Eagleton’s work is significant for its exploration of the social and historical contexts that shape literary production and reception. It challenges the traditional notion of literature as a purely aesthetic creation and instead positions it as a product of and reflection of broader social forces.

Summary of “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation
Realist Justification	Literature is deeply conditioned by its social context, and any critical analysis that ignores this fact is incomplete.
Pragmatist Justification	Literature is shaped by various factors, and while its social context may not be essential, highlighting it serves specific political purposes.
Social Product	Literature, like metaphors and line endings, is a product of society, but this broad definition alone does not justify a sociological approach.
Epistemological Realism	The belief that social structures (like class and patriarchy) are real forces determining historical events and should be considered in literature.
Epistemological Pragmatism	The view that history and social issues are constructed based on present political needs, not necessarily representing absolute truth.
Superstructure	A Marxist term that refers to societal institutions (e.g., literature, state) that support dominant ideologies, which act upon the economic base.
Base and Superstructure	A functionalist model in Marxist theory where the base (economic system) influences the superstructure (ideological and cultural institutions).
Political Hegemony	The dominance of a particular class or ideology in society, often supported and perpetuated by literature and cultural institutions.
Functionalist Marxism	A view that focuses on how social institutions (like literature) function to maintain or challenge dominant power structures.

Contribution of “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution of Eagleton’s Article	References from the Article
Marxist Literary Theory	Eagleton challenges and revises classical Marxist views on literature’s relationship to the socio-economic base. He questions the strict base-superstructure model and argues for a more flexible understanding.	“In its classical forms, Marxism is a strong epistemological realism which claims, for example, that all history actually is the history of class struggle.” (p. 473)
Feminist Literary Criticism	Eagleton highlights how pragmatist approaches align with feminist criticism, as feminist scholars may reject objectivism (which is linked with male epistemology) while still holding truth claims about patriarchy.	“Pragmatist positions of one kind or another are at the moment rather popular with some feminist critics, who suspect…that epistemological realism involves male objectivism.” (p. 470)
Post-Structuralism/Deconstruction	Eagleton critiques certain post-structuralist and deconstructionist tendencies, particularly their dismissal of “truth” and “reality” in favor of subjective interpretations, which leads to political contradictions.	“There is something odd in hearing certain feminist critics denounce truth in one breath and patriarchy in the next.” (p. 470)
Pragmatist Literary Theory	He engages deeply with the pragmatist approach, suggesting that literature can be read through various lenses, depending on the political needs and goals of the critic. Literature may not inherently express social forces, but can be interpreted as such for practical purposes.	“Highlighting its social determinants is useful and desirable from a particular political standpoint.” (p. 469)
Epistemological Realism	Eagleton critiques a rigid realist approach that assumes literature always reflects central social forces. He argues that social structures like class may shape literature, but not all literary works are concerned with them.	“One can hold that structures such as class and patriarchy genuinely are vitally determining forces in historical development but see no reason why every literary work should be centrally concerned with them.” (p. 470)
Cultural Materialism	Eagleton expands on the idea that literature is embedded within social and historical contexts, but these contexts are not rigidly deterministic. Instead, they can be pragmatically selected to serve political ends.	“It is in this sense, not in some genetic-functional way, that the secret of the superstructure is to be found in the base.” (p. 476)
Ideology Critique	Eagleton argues that literature is part of the superstructure and functions as a support for or critique of dominant ideologies, contributing to the maintenance or disruption of political hegemony.	“Superstructural activity is essential because the base is itself divided. If social relations were conducted without oppression…there would be no need for a superstructure.” (p. 476)

Examples of Critiques Through “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Using Realist Approach	Critique Using Pragmatist Approach
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Realist: The novel reflects the social and economic conditions of 1920s America, particularly the rise of capitalism, class distinctions, and the American Dream. These social forces deeply shape the characters’ lives and their outcomes.	Pragmatist: The novel can be critiqued for its portrayal of social class and materialism to highlight issues of wealth disparity and consumerism, which are relevant to contemporary political discourse.
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë	Realist: The novel reflects the patriarchal structures of Victorian society, as Jane’s struggle for independence is deeply conditioned by her gender and social class within that historical context.	Pragmatist: Feminist critics may use the novel to highlight the ongoing struggles of women against patriarchal oppression. Jane’s fight for autonomy can be analyzed through modern feminist lenses.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Realist: The novella illustrates the colonialist attitudes and imperialist ideologies of the late 19th century, shaped by Europe’s economic and political dominance in Africa.	Pragmatist: The novella can be reinterpreted through a post-colonial lens to expose the destructive impact of European imperialism, making it relevant for critiquing modern-day neocolonialism.
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	Realist: The novel reflects the rigid class structure and gender expectations of Regency England, with marriage depicted as a necessary means for women’s economic security.	Pragmatist: The novel can be used to critique the institution of marriage and women’s economic dependence on men, offering insights into both historical and modern feminist debates.

Criticism Against “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Representative Quotations from “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literature is in fact deeply conditioned by its social context, and any critical account of it which omits this fact is therefore automatically deficient.”	Eagleton asserts that ignoring the social conditions in which literature is produced leads to an incomplete analysis, supporting the Realist justification for the sociology of literature.
“Highlighting its social determinants is useful and desirable from a particular political standpoint.”	This reflects the Pragmatist approach, where the focus on social aspects of literature is seen as a tool to further political or ideological goals, rather than a claim that literature must always reflect social realities.
“A ‘sociological’ critic…can be pragmatist about both history and literature together, realist about history but pragmatist about literature, or realist about them both.”	Eagleton outlines the possible combinations of realist and pragmatist positions in both literature and history, highlighting the flexibility available to critics when approaching sociological readings of literature.
“What one cannot be, surely, is a pragmatist about history and a realist about literature.”	This quotation stresses the logical inconsistency of being a pragmatist about history (i.e., viewing it as constructed for political needs) and a realist about literature (i.e., seeing literature as directly reflecting historical truth).
“Realists and pragmatists may wrangle over what this means, but any political critic has surely to hold to some notion of truth.”	Eagleton critiques certain forms of relativism in literary theory, especially in political criticism, suggesting that without some adherence to truth, political critique undermines itself.
“The superstructure is defined precisely by its action on the base: it is, as Marx himself once commented, a relational term.”	Here, Eagleton engages with Marxist theory, explaining that the superstructure (including literature) is defined by its relationship to the economic base, emphasizing the relational rather than fixed nature of this concept.
“The transcendentalist case is a tiresome red herring which is currently driving some people into flagrantly self-contradictory positions.”	Eagleton critiques post-structuralist and transcendental arguments that reject truth or reality, arguing that such positions often lead to contradictions, especially in political theory.
“A Marxist should always be wary of swerving from tradition in this way, since ‘tradition’ means those beliefs which many hundreds and thousands of men and women in active struggle… have found it possible and necessary to hold.”	This quotation emphasizes Eagleton’s caution against too much revisionism in Marxist thought, suggesting that some Marxist traditions hold value because they emerged from real historical struggles.
“Superstructural activity is essential because the base is itself divided. If social relations were conducted without oppression and exploitation, there would be no need for a superstructure.”	Eagleton provides a Marxist analysis, arguing that the superstructure (including literature) exists because of economic contradictions in the base, specifically due to oppression and exploitation in society.
“I give offence to a certain kind of pragmatist; insofar as I also want to argue that there are social phenomena which at particular times are in no very relevant sense so bound up.”	Eagleton suggests that while certain aspects of society may not always be directly linked to political struggles, literature can be analyzed pragmatically to focus on those aspects that are relevant, causing friction with strict pragmatists or realists.

Suggested Readings: “Two Approaches in The Sociology of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Introduction: “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

“Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1981 in the Contemporary Literature journal. This essay is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory due to its exploration of the relationship between Marxist and Deconstructionist approaches. Eagleton’s analysis challenges the traditional boundaries between these two schools of thought, offering a nuanced perspective on their strengths and limitations. His work has been influential in shaping discussions about ideology, power, and language in literary studies.

Summary of “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

1. Historical Context and Ideological Conflict:
   • Eagleton frames the relationship between Marxism and deconstruction as an ideological conflict, where both approaches challenge traditional structures, but from different philosophical angles.
   • Marxism, rooted in historical materialism, focuses on class struggle as the driving force of societal change, while deconstruction seeks to destabilize and critique fixed meanings, especially those entrenched in Western metaphysics.
2. Critique of Deconstruction:
   • Eagleton critiques deconstruction for its tendency to stay within textual and philosophical boundaries, often failing to engage with concrete historical and material realities, which are central to Marxist thought.
   • He highlights the lack of engagement with class struggle in deconstruction and its avoidance of concrete political action, seeing it as a reflection of the political quietism in certain intellectual circles.
3. “Inside” vs. “Outside” Debate:
   • The “inside/outside” dichotomy is a significant theme in the article, where deconstruction focuses on dismantling binaries but fails to transcend the metaphysical framework.
   • Marxism, Eagleton argues, resolves this problem not through intellectual gymnastics but by recognizing the working class’s historical role in both being inside capitalism and capable of overthrowing it.
4. Deconstruction’s Reformist and Radical Dimensions:
   • Deconstruction is described as being both reformist (in its modest critique of texts) and ultra-leftist (in its radical rejection of metaphysical certainties).
   • Eagleton acknowledges deconstruction’s radical potential but criticizes it for failing to translate its critique into political action.
5. Bourgeois Liberalism and Deconstruction:
   • Eagleton draws parallels between deconstruction and the contradictions within bourgeois liberalism. He argues that deconstruction reflects the decline of bourgeois humanism, attempting to salvage freedom by dissolving the subject altogether.
   • The critique focuses on how deconstruction’s radical textualism may ultimately reinforce bourgeois ideology by avoiding substantive engagement with material and historical conditions.
6. Marxism’s Engagement with Ideology and Class:
   • Eagleton contrasts Marxism’s materialist approach to ideology, which sees ideology as a reflection of class struggle, with deconstruction’s focus on metaphysics and textual analysis.
   • He argues that Marxism’s historical understanding of class conflict provides a more robust framework for political change, as opposed to deconstruction’s nihilistic or self-referential tendencies.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation
Marxism	A social, political, and economic theory that focuses on class struggle, historical materialism, and the role of the proletariat in overthrowing capitalism.
Deconstruction	A post-structuralist approach developed by Jacques Derrida, aimed at exposing internal contradictions in texts and destabilizing established meanings.
Ideology	A set of ideas that represent the interests of a particular class or group. In Marxism, ideology reflects and reinforces material and class relations.
Class Struggle	The central dynamic in Marxist theory, highlighting the conflict between different social classes, particularly the working class (proletariat) and the ruling class (bourgeoisie).
Inside/Outside Dichotomy	A philosophical opposition where entities or subjects are viewed as either part of or external to a system. In deconstruction, this binary is critiqued as unstable.
Transcendental Signifier	In Derrida’s terms, a concept or entity that claims to ground all meanings (e.g., God, truth). Deconstruction questions the possibility of such signifiers.
Semiosis	The process of producing meaning through signs. Eagleton discusses how deconstruction pushes the limits of semiosis, destabilizing fixed meanings.
Metaphysical Presence	The idea of an underlying reality or essence. Deconstruction challenges the idea of metaphysical presence, seeing it as a product of language.
Commodity Fetishism	A Marxist concept that describes how social relations under capitalism are obscured by the relationships between commodities and their perceived value.
Negative Dialectics	A term used by Theodor Adorno and referenced by Eagleton to describe a critical approach that rejects positive affirmations and instead emphasizes contradiction and negation.
Ultra-leftism	A Marxist term referring to radical political movements that reject reformist or gradualist approaches in favor of revolutionary action. Eagleton contrasts this with the reformist tendencies in deconstruction.
Textuality	The focus on the text as the primary object of analysis in deconstruction, where meaning is seen as fluid and indeterminate.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist methodology that views material conditions, such as economic and class relations, as the foundation of social and political life.
Bourgeois Liberalism	A political ideology based on individual freedoms, private property, and market economy, critiqued by Eagleton for its contradictions and affinity with deconstruction.
Metaphysical Closure	A concept in deconstruction where metaphysical structures are seen as limiting and final, but deconstruction aims to dismantle these closures.
Reformism	A political approach that seeks to achieve change through gradual and moderate reforms rather than revolutionary action. Eagleton critiques deconstruction as a form of textual reformism.
Differance	Derrida’s concept describing how meaning is always deferred and differentiated through language, never fully present or fixed.

Contribution of “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Marxist Critique	Deconstructionist Critique
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	– Marxism would focus on the depiction of imperialism as a function of capitalist exploitation. – It critiques the portrayal of African natives as dehumanized, seeing this as reinforcing colonial power structures.	– Deconstruction would examine the ambivalence in Conrad’s language, particularly the unstable representation of “civilization” vs. “savagery.” – The text undermines its own binary opposition between European superiority and African “otherness.”
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	– A Marxist analysis would explore the feudal society depicted in Hamlet and the class tensions between monarchy and other classes. – The character of Hamlet could be viewed as representing the alienation of the aristocracy in a decaying feudal system.	– A deconstructive reading would focus on the undecidability of Hamlet’s actions and the play’s oscillation between action and inaction. – Deconstruction would explore how language in the play dismantles clear notions of revenge, justice, and moral certainty.
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	– A Marxist critique would look at the novel’s representation of class and economic marriage as reinforcing social stratification. – The limited agency of women, who are forced into marriages for financial security, is viewed as a critique of patriarchal capitalism.	– Deconstruction would interrogate the text’s treatment of language and social codes, showing how the pursuit of marriage reveals contradictions in class and gender roles. – The social norms of “decency” and “propriety” are shown to be fluid and constantly deferred in meaning.
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	– Marxism would analyze the poem’s depiction of a fragmented, disillusioned post-World War I society as reflective of the collapse of capitalism and the alienation of modern life. – The emphasis on despair and the absence of social unity reflects the failure of bourgeois society to offer meaning.	– A deconstructive reading would focus on the text’s fragmentation, lack of clear narrative structure, and multiplicity of voices, showing the absence of a unified meaning or “truth.” – The instability of meaning in The Waste Land is emphasized through its intertextuality and allusions, which undermine fixed interpretations.

Criticism Against “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

Representative Quotations from “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The working class is the agent of historical revolution not because of its potential ‘consciousness’… but because of that location within the capitalist mode of production.”	Eagleton emphasizes the Marxist materialist position that the working class’s role in revolution stems from its material position within capitalism.
“Deconstruction is in one sense an ideology of left-reformism.”	Eagleton critiques deconstruction for focusing on internal critique of texts without connecting this critique to material conditions or action.
“The opposition ‘inside/outside’ was deconstructed a few years back.”	Eagleton points out that deconstruction aims to dismantle oppositions like inside and outside, questioning whether this opposition still holds meaning.
“Deconstruction is the death drive at the level of theory.”	Eagleton likens deconstruction to Freud’s “death drive,” as it seeks to destroy fixed meaning, yet avoids reconstructing any stable alternatives.
“The revolutionary working class is able to deconstruct the inside/outside opposition not through theory but through historical praxis.”	This highlights the Marxist view that real change occurs not through intellectual critique but through class struggle and material revolution.
“Deconstruction practices a mode of self-destruction which leaves it as invulnerable as an empty page.”	Eagleton critiques deconstruction’s endless self-critique, comparing it to a blank slate immune from real-world consequences.
“Marxism… understands ultra-leftism and social democracy as antithetical responses to the absence of a revolutionary movement.”	This reflects Marxism’s ability to contextualize political movements like social democracy and ultra-leftism as responses to a lack of revolutionary momentum.
“Deconstruction is as disorienting in North America as it was for Mrs. Moore in India.”	Eagleton compares the effects of deconstruction on American thought to Mrs. Moore’s existential confusion in Forster’s A Passage to India.
“Deconstruction, as a particular set of textual procedures, can operate as a radical force.”	Eagleton acknowledges deconstruction’s potential for radical critique but critiques its inability to engage with material history.
“What is at question is the appropriation of such insights and procedures in ways which objectively legitimate bourgeois hegemony.”	Eagleton warns that deconstruction’s radical insights risk being co-opted by academia and bourgeois institutions without addressing real-world power dynamics.

Suggested Readings: “Marxism and Deconstruction” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. “Marxism and Deconstruction.” Contemporary Literature, vol. 22, no. 4, 1981, pp. 477–88. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1207879. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.
2. Holm, Cameron L., and Janis Butler Holm. College English, vol. 40, no. 4, 1978, pp. 450–56. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/376267. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.
3. Harvey, J. R. “Criticism, Ideology, Raymond Williams and Terry Eagleton.” The Cambridge Quarterly, vol. 8, no. 1, 1978, pp. 56–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42966503. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.
4. Thampi, Mohan. Social Scientist, vol. 6, no. 12, 1978, pp. 85–87. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3516678. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.
5. Larrissy, Edward. “Terry Eagleton, Postmodernism and Ireland.” Key Words: A Journal of Cultural Materialism, no. 9, 2011, pp. 25–40. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26920290. Accessed 20 Sept. 2024.

Introduction: “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

“Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1979 in the journal Social Text, is a cornerstone of Marxist literary criticism, offering a provocative exploration of the relationship between ideology, fiction, and narrative. Eagleton argues that fiction is not merely a form of escapism but a vehicle for ideological struggle, reflecting and shaping the dominant cultural and political discourses of its time. The essay’s significance lies in its ability to bridge the gap between literary analysis and social theory, demonstrating how literary texts can be read as both aesthetic objects and ideological artifacts.

Summary of “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Context in the Article
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and representations that structure human experience and mediate their relation to the material conditions of existence.	Eagleton defines ideology not as “false consciousness” but as a lived relation to reality. Ideology structures how individuals experience their world through a mix of real and imagined relations.
False Consciousness	The Marxist concept that people hold distorted or mistaken beliefs about their social conditions, often because of the influences of ideology.	Criticized by Eagleton, who rejects the reduction of ideology to misrecognition or distortion, focusing instead on its function as a signifying practice.
Signifying Practice	The process through which meaning is produced and expressed in social relations, particularly through language and symbols.	Eagleton emphasizes that ideology is not just false propositions about the real but a set of signifying practices that structure the lived relation to the real.
Pseudo-statements	Statements in ideological discourse that appear to refer to reality but are actually non-referential, functioning on an emotional or subjective level.	Eagleton uses this concept to describe how ideological propositions, while appearing to describe the world, actually function as “virtual” or “emotive” statements, often reflecting emotional and social relations rather than reality itself.
Performative Language	Language that does not merely describe reality but enacts or performs an action, often seen in speech acts like promises, commands, or declarations.	Eagleton compares ideological and literary language to performative speech acts, where statements serve to produce social and emotional effects rather than refer to reality in a straightforward way.
Narrative Closure	The completion or resolution of a narrative’s plot, providing a sense of conclusion or finality.	Eagleton discusses narrative closure as a mechanism of ideology that stabilizes meaning, providing a sense of coherence and order, which is crucial for securing the ideological coherence of social relations.
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that emphasizes the underlying structures (such as language) that govern human culture and meaning.	Eagleton draws on structuralist ideas when discussing how ideology functions at a structural level, focusing on the relation between various elements (such as subjects and objects) in producing ideology.
Emotive Discourse	A type of discourse focused on expressing emotions, wishes, or desires rather than providing factual or referential statements about the world.	Eagleton argues that much of ideological language is emotive, meaning that it articulates emotional or subjective responses to reality, often in ways that align with social and political interests.
Literary Fiction	Fictional narratives that construct meaning and offer imagined worlds, often dealing with lived relations to the real rather than referential descriptions of reality.	Eagleton draws parallels between ideology and literary fiction, suggesting that both involve non-referential language and construct “lived relations” to the real that may resist straightforward verification or falsification.
Deconstruction	A critical approach that seeks to uncover contradictions within texts, exposing the instability of meaning and challenging traditional structures of thought.	Eagleton engages with deconstructive ideas, particularly when discussing how ideological and literary texts can be decoded and how contradictions within these texts can be sites for critical deconstruction.
Textuality	The condition of being a text, emphasizing the interplay of meanings, codes, and contexts within any written or spoken work.	Eagleton contrasts narrative (with its focus on closure) with textuality, where meanings are more fluid, unstable, and open to deconstruction, especially in modernist literature.
Modernism	A literary movement that often rejects traditional narrative forms, focusing on fragmented, ambiguous, and non-linear structures of meaning.	Eagleton refers to modernist texts as examples of works that challenge traditional narrative closure, exposing the artificiality of ideological and narrative structures and embracing the complexity and heterogeneity of meaning.
Class Struggle	A key Marxist concept referring to the ongoing conflict between different social classes, particularly between the proletariat (working class) and the bourgeoisie (capitalist class).	Eagleton situates narrative and ideology within the broader framework of class struggle, arguing that narrative forms are crucial in the ideological construction of subjectivity and the maintenance of class-based social relations.
Heterogeneity of Language	The idea that language is inherently diverse, consisting of multiple voices, meanings, and possibilities, often in conflict with each other.	Eagleton discusses how literary texts and ideologies often repress or manage this heterogeneity, but that such contradictions within language can provide openings for critical engagement and transformation, especially in political and ideological discourses.
Symptomatic Reading	A method of reading that seeks to uncover the underlying contradictions, gaps, or silences in a text that reveal its ideological assumptions.	Eagleton advocates for a symptomatic reading of both ideological and literary texts, highlighting how these texts repress or conceal the processes that generate them, thereby making it possible to deconstruct their ideological functions.

Contribution of “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Framework	Relevant Concepts from “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative”
Charles Dickens’ Hard Times	Eagleton might critique Hard Times for its depiction of industrial capitalism, exploring how its narrative reinforces or critiques the ideology of utilitarianism.	Narrative as Ideological Form: The novel’s narrative closure could be analyzed as reinforcing ideological values of the time, particularly the economic systems it critiques and yet relies on.
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Eagleton would likely explore how the novel reflects colonial ideology, examining its portrayal of European superiority and the “Otherness” of Africa and its people.	Emotive Discourse in Ideology: The novel’s narrative may seem to describe reality but instead expresses a colonialist ideology through emotional responses to the “unknown” and “savage” Africa.
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Eagleton might appreciate Joyce’s challenge to traditional narrative forms, reading it as a critique of bourgeois ideology and its reliance on coherent, linear narratives.	Modernist Challenge to Narrative Closure: Joyce’s fragmented narrative resists the closure typical of ideological texts, reflecting the heterogeneity and contradictions Eagleton discusses.
George Eliot’s Middlemarch	Eagleton might critique Eliot’s use of narrative closure to stabilize moral and social relations, despite the novel’s critique of Victorian class and gender norms.	Narrative Closure and Ideology: The narrative’s resolution stabilizes ideological contradictions, offering a critique of Victorian society while ultimately reinforcing its existing structures.

Criticism Against “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

Representative Quotations from “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Ideology, then, is the expression of the relation between men and their ‘world.’”	Eagleton explores how ideology expresses both real and imagined relations between individuals and their social conditions. This reflects his engagement with Althusser’s theory of ideology.
2. “Ideology is not to be reduced to misrecognition, but is to be seen as signifying a set of practical relations with the ‘real.’”	Eagleton critiques traditional views of ideology as false consciousness, arguing instead that ideology actively shapes lived relations with reality, not just misunderstandings or illusions.
3. “The logical point at stake here is that propositions may be true or false, but practices cannot be.”	Eagleton suggests that while ideological propositions can be critiqued for their truth or falsehood, the practical ways in which people live out these ideologies cannot be evaluated in the same way.
4. “Like ideology, literary texts frequently involve cognitive propositions, but those propositions are not present to inform us about the real.”	Eagleton aligns literary texts with ideology, emphasizing that literature doesn’t directly reflect reality but constructs meaning through indirect, ideological representations.
5. “Narrative, far from constituting some ruling-class conspiracy, is a valid and ineradicable mode of all human experience.”	Eagleton defends narrative as a fundamental human practice, arguing against the critique that it merely reinforces ruling-class ideologies. It’s an essential way people make sense of the world.
6. “Literary texts do things to us. What they bring about is not something that happens after we have finished reading them… but is effected by and in the reading.”	Here, Eagleton emphasizes the active role of literary texts as they shape readers’ thoughts and emotions during the act of reading, underscoring the performative power of literature.
7. “For Marx, the text of revolutionary history is not foreclosed upon itself in this way: it lacks the symmetrical shape of narrative, dispersed as it is into textual heterogeneity.”	Eagleton uses Marxism to critique traditional narrative forms, arguing that Marx’s historical materialism rejects linear, closed narratives in favor of ongoing, fragmented processes.
8. “It is not the case that post-revolutionary subjects will spontaneously ‘know’ the social formation in the very grain and texture of their ‘lived relations’ to it.”	Eagleton argues that even in a post-revolutionary society, ideology will persist in shaping how individuals relate to their social conditions, emphasizing the complexity of ideological influence.
9. “The insertion of the subject into an ideological formation is simultaneously its access to a repertoire of narrative conventions and devices which provide it with a stable self-identity through time.”	Eagleton highlights how individuals form their sense of identity through ideological narratives, which provide coherence to their lives, even though the narratives are shaped by ideology.
10. “The task of Marxism, as I have said, is to identify and transform the generative mechanisms of that determinate plurality, but the ‘content’ that will thereby be produced will, to revert to Marx’s phrase, ‘go beyond the phrase.’”	Eagleton describes the Marxist goal of not only revealing the mechanisms of ideology but also moving beyond ideological constructs to transformative social practices.

Suggested Readings: “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative” by Terry Eagleton

1. Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Verso, 2005.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Criticism and Ideology: A Study in Marxist Literary Theory. Verso, 2006.
3. Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.
4. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981. www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/.
5. Marx, Karl. Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Volume 1. Penguin Classics, 1990.
6. Said, Edward W. Beginnings: Intention and Method. Columbia University Press, 1985.
7. Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic. Methuen Drama, 2014.
8. Volosinov, V.N. Marxism and the Philosophy of Language. Harvard University Press, 1986. www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674550988.
9. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Pantheon, 1972.
10. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Norton & Company, 2007.