Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002. This insightful exploration of the relationship between irony and the Eucharist has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s analysis delves into the complexities of irony as a literary device and its potential to challenge traditional religious beliefs. His work has been widely cited and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

• Metaphor and Transubstantiation:
  Eagleton begins by drawing a parallel between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how a word like “fire” can change its meaning (to anger or passion) while retaining its original form. Similarly, in the Eucharist, bread and wine retain their outward appearance but are understood to become the body and blood of Christ. Eagleton explains, “The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine,” but their “substance” has changed through metaphorical transformation. This comparison highlights the mystery of transubstantiation where physical signs take on profound spiritual meaning.
• Semiotics of the Eucharist – The Concept of Meta-signs:
  Eagleton introduces the idea of the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, meaning they not only signify but also comment on the nature of signification itself. He explains, “The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one,” signifying both the presence and absence of meaning. In this sense, the Eucharist functions as a meta-signification, reflecting on signs and meanings beyond their literal forms.
• Irony in Signification:
  The Eucharist, Eagleton argues, carries an inherent irony. While it appears to be bread and wine, it symbolizes a reality beyond mere physical presence: the body of Christ. This is “a kind of symbolic face-to-faceness” where the elements signify both the presence of Christ and the transcendence of earthly signs. Eagleton emphasizes the irony in signifying the “non-discursive discursively,” pointing out the paradox that the bread and wine, though symbols, transcend the very concept of signification.
• The Role of the Body as a Sign:
  Eagleton discusses the body of Christ as both a sign and a meta-sign. The human body, like Christ’s body, is inherently expressive, making it a “sign” already. This expressivity is fully realized in the risen body, where “the material body itself becomes pure communication.” The Eucharistic bread and wine, therefore, signify a deeper form of expressivity and signification, encapsulating the fullness of spiritual meaning.
• Death and Fulfillment of Signs:
  One of Eagleton’s core arguments is that the Eucharist symbolizes both the death and consummation of the sign. In the Kingdom of God, signs give way to a state of pure expressivity – the body of Christ – rendering signs redundant. This duality, Eagleton argues, highlights the Eucharist as a self-cancelling semiotic system, where signs “bounce” the participant beyond their immediate meaning, much like “a trampoline.”
• Conclusion – Irony as the Ultimate Signification:
  Eagleton concludes by reinforcing the irony within the Eucharist. The bread and wine signify “their own emptiness” while remaining physically present, reflecting a semiotic system in which “there must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.” For Christian faith, the Eucharist is a paradoxical representation of presence and absence, encapsulating the divine reality that cannot be fully represented within earthly systems of meaning.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in “Irony and the Eucharist”
Metaphor	A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable.	Eagleton draws an analogy between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how bread and wine can signify the body and blood of Christ, just as “fire” can mean anger or passion.
Transubstantiation	The change of the substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist, while retaining their appearances.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, transubstantiation is discussed as a change in the “substance” of the Eucharistic elements while their form remains the same, likened to the operation of metaphor.
Meta-sign	A sign that reflects on or comments on the nature of signification itself.	The Eucharistic elements are described as meta-signs, as they not only signify the body of Christ but also comment on the process of signification, going beyond mere representation.
Irony	A rhetorical device or figure of speech in which the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning.	Eagleton identifies irony in the Eucharist, where the elements appear as bread and wine but signify something far more profound—the body of Christ—creating a paradox of meaning and non-meaning.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.	The entire essay revolves around a semiotic interpretation of the Eucharist, exploring how signs like bread and wine can hold and transcend meaning within Christian theology.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The Eucharist is heavily symbolic, with the bread and wine symbolizing Christ’s body and blood, but also representing the broader theological concepts of sacrifice, redemption, and divine presence.
Paradox	A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true.	The Eucharist embodies a paradox: the bread and wine signify Christ’s body, yet remain bread and wine. This contradiction is central to the theological and semiotic understanding of the ritual.
Signifier and Signified	In semiotics, the signifier is the form that a sign takes, and the signified is the concept it represents.	Eagleton uses this structuralist concept to explain how the Eucharist functions as a sign where the signifier (bread and wine) represents the signified (body and blood of Christ) but also transcends these meanings.
Expressivity	The capacity of a form (such as language or the body) to express meaning.	Eagleton highlights how the body of Christ is itself expressive, embodying meaning as a sign. The risen body, in particular, is described as “pure communication.”

Contribution of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through “Irony and the Eucharist”	Explanation
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Semiotic Breakdown and Meta-Signs	Using Eagleton’s concept of the meta-sign, Eliot’s fragmented style in The Waste Land can be seen as a breakdown of traditional signifiers, reflecting a world in which meaning has become disjointed. Just as Eagleton discusses the Eucharist as a sign pointing to the absence of meaning, Eliot’s work can be interpreted as a commentary on the disintegration of meaning in the modern world.
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Irony and the Absence of Meaning	Beckett’s play parallels Eagleton’s discussion of irony, where the bread and wine in the Eucharist represent something that they are not. In Waiting for Godot, the anticipation of Godot symbolizes a quest for meaning that never materializes. Beckett uses irony to show that the act of waiting itself becomes meaningless, much like Eagleton’s depiction of the Eucharist signifying its own emptiness.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Signifier and Signified Gap	Eagleton’s exploration of the gap between signifier and signified can be applied to Heart of Darkness, where Kurtz symbolizes the ineffable nature of imperialism’s horrors. Just as Eagleton argues that the Eucharist’s signified (Christ’s body) transcends representation, Conrad’s portrayal of Kurtz suggests that the true nature of colonialism is beyond the grasp of language and signification.
The Brothers Karamazov by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Religious Semiotics and the Sublime	Through the lens of Eagleton’s analysis of religious semiotics, the Eucharistic themes in The Brothers Karamazov can be critiqued as a struggle between material and spiritual realms. The character of Alyosha represents the sublime faith that transcends reason, aligning with Eagleton’s notion that religious symbols like the Eucharist signify something beyond rational or material comprehension.

Criticism Against “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

• Complexity and Accessibility:
  Eagleton’s use of dense philosophical language, particularly his engagement with semiotics and meta-signs, may render the essay inaccessible to readers unfamiliar with advanced literary theory or theological concepts.
• Over-reliance on Semiotic Analysis:
  Critics might argue that Eagleton’s heavy focus on semiotics could reduce the rich theological significance of the Eucharist to a mere play of signs, downplaying its spiritual and sacramental aspects.
• Lack of Theological Depth:
  Some may claim that Eagleton’s literary and semiotic approach lacks sufficient engagement with theological scholarship on the Eucharist, potentially oversimplifying or misrepresenting its deep religious significance.
• Limited Application to Broader Christian Practices:
  While Eagleton focuses on the Eucharist, his analysis may be too narrow in scope, failing to address how irony and signification play a role in other Christian sacraments or religious experiences.
• Philosophical Generalization:
  Eagleton’s linking of the Eucharist with post-structuralist theories of signification and irony could be seen as an overextension of literary theory into theology, making generalizations that may not resonate with traditional religious interpretations.
• Irony as Reductionist:
  By emphasizing the irony in the Eucharist, Eagleton might be accused of reducing the profundity of the ritual to a philosophical paradox, neglecting the emotional, communal, and devotional dimensions of the sacrament.

Representative Quotations from “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine.”	Eagleton begins by illustrating the mystery of transubstantiation, where the physical elements remain the same while their spiritual essence changes, introducing the central theme of irony.
“Flame has transubstantiated into fury.”	This metaphor explains how words change their meaning while retaining their form, paralleling how bread and wine transform into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist.
“The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one.”	Eagleton introduces the concept of meta-signs, emphasizing that the Eucharist is not just symbolic but reflects on the very nature of signification and meaning.
“It has to signify a condition beyond signification.”	The Eucharist is presented as a paradox: it must communicate something (divine presence) that inherently transcends ordinary forms of communication and representation.
“The sign is where degradation and redemption intersect.”	Eagleton connects the Eucharist to the idea of redemption through the degradation of signs, suggesting that it symbolizes both the suffering (degradation) and the salvation (redemption) of Christ.
“The irony of this love-feast is that it has to convey the non-discursive discursively.”	The Eucharist is described as inherently ironic because it tries to represent a non-verbal, divine mystery using the human medium of language and ritual.
“There must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.”	Eagleton highlights a core irony in the Eucharist: the bread and wine serve as signs of something (the body of Christ) that cannot be fully signified or represented within the system of signs.
“The symbol is the death of the thing.”	Borrowing from Jacques Lacan, Eagleton argues that symbols replace the actual objects they represent, and this applies to the Eucharist, where Christ’s body is symbolized through bread and wine.
“The risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity.”	Eagleton describes the resurrected body of Christ as the ultimate form of communication, where the physical body itself becomes pure expression and meaning.
“In this sense, the death of the sign is also the consummation of it.”	This phrase captures the paradox at the heart of the Eucharist, where the end of signification (death of the sign) is also its fulfillment, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ.

Suggested Readings: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
2. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
   https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/press/books/of_grammatology
3. Ricoeur, Paul. The Symbolism of Evil. Beacon Press, 1967.
   https://www.beacon.org/The-Symbolism-of-Evil-P1515.aspx
4. Milbank, John. Theology and Social Theory: Beyond Secular Reason. Wiley-Blackwell, 2006.
   https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Theology+and+Social+Theory%3A+Beyond+Secular+Reason%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9781405136846
5. Zizek, Slavoj. The Puppet and the Dwarf: The Perverse Core of Christianity. MIT Press, 2003. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262740258/the-puppet-and-the-dwarf/
6. Lacan, Jacques. The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis. W.W. Norton, 1998. https://wwnorton.com/books/9780393317756
7. Ward, Graham. Cities of God. Routledge, 2000.https://www.routledge.com/Cities-of-God/Ward/p/book/9780415196376
8. McCabe, Herbert. God Matters. Continuum, 1987. https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/god-matters-9780826494668/
9. Radford Ruether, Rosemary. Faith and Fratricide: The Theological Roots of Anti-Semitism. Wipf and Stock, 1996. https://wipfandstock.com/9781579107971/faith-and-fratricide/
10. “Semiotics of Religion.” Oxford Bibliographies, 2014.
    https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0076.xml

Introduction: “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1976 in the journal New Blackfriars, in its Volume 57, Number 671, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory. It explores the concept of decentering God, challenging the traditional centrality of divine authority in Western thought. Eagleton’s critique offers a profound reexamination of religious discourse and its influence on literary works, paving the way for new perspectives and interpretations.

Summary of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Context in Text
Humanism	A belief in the value and agency of human beings, typically focusing on human experiences and achievements.	Eagleton critiques how Marxism rejects humanism, once central to the Christian-Marxist dialogue. “Marxism is not a Humanism.”
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that sees human culture as a structure, where elements are interrelated and governed by rules.	Marxism and structuralism work together to “de-centre” the human subject, focusing on structures instead of individuals.
Decentering	The process of challenging and removing something or someone from the center of meaning or authority.	Central theme in Eagleton’s work, especially regarding the dethroning of “Man” and “God” from history.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that history develops through material conditions rather than ideas or beliefs.	Eagleton discusses how traditional Marxism moves away from humanism toward a more structural analysis.
Fetishism	The attribution of inherent value or power to an object, often in a way that masks its true function or origin.	A critique of how centralizing ideas (God, the monarch, gold) act as fetishes, obscuring the plurality of meanings.
Atheism	The absence of belief in deities, often used in contrast to theism.	Eagleton notes how atheism becomes politically relevant in rejecting the centralized authority of God in society.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols, particularly how meaning is created and communicated.	Eagleton refers to Marxist semioticians who explore how language and signs structure society and thought.
Discourse	A system of knowledge and meaning that governs how we speak, think, and act in society.	History is seen as a set of discourses that ‘speak’ man, rather than the other way around.
Arianism	A theological belief that Jesus Christ is subordinate to God the Father, contrary to the doctrine of the Trinity.	Eagleton discusses how Milton’s Arianism affects his understanding of the decentering of God and Man.
Deconstruction	A method of critical analysis that seeks to uncover multiple meanings within a text, showing how they undermine their own logic.	Eagleton applies Derrida’s concept of deconstruction to explore how authority figures like God or monarchs are decentered.
Transcendence	The belief in something that goes beyond ordinary experience, often related to God or an ultimate truth.	Eagleton critiques both Christian and Marxist humanism for seeking a transcendental meaning or essence.

Contribution of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “Decentering God”	Reference/Explanation
Paradise Lost by John Milton	Decentering of God’s authority: Milton’s portrayal of God reflects a distant, bureaucratic authority figure, leading to Satan’s failed rebellion.	“God seems to have withdrawn his presence from history… Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone… God.”
	Milton’s struggle with God’s authority: Eagleton critiques Milton’s failure to resolve the tension between free will and divine authority.	“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”
The Hidden God by Lucien Goldmann	God as an absent, unintelligible force: Goldmann critiques how God’s withdrawal from history leaves the world unintelligible, a reflection of a historical deadlock.	“God is at once present and absent in the world, robbing it of value because of his withdrawal.”
	Historical context of God’s absence: Eagleton uses Goldmann’s analysis to show how the emergence of bourgeois rationalism led to God’s withdrawal.	“Goldmann situates this ideology in… a deadlocked transitional phase… between absolutist-monarchical and bourgeois society.”
Samson Agonistes by John Milton	Decentering of God in history: Eagleton applies decentering to Milton’s portrayal of God as distant and arbitrary, leading to the tragic isolation of Samson.	“By the time of Samson Agonistes… God is the utterly remote presence whose arbitrary decrees you obey.”
	Failure to de-center the human subject: Milton does not manage to decenter the human subject in history due to his theological stance.	“Milton… is incapable of recognising… that Christ’s decentring of the Father is simultaneously a decentring of Man.”
The Fall of Man (Biblical Narrative)	Critique of authority and rebellion: Eagleton critiques the Biblical Fall of Man as a revolutionary decentering attempt (by Satan) that fails and re-establishes repressive authority.	“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”
	Theological implications of decentering: Eagleton suggests that both God’s authority and human freedom are at odds, creating contradictions within the narrative.	“The Christian stands… with the more traditional Marxist who decentres both.”

Criticism Against “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Representative Quotations from “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxism is not a Humanism.”	Eagleton aligns with Althusser’s view, rejecting the idea that Marxism should focus on human-centered perspectives.
“It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”	Eagleton emphasizes that history, shaped by social structures and discourses, creates individuals rather than vice versa.
“The subjects of history are not ‘men’, not even ‘social classes’, but… social formations.”	This challenges the humanistic view by centering on social structures rather than human subjects or collective groups.
“Atheistic Marxism attacks… some single enshrined essence of meaning… as a fetish.”	Eagleton critiques both religious and humanist ideologies for focusing on a central, fixed meaning, which he views as limiting.
“Like the unconscious, [history] has its reasons of which ‘living individuals’ know nothing.”	This reflects Eagleton’s structuralist influence, suggesting that individuals are unaware of the larger social forces shaping them.
“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”	Eagleton uses Milton’s Paradise Lost as an example of a failed attempt to decenter authority, illustrating the dangers of misguided rebellion.
“We are always already in the midst of meaning, traversed by the multiple codes which ‘speak’ us.”	Eagleton emphasizes the poststructuralist idea that meaning is never fixed, but constantly shaped by various cultural codes.
“For it is not that Christ is the medium by which the privileged subject of the Father reduplicates itself in the privileged subject of Man.”	Eagleton critiques the Christian humanist idea that Christ serves to restore the central authority of Man, offering a different theological reading.
“The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man by the discourses that ‘live’ him is part of that deeper movement.”	This quotation illustrates Eagleton’s alignment with poststructuralism and Marxism, advocating for continuous deconstruction of both God and Man.
“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”	Eagleton identifies the central tension in Milton’s work, where the conflict between divine authority and human freedom remains unresolved.

Suggested Readings: “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Basil Blackwell, 1990. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+Ideology+of+the+Aesthetic-p-9780631163023
2. Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Verso, 2005. https://www.versobooks.com/products/1600-for-marx
3. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. University of Chicago Press, 1978.
   https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/W/bo3629117.html
4. Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. Vintage Books, 1994. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/19936/the-order-of-things-by-michel-foucault/
5. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492226/the-political-unconscious/
6. Eagleton, Terry. Reason, Faith, and Revolution: Reflections on the God Debate. Yale University Press, 2009.
   https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300164534/reason-faith-and-revolution/
7. Goldmann, Lucien. The Hidden God: A Study of Tragic Vision in the Pensées of Pascal and the Tragedies of Racine. Routledge, 2013.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Hidden-God-A-Study-of-Tragic-Vision-in-the-Pensees-of-Pascal-and-the/Goldmann/p/book/9780415619459

Introduction: “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1982 in the International Socialism journal. This essay is considered a seminal piece in Marxist literary theory, marking a significant contribution to the field. Eagleton’s work explores the relationship between literature and society, arguing that literary texts are shaped by and reflect the social, economic, and political conditions of their time. His analysis offers a critical perspective on the role of literature in perpetuating or challenging dominant ideologies.

Summary of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

• Origins in Marx and Engels’ Work
  • Marxist literary criticism traces its roots to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their work provides a scattered but foundational set of ideas on literary form, realism, and aesthetics.
  • Marx’s contribution to aesthetics is interwoven with his larger debates on material production, labor, and commodification, making literary criticism less of an isolated practice and more of a part of his general theory of superstructures. (Lifshitz, 1973).
• Materialist Criticism and Historical Context
  • A central theme in Marxist criticism is the material basis of cultural practices. Marx and Engels explored the relationship between aesthetic superstructures and material history, although they didn’t formulate a full theory of ideological superstructures.
  • Marxist criticism must account for how history produces literary texts as complex signifiers, requiring criticism to be understood as a product of specific historical epochs and contexts.
• Bolshevik Revolution and Post-Revolutionary Marxist Criticism
  • The Bolshevik Revolution marks a seismic shift in Marxist criticism, leading to the intersection of different critical modes, particularly seen in the collision of ideas in Trotsky’s Literature and Revolution.
  • Pre-revolutionary critics like Georgi Plekhanov adhered to a sociological and anthropological form of criticism, while post-revolutionary critics like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed, politically engaged literature. This laid the groundwork for concepts like socialist realism.
• Contradictions within Marxist Aesthetic Theory
  • After the revolution, Marxist aesthetics grappled with multiple theoretical problems: the relationship between art and class structure, the role of art in revolutionary politics, and the dilemma of whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed.
  • The dominance of socialist realism under Stalin marked a setback for more nuanced, materialist aesthetic practices. This led to a return to the ideas of Marx, Engels, and Hegel by critics like Georg Lukács and the Frankfurt School, who tried to preserve the critical function of art in the face of Stalinist repression (Jay, 1973).
• Diverse Marxist Approaches
  • Marxist aesthetics evolved into multiple streams. Brecht and Benjamin, for instance, rejected the idealism of earlier Marxist critics, focusing on the material conditions of artistic production. They viewed art as a transformative practice, not just a reflection of political ideology (Benjamin, 1973).
  • Other critics, such as Galvano Della Volpe, applied a rational materialist analysis to literary texts, focusing on semiotic codes and literary form. His work reflects an alignment with the Russian Formalists’ detailed attention to textual structures.
• The Need for a Structural-Historical Approach
  • Eagleton argues for a conjuncture of different critical modes—attention to literary form (from the Hegelian tradition), an understanding of art as material production (from Futurism and Constructivism), and a semiological critique of texts (from Formalism). These modes need to be combined to create a genuinely materialist literary criticism.
  • The failure to achieve this synthesis has led to the dominance of partial, internally imbalanced approaches in Marxist criticism, resulting in theoretical stagnation in some areas.
• Contemporary Marxist Criticism
  • In the English context, Eagleton critiques the eclecticism of materialist criticism, which lacks a scientific basis and relies too much on empirical sociology or romantic idealism. He cites Raymond Williams as an example of a critic who, while pioneering, does not fully embody a Marxist approach.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Essay
Aesthetics	The philosophical study of beauty and art, particularly its principles and forms.	Eagleton discusses how Marx and Engels did not develop a systematic aesthetics, but their work offers foundational ideas.
Superstructure	In Marxist theory, the social, political, and ideological systems that arise from the economic base.	Literary texts are seen as part of the superstructure, reflecting and mediating material history.
Materialism	A focus on material conditions (economy, labor) as the basis for understanding society and culture.	Marxist literary criticism emphasizes the material basis of cultural practices and their economic roots.
Dialectical Materialism	The Marxist methodology of understanding history and society through the contradictions of material conditions.	This method is central to Marxist criticism, which views literary texts through their relation to material production.
Realism	A style of writing that depicts life as it is, often focusing on the struggles of everyday people.	Realism is valued in Marxist criticism for its ability to reveal the material conditions of society.
Reflectionism	The theory that art reflects society and its class structures.	Critiqued by Eagleton as insufficiently nuanced, especially in the works of Plekhanov and early Marxist critics.
Commitment in Art	The idea that literature and art should be politically engaged and promote revolutionary values.	Figures like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed literature to support revolutionary change.
Socialist Realism	A Soviet aesthetic that promoted art as a tool for advancing socialist ideals, often through idealized depictions of the working class.	Eagleton critiques its eventual degeneration under Stalinism as a reduction of art to political propaganda.
Formalism	A literary theory focused on the structure and form of literary texts rather than their content.	Eagleton discusses its relevance in the Russian context, particularly in contrast to Marxist materialist approaches.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols in language and literature, analyzing how meaning is produced.	Eagleton points to critics like Galvano Della Volpe, who combined Marxist theory with semiotic analysis of texts.
Bourgeois Culture	The culture of the middle/upper class, often critiqued in Marxism for being tied to capitalist interests.	Marxist critics debate whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed in revolutionary practice.
Hegelianism	A philosophical tradition based on the work of Hegel, emphasizing dialectics and historical development.	Influences Marxist aesthetics, particularly in the work of Lukács and the Frankfurt School.
Proletkult	A Soviet cultural movement that aimed to develop a new, proletarian art form distinct from bourgeois culture.	Eagleton discusses its failure to produce a lasting materialist aesthetic, overshadowed by socialist realism.
Textual Ideology	The idea that literary texts carry implicit ideologies related to the class structures of society.	Marxist critics analyze how ideology manifests in literature, often through contradictions and ambiguities.
Conjuncture	A specific historical moment where different forces or modes of criticism collide or intersect.	Eagleton uses this concept to describe key periods in Marxist criticism, such as the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution.

Contribution of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

• Beyond “Reflectionism”: Eagleton criticizes simplistic views that see literature as merely reflecting social structures. He argues for a more complex understanding where literary texts are shaped by, but also potentially challenge, dominant ideologies.  
• Multiple Strata of Marxist Criticism: Eagleton identifies different historical moments and trends within Marxist criticism. He highlights the tension between “reflectionism,” revolutionary aesthetics, and the focus on textual production and semiotics.
• The Importance of the Bolshevik Revolution: The essay emphasizes the pivotal role of the Bolshevik revolution in shaping Marxist criticism. It brought various critical modes like revolutionary aesthetics, formalism, and futurism into sharp focus.
• The Need for Conjuncture: Eagleton proposes the necessity of a “conjuncture” where historical materialism combines with the strengths of other critical approaches. This includes attention to:
  • Textual Form and Ideology: Building on Hegelian aesthetics, a focus on how form, value, ideology, and history interrelate within a text.  
  • Material Practice and Production: Analyzing literature as a form of production with its own social relations, drawing from the work of Brecht and Benjamin.
  • Textual Codes and Conventions: Studying how meaning is constructed through language and codes, as explored by Formalism and semiotics.
• Against Eclecticism: Eagleton argues against simply borrowing from different approaches. He emphasizes the need for a rigorous and unified “scientific aesthetics” grounded in historical materialism.

Examples of Critiques Through “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Marxist Critique
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	While Austen’s novel critiques the superficiality of class-based marriage, it also reinforces the patriarchal norms of the time. The characters’ concerns with wealth, status, and marriage proposals reflect the societal pressures of the era.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Fitzgerald’s novel exposes the emptiness of the American Dream and the corrupting influence of wealth. The characters’ pursuit of material success and their ultimate downfall highlight the destructive nature of capitalism.
The Jungle by Upton Sinclair	Sinclair’s novel provides a scathing critique of the capitalist system through its depiction of the harsh working conditions and exploitation of immigrant workers in the meatpacking industry. The novel calls for social and economic reforms to address the injustices faced by the working class.
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison	Ellison’s novel explores the experiences of an unnamed African American protagonist who struggles to find his identity in a racist society. The novel critiques the invisibility and marginalization of Black people in America, highlighting the systemic racism embedded within the capitalist system.

Criticism Against “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

• Lack of a Fully Developed Aesthetic Theory by Marx and Engels
  • Critics argue that Marx and Engels did not formulate a comprehensive or systematic theory of art and aesthetics, making later Marxist critics rely on fragmented insights.
• Overemphasis on Material Conditions at the Expense of Artistic Autonomy
  • Some argue that Marxist criticism reduces art to mere reflections of economic and social conditions, neglecting the autonomy of artistic creativity and innovation.
• Simplistic Reflectionism in Early Marxist Critics
  • Eagleton critiques the simplistic notion of “reflectionism,” particularly in the works of Georgi Plekhanov, which suggests that literature directly mirrors class structures without accounting for the complexity of artistic representation.
• Reduction of Art to Political Propaganda in Socialist Realism
  • The concept of socialist realism, particularly during Stalinism, is seen as a reductive approach to art that forces it into political propaganda, stifling creativity and diversity in literary expression.
• Internal Contradictions within Marxist Criticism
  • Marxist literary criticism struggles with its own contradictions, such as whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed, or whether artistic value can be separated from political progressiveness.
• Over-reliance on Historical Contextualization
  • Critics suggest that Marxist criticism sometimes focuses too heavily on the historical and material context of literature, potentially ignoring the aesthetic, formal, or symbolic elements of texts.
• Neglect of the Formal and Semiotic Aspects of Literature
  • While Eagleton acknowledges the importance of formalism and semiotics, critics note that traditional Marxist criticism often overlooks the intrinsic formal properties of a literary text in favor of broader ideological or material concerns.
• Eclecticism in Contemporary Materialist Criticism
  • Eagleton critiques the eclectic nature of contemporary materialist criticism, which often lacks a coherent methodology and borrows too freely from other theoretical approaches, diluting its effectiveness.
• Failure to Adequately Address Modern Forms of Art and Literature
  • Some critics argue that Marxist literary criticism struggles to deal with contemporary, postmodern forms of art and literature, which do not easily fit into its frameworks based on realism, class struggle, and historical materialism.

Representative Quotations from “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxist criticism begins, naturally, with the work of Marx and Engels themselves.”	Eagleton emphasizes the foundational role of Marx and Engels in Marxist literary criticism, though their work on literature was often fragmentary.
“…it is still remarkable how many of the issues now central to the development of a Marxist criticism emerge in embryonic form in their oeuvre.”	Despite the lack of a systematic theory, Eagleton highlights how Marx and Engels laid the groundwork for many key topics in Marxist literary criticism.
“It is the materialist method of the Grundrisse and Capital, not hints gleaned from the ‘literary criticism’, which must form the basis of anything worthy of the title of a ‘Marxist criticism’.”	Eagleton argues that Marxist criticism should be based on the broader materialist method of Marx’s economic and social theories, not just literary insights.
“The problem for Marxist criticism… is how it comes about that history produces (and reproduces) that set of ambiguous significations which we term the literary text.”	Eagleton identifies a key challenge for Marxist criticism: understanding how historical processes produce literary texts and the meanings they carry.
“Before the revolution, Marxist criticism was nurtured largely in the shadow of the later Engels.”	Eagleton discusses how early Marxist criticism was heavily influenced by Engels, whose approach combined sociological and anthropological insights.
“…socialist realism, the concept of literary partisanship, degenerate into the theoretical nullity of proletkult and its Stalinist aftermath.”	This quote critiques the decline of socialist realism into a tool for political propaganda under Stalinism, losing its critical and aesthetic value.
“The epistemological problem: is art reflection, refraction, creation, transformation, reproduction, production?”	Eagleton outlines the complex theoretical issues that Marxist criticism faces when trying to define the relationship between art and society.
“The failure to achieve this synthesis has had dire consequences; as the strata have been wedged apart, each has displayed a tendency to subside internally under its own unsupported weight.”	Eagleton laments the fragmentation of different critical approaches within Marxist criticism, resulting in their internal weaknesses.
“One might formulate the problem paradoxically by saying that our best Marxist critic – Raymond Williams – is not in fact a Marxist.”	Eagleton provocatively suggests that while Raymond Williams made significant contributions to literary criticism, he does not fully embody Marxist theory.
“…the need for a scientific aesthetics cannot be ignored.”	Eagleton concludes by calling for a more rigorous, systematic approach to aesthetics within Marxist literary criticism to go beyond mere interpretation.

Suggested Readings: “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Benjamin, Walter. Understanding Brecht. New Left Books, 1973.
2. Brecht, Bertolt. “Against Georg Lukacs.” New Left Review, no. 84, March-April 1974, pp. 39-53.
   https://newleftreview.org/issues/I84/articles/bertolt-brecht-against-georg-lukacs
3. Goldmann, Lucien. Towards a Sociology of the Novel. Tavistock, 1975.
   https://archive.org/details/towardssociology00gold
4. Jay, Martin. The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950. Heinemann, 1973.
   https://archive.org/details/dialecticalimagi00jaym
5. Lenin, V. I. Tolstoy and His Time. International Publishers, 1952.
   https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/dec/10.htm
6. Lifshitz, Mikhail. The Philosophy of Art of Karl Marx. Pluto Press, 1973.
   https://www.marxists.org/archive/lifshitz/1973/philosophy-art.pdf
7. Macherey, Pierre. Pour une Théorie de la Production Littéraire. François Maspero, 1966.
   https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb37222989f

Introduction: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1967 in the journal New Blackfriars, is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton argues that liberalism, while valuable in promoting individual rights and freedoms, ultimately fails to address the underlying social and economic inequalities that perpetuate injustice. He critiques liberalism’s emphasis on formal equality and its neglect of the structural power imbalances that shape society. This essay helped to establish Eagleton as a leading figure in Marxist literary criticism and continues to be widely discussed and debated in academic circles.

Summary of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• The Focus on Liberal Christian Tradition
  Terry Eagleton critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book as a significant contribution to liberal Christian thought. It successfully connects psychological, literary, and Christian insights to explore themes like love, freedom, and maturity in personal relationships. However, Eagleton argues that the book is deeply embedded in the liberal tradition, focusing on personal experience and neglecting broader societal structures, politics, and history.
• The Limits of Individualism and Personal Experience
  Eagleton notes that Haughton’s focus is primarily on individual experience and the psychological dimensions of human relationships. This leads to a narrow interpretation of what it means to be human. While the personal aspects are sensitively handled, the exclusion of political and historical struggles, collective actions, and broader social commitments weakens the analysis of humanity.
• Critique of Christian Liberalism’s Inward Focus
  According to Eagleton, Christian liberalism, as represented in Haughton’s work, emphasizes an inward spiritual experience over external social realities. This creates a dualism between the personal and societal, where external actions and institutions are seen as mere aids to personal spiritual growth, rather than integral components of human experience. Eagleton argues that Christianity should integrate personal and political dimensions rather than treating them separately.
• The Problem of Liberalism’s Open-Endedness
  Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on openness and exploration without commitment to specific truths or actions. He draws parallels to Mill, Arnold, and Leavis in this regard, suggesting that Haughton’s perspective prioritizes openness and self-exploration over firm commitment to political or religious truths. This results in a version of Christianity that lacks depth and fails to address real social change.
• The Dualism of Flesh and Spirit
  Haughton’s approach reinforces a Cartesian dualism between flesh and spirit, where the body and social institutions are necessary but secondary to the spiritual life. Eagleton challenges this view, asserting that Christian and political radicalism involve transforming the “flesh” or material reality into a language through which the spirit is expressed. This holistic view contrasts with the liberal tendency to separate the inward and external aspects of life.
• Inadequate Integration of the Social and Political
  Eagleton contends that liberal Christianity, as portrayed in Haughton’s book, alienates political and social behaviors from the authentic self. He argues that political and social structures are not external constraints but integral parts of human experience and freedom. By relegating politics to the external, liberalism fails to engage with the full complexity of human life.
• The Role of Rules and Culture
  Eagleton praises Haughton’s metaphor of learning the rules of perspective in art, suggesting that this is an insightful description of how human culture works. Humans internalize rules and conventions that make their experiences meaningful. However, Eagleton believes Haughton undercuts this insight by treating rules as superficial scaffolding rather than essential structures for human life and relationships.
• The Need for Radical Transformation
  In conclusion, Eagleton calls for a more radical approach that surpasses the limits of liberalism. He argues that a true Christian and political radicalism must integrate personal experience with social and political realities, rather than treating them as separate or in opposition. Until this integration is achieved, liberalism will remain limited in its ability to effect meaningful social change.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “The Limits of Liberalism”
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual freedom, personal rights, and open inquiry.	Eagleton critiques the liberal Christian tradition, which emphasizes personal experience over broader political and social realities.
Dualism	The division of two opposing forces or concepts, such as body vs. spirit or individual vs. society.	Eagleton highlights the dualism in Haughton’s work between inward spiritual life and external social structures.
Christian Liberalism	A strand of Christianity that emphasizes personal spirituality and exploration, often at the expense of dogma.	Eagleton critiques this focus for its lack of engagement with political and social action.
Dogma	A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.	Eagleton contrasts liberalism’s open-endedness with the commitment and exclusivity often associated with Christian dogma.
Individualism	The focus on the individual’s self-expression and autonomy, often in contrast to collective or societal norms.	Eagleton critiques Haughton for prioritizing individual spiritual growth over social or political engagement.
Sacrament	A religious ceremony regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward and spiritual divine grace.	Eagleton discusses how Haughton downplays the role of material and social structures in favor of inward spiritual authenticity.
Romanticism	A literary and cultural movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature.	Eagleton references Romanticism when critiquing Haughton’s view of personal spiritual freedom as opposed to broader social institutions.
Political Radicalism	A belief in fundamental societal change, often through revolutionary or profound structural transformation.	Eagleton contrasts Christian liberalism’s personal focus with political radicalism, which seeks to transform society as a whole.
Cartesian Dualism	A philosophical term referring to Descartes’ division between mind (spirit) and body (flesh).	Eagleton critiques the dualism in Haughton’s work that separates the flesh (social reality) from the spirit (authentic inner life).
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities beyond the literal meaning.	Eagleton discusses how external actions and social institutions can be seen as symbols through which spiritual life is expressed.
Situational Ethics	The idea that ethical decisions should be based on the context of a situation rather than fixed moral rules.	Eagleton identifies this approach in Haughton’s work, where external actions and moral codes are considered secondary to inward authenticity.
Cultural Alienation	The feeling of being estranged from the dominant values or norms of society.	Eagleton argues that Haughton’s liberalism leads to a political alienation where personal authenticity is separated from social engagement.

Contribution of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

This excerpt from Eagleton’s “The Limits of Liberalism” critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book “Trying to be Human.” Here are some key points of Eagleton’s argument, focusing on specific theories from the text:

• Limited Scope: Eagleton argues Haughton focuses too narrowly on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context (p. 353). He suggests a more complete picture requires considering collective action and social struggles (p. 353).
• Liberal Oversimplification: Eagleton criticizes Haughton’s portrayal of Christianity as solely promoting openness, exploration, and self-discovery. He argues Christianity also has a history, doctrines, and commitments that define it (p. 354).
• Individual vs. Societal: Eagleton finds fault with Haughton’s view of Christianity opposing social structures and institutions. He argues that authentic human relationships and communication exist within these structures, not entirely separate from them (p. 354-355).
• False Duality: Eagleton criticizes the book’s portrayal of a split between “spirit” and “flesh.” He argues that external structures like laws, customs, and institutions are not just limitations but also the language through which the spirit expresses itself (p. 354-356).
• Importance of Rules: Eagleton disagrees with the book’s suggestion that rules and codes are merely external constraints on authenticity. He argues that interiorizing them is essential for human culture and authentic living (p. 356-357).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique
Rosemary Haughton’s Trying to be Human	Overemphasis on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context.
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty	Liberal emphasis on individual rights and freedoms without considering the structural power imbalances that shape society.
Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy	Liberal belief in the power of culture to improve society without addressing underlying social and economic inequalities.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Liberal portrayal of the clash between East and West as a conflict between individual freedom and cultural tradition, neglecting the power dynamics of colonialism.

Criticism Against “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• Narrow Focus on Personal Experience
  Eagleton is criticized for placing too much emphasis on the personal, psychological, and individual dimensions of Christianity, neglecting broader societal, political, and historical perspectives.
• Overemphasis on Dualism
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism often hinges on a dualistic view of personal versus societal, or flesh versus spirit, which some critics argue oversimplifies the relationship between individual and collective experience.
• Lack of Engagement with the Positive Aspects of Liberalism
  Critics might argue that Eagleton fails to acknowledge the strengths of liberalism, such as its emphasis on personal freedom, individual rights, and openness to multiple viewpoints, which can be seen as vital in a pluralistic society.
• Dismissal of Exploration and Openness
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s emphasis on openness, exploration, and personal honesty may be seen as too harsh, especially since these values are often considered crucial for intellectual and spiritual growth.
• Insufficient Consideration of Modern Liberal Thought
  Eagleton’s critique largely focuses on traditional liberalism without sufficiently addressing the evolution of liberal thought, especially its more recent attempts to incorporate social justice, political activism, and institutional change.
• Heavy Reliance on Christian Radicalism
  Some critics may argue that Eagleton’s call for a more radical, politicized version of Christianity is overly idealistic and may not resonate with the practical realities of contemporary faith communities.
• Tendency to Romanticize Radicalism
  Eagleton’s preference for political radicalism over the more gradual, reformist tendencies of liberalism might be criticized for romanticizing revolutionary change without fully accounting for the complexities and risks involved.
• Overgeneralization of Liberalism’s Limitations
  Eagleton’s blanket critique of liberalism as being disconnected from real social change might overlook the fact that liberal values have played a significant role in progressive reforms and political movements throughout history.

Representative Quotations from “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The liberal tradition is not the only one in modern Christianity, and when it stands alone, as it does here, it demonstrates at once its strengths and failures.”	Eagleton acknowledges both the strengths and weaknesses of the liberal Christian tradition, indicating that its focus on individual experience can be valuable, but insufficient without addressing broader societal issues.
“The meaning of the human, the book implicitly suggests, is precisely in this deeper entry into an understanding of felt relationship.”	Eagleton critiques Haughton’s narrow focus on personal relationships as the core of humanity, ignoring the political and collective dimensions that shape human experience.
“The Christian life is characterized as a search, an exploration… But like radical politics, it unites this openness with a closedness.”	Eagleton points out that while exploration is important in Christianity, it must be coupled with commitment to certain truths or actions, a balance lacking in liberalism’s constant openness.
“The liberal, unending openness, objectified to a goal— a dogma— by an English liberal tradition…is no more satisfying in itself than the closed and killing dogmatism of the English Communist Party.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism’s tendency toward indefinite openness without firm commitments, comparing it to the opposite extreme of rigid dogmatism, which is equally unsatisfactory.
“The second, major defect of Christian liberalism is an option for the inward against the external, the personal against society.”	This quote captures Eagleton’s central criticism of liberalism’s inward focus on personal spirituality at the expense of engaging with external social and political realities.
“The fact that these are not scaffolding, but the structure of the spirit, the ways in which human life becomes real and formulable, is then blurred over.”	Eagleton argues that external structures like social institutions are not mere aids to spirituality but essential elements that give form and meaning to human life, a nuance overlooked in Haughton’s liberal view.
“Politics…deals with the outside aspects of humanity, the personal-authentic-psychological with the real inwardness.”	This reflects Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s separation of politics from personal authenticity, suggesting that political behavior is as integral to human identity as inward spiritual experience.
“Human beings live by actively interiorizing rules, codes, conventions…which make that experience humanly possible.”	Eagleton emphasizes the importance of social conventions and rules in shaping human experience, countering the liberal preference for spontaneous, unstructured personal freedom.
“Christians are virtuous not by rejecting rules and codes…but by coming to act spontaneously in accordance with them.”	Eagleton highlights the Christian ideal of internalizing moral and social rules, aligning them with personal virtue, contrasting this with liberalism’s tendency to reject external rules.
“When rules are set against authenticity, a whole set of dualisms follow: law against spontaneity, politics against the individual, flesh against spirit.”	This quote summarizes Eagleton’s critique of the false dualisms created by liberalism, where rules and societal structures are seen as opposed to personal authenticity and spiritual freedom.

Suggested Readings: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. “The Limits of Liberalism.” New Blackfriars, vol. 52, no. 613, 1971, pp. 353-357. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.1971.tb06692.x.
2. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1869.
3. Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy. Smith, Elder & Co., 1869.
4. Fromm, Erich. The Sane Society. Rinehart, 1955.
5. Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. Chatto & Windus, 1948.
6. Forster, E. M. Two Cheers for Democracy. Edward Arnold & Co., 1951.

Introduction: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of literary theory. His exploration of the role of criticism in society and its relationship to power has had a profound impact on scholars and students alike. The book’s second edition, reprinted by Verso in 1984, solidified its status as a foundational text in literary studies.

Summary of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

9. Criticism’s Future:

• Eagleton envisions a future where criticism plays a central role in fostering creative activity by developing a rich intellectual atmosphere. While criticism itself may not offer the same fulfillment as creative work, it lays the foundation for future generations of artists and thinkers.
• Reference: Criticism prepares the groundwork for a “promised land” of creative activity, even if the critic does not directly participate in it (p. 49).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Text
Criticism	The analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literary works.	Eagleton argues that criticism involves seeing “the object as in itself it really is” and establishing a current of true ideas that influence creative work. He sees it as a crucial precursor to creation, forming the intellectual environment in which creative genius can flourish.
Creative Power	The ability to produce original literary or artistic work, considered the highest form of human intellectual activity.	Eagleton recognizes that the creative power is superior to criticism but asserts that criticism is necessary for the creative power to have the intellectual materials (ideas) it needs to work with effectively.
Disinterestedness	A critical approach that is free from political, practical, or personal bias.	Eagleton insists that criticism should remain disinterested, meaning that it should not serve practical or political interests. Instead, it should focus purely on the intellectual task of understanding and spreading the best knowledge and ideas.
Intellectual Atmosphere	The environment of ideas and knowledge within which creative works are produced.	According to Eagleton, great creative epochs arise when there is a rich intellectual atmosphere. Criticism helps build this atmosphere by developing and circulating ideas that can inspire and nourish creativity.
Epoch of Creation	A period in history marked by significant and original creative activity.	Eagleton argues that epochs of creative power are rare and often rely on the intellectual work done in preceding times of criticism. He refers to past creative periods like those of Aeschylus and Shakespeare as examples of times when criticism had already prepared the necessary intellectual climate.
Synthesis	The combination of ideas to form a cohesive and comprehensive whole.	Eagleton describes the role of creative genius as one of synthesis, meaning that it works by combining existing ideas in new and effective ways, rather than by discovering new ideas (which is more the work of philosophers).
Intellectual Progress	The advancement of knowledge, understanding, and the quality of ideas within a culture or society.	Eagleton sees criticism as central to intellectual progress, helping society move beyond narrow or outdated ideas by critically engaging with the best ideas available, regardless of their practical or political consequences.
The Practical Spirit	A mindset focused on the utility and application of ideas in everyday, political, or economic life.	Eagleton criticizes the “practical spirit” of English society, which prioritizes practical outcomes over intellectual exploration. He argues that criticism must avoid becoming entangled with this spirit in order to truly contribute to intellectual and cultural progress.
Free Play of the Mind	The unrestrained exploration of ideas for their own sake, without concern for practical applications.	Eagleton champions the “free play of the mind” as essential to criticism. He argues that criticism should value ideas in themselves, seeking to understand them without regard to whether they serve practical, political, or economic interests.
Creative Epochs	Periods in history when literature and art flourish, producing great works.	Eagleton asserts that such epochs require a rich intellectual environment prepared by criticism. He contrasts epochs of creation with epochs of intellectual stagnation, where criticism has failed to establish the necessary intellectual atmosphere for creativity.
Intellectual and Spiritual Expansion	A period where thought and culture grow dynamically, embracing new ideas and perspectives.	Eagleton contrasts this with periods of concentration, where society turns inward and intellectual stagnation occurs. He suggests that criticism should aim to foster intellectual and spiritual expansion by engaging with ideas disinterestedly and promoting fresh, true ideas.
Philistinism	A derogatory term for the rejection or undervaluing of culture, intellectual pursuits, and the arts.	Eagleton uses “Philistinism” to describe the tendency in English society to prioritize practical concerns over intellectual and cultural activities, a mindset that he argues criticism should actively work to counter.

Contribution of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory/Theory	Eagleton’s Contribution	Reference from “The Function of Criticism”
New Historicism	Eagleton’s emphasis on the intellectual and historical context shaping literary creation aligns with New Historicism, which views literature as a product of its historical circumstances. He highlights how literature cannot exist in a vacuum and requires a rich intellectual atmosphere shaped by criticism.	Eagleton discusses how great literary epochs depend on the “power of the moment” and the intellectual conditions surrounding them (p. 29).
Marxist Literary Theory	Eagleton contributes to Marxist theory by discussing the material and intellectual conditions necessary for great creative works to emerge. He argues that criticism plays a role in establishing an intellectual climate, which in turn allows for the flourishing of literature, suggesting a dialectical relationship between society and art.	“The critical power… tends to establish an order of ideas” and enables the creation of literature by ensuring the best ideas of the time are available (p. 28).
Cultural Materialism	Eagleton’s insistence on the importance of cultural and intellectual forces in shaping literary production resonates with Cultural Materialism. He critiques English society’s fixation on practical concerns, arguing that criticism must remain disinterested and independent from political or economic interests.	Eagleton critiques the “practical spirit” of English society and emphasizes the importance of criticism being independent of practical concerns (p. 36).
Poststructuralism	Eagleton critiques the hierarchical relationship between creative and critical power, which challenges traditional notions of authority in literature. He argues that criticism is not subordinate to creation but essential to enabling the conditions for creation, which resonates with poststructuralist decentering of authority.	Eagleton challenges the idea that “the critical power is of lower rank than the creative” and argues for the value of criticism in enabling creation (p. 27).
Reader-Response Theory	Although Eagleton does not directly engage with Reader-Response Theory, his emphasis on criticism shaping intellectual climates implies that critics influence how texts are understood. By establishing currents of true ideas, criticism affects how readers and future critics interpret and engage with literary works.	Eagleton discusses how criticism helps create “a current of true and fresh ideas,” which impacts the way literary works are received and understood by readers and critics (p. 37).
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Debate	Eagleton contrasts Romanticism’s focus on creativity with Enlightenment ideals of reason and critical inquiry. He criticizes Romantic thinkers like Wordsworth for undervaluing criticism, suggesting that Enlightenment-style critical effort is essential for sustained creativity, thus engaging with the Romanticism-Enlightenment debate.	Wordsworth’s view of criticism as inferior to creative activity is critiqued, as Eagleton argues that the critical effort is necessary to produce substantial and long-lasting creative work (p. 27).
Humanism	Eagleton contributes to the humanist tradition by emphasizing the role of criticism in fostering intellectual growth and human perfection. He suggests that criticism helps individuals and societies to move beyond self-satisfaction and toward a more profound understanding of ideas and culture, a key tenet of humanist thought.	Eagleton states that criticism should “lead man towards perfection” by engaging with the best ideas and fostering an intellectual climate that values excellence (p. 37).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Example of Critique Using Eagleton’s “The Function of Criticism”
William Wordsworth’s “The Prelude”	Critique would focus on how Wordsworth’s poetry could have benefited from a richer intellectual atmosphere. Eagleton suggests that Wordsworth, despite his creative genius, lacked a broader engagement with literature, especially German thinkers like Goethe, which limited the philosophical depth and variety of his poetic thought.
Lord Byron’s “Don Juan”	Eagleton would critique Byron’s work for its lack of critical foundation, arguing that while Byron possessed strong creative power, his poetry lacks the intellectual rigor and knowledge of life and the world that would sustain it. The absence of a strong critical environment left Byron’s work comparatively “empty of matter.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s “Faust”	Eagleton praises Goethe as an example of how strong critical engagement enriches creative output. Goethe’s work, particularly “Faust,” would be seen as nourished by his intellectual engagement with life, literature, and criticism. Goethe’s wide-ranging learning and synthesis of ideas serve as a model for how criticism fosters enduring creativity.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound”	Shelley’s poetry, like Byron’s, would be critiqued for its incoherence, which Eagleton might attribute to a lack of sufficient critical foundation. Although rich in passion and energy, Shelley’s work suffers from an intellectual environment that failed to fully engage with the complexities of modern thought, making his poetry less coherent and less enduring.

Criticism Against “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Ideas: Critics argue that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere is excessive, neglecting the importance of other factors such as social, cultural, and historical contexts in shaping literary production.
2. Underestimation of Creative Intuition: Some contend that Eagleton downplays the role of intuition and creative genius in literary creation. They argue that great works of art often emerge from subconscious impulses rather than conscious intellectual effort.
3. Historical Specificity: Critics have questioned the generalizability of Eagleton’s claims. They argue that his observations about the relationship between criticism and creativity may not hold true in all historical and cultural contexts.
4. Limited Definition of Criticism: Eagleton’s definition of criticism as “the free play of the mind on all subjects” has been criticized as overly narrow. Some argue that criticism can also involve other forms of engagement, such as interpretation, evaluation, and social commentary.
5. Neglect of Power Dynamics: Critics have suggested that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere overlooks the power dynamics that shape literary production and reception. They argue that factors such as class, race, and gender can significantly influence the production and consumption of literature.
6. Overemphasis on Western Canon: Some critics have accused Eagleton of privileging Western literature and Western intellectual traditions. They argue that his analysis does not adequately account for the diverse literary traditions and critical practices found around the world.

Representative Quotations from “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The critical power is of lower rank than the creative. True; but…men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art.”	Eagleton acknowledges that creative work is often valued more than criticism but argues that critical activity also involves creativity, as it engages with intellectual ideas and helps shape the conditions for future creativity.
“Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims.”	Eagleton stresses that criticism should remain detached from political, practical, and material interests. This disinterestedness allows criticism to focus purely on intellectual growth and avoid being manipulated by external pressures or interests.
“Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more.”	Criticism’s primary role is to disseminate and understand the best knowledge and ideas available. Eagleton suggests that it must stay within its own domain and not become involved in broader political or practical applications.
“It is the business of the critical power…to see the object as in itself it really is.”	This statement reflects Eagleton’s belief that criticism should strive to understand works of literature and art in their purest form, without distorting them to fit preconceived notions, ideologies, or practical agendas.
“The exercise of creative power in the production of great works of literature…is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible.”	Eagleton argues that not all historical moments are ripe for great creative works. The conditions necessary for such works—such as the intellectual atmosphere and critical foundation—must be in place, and these are shaped by criticism.
“Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps…when criticism has done its work.”	Eagleton asserts that criticism often precedes periods of creative flourishing. The critical analysis and circulation of ideas help to build the intellectual climate that fosters the production of great literary works.
“The grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.”	Here, Eagleton defines the role of literary creation as combining and presenting ideas rather than discovering new ideas, which he views as more of a philosophical endeavor. Critics help by making those ideas available for synthesis by creative geniuses.
“A free play of the mind upon all subjects, being an essential provider of elements, without which a nation’s spirit must, in the long run, die of inanition.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the intellectual freedom to explore ideas is crucial for the health of a society’s culture and spirit. Without such freedom, both the creative and critical faculties will stagnate.
“Men may have the sense of exercising free creative activity in criticising.”	Eagleton reframes the role of criticism by suggesting that, although it is often seen as secondary to creation, it too is a form of creative engagement. Critics can exercise their intellectual faculties in meaningful and innovative ways.
“Disinterestedness…means simply keeping aloof from what is called ‘the practical view of things.'”	Eagleton stresses the need for criticism to be objective and detached, focused solely on the intellectual and artistic value of works rather than their practical applications or immediate societal benefits. This helps criticism remain pure in its purpose.

Suggested Readings: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Arnold, Matthew. The Function of Criticism at the Present Time. Cambridge University Press, 2005. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511802072.006.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
3. Habermas, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. MIT Press, 1989.
   https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262581080/the-structural-transformation-of-the-public-sphere/
4. Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Methuen, 1980.
   https://www.routledge.com/Critical-Practice/Belsey/p/book/9780415329266
5. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780-1950. Columbia University Press, 1983.
   https://cup.columbia.edu/book/culture-and-society/9780231057011
6. Said, Edward W. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Harvard University Press, 1983.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674961876
7. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
   https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/

Introduction: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory, marking a shift away from traditional approaches and embracing a more politically conscious and interdisciplinary perspective. Eagleton’s essay challenges the notion of English literature as a unified and timeless body of work, instead arguing that it is a socially constructed discourse shaped by historical, political, and economic forces. This groundbreaking insight has had a profound impact on the field of literary studies, inspiring scholars to examine literature within broader cultural and ideological contexts.

Summary of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

• Colonial Modernism as a Literary Revolt
  Eagleton explores how Irish and American writers like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used their outsider status to challenge and transform English literary traditions. These writers, free from the emotional ties to England, “objectify and appropriate” its traditions to their own ends, positioning themselves both “inside and outside” the dominant discourse. This allowed for a “profoundly dialogical” form of modernism, where peripheral figures like Joyce and Synge exploited English conventions while subtly mocking them. As Eagleton notes, modernist writers “revealingly inhabit English culture” but maintain a critical distance from it.
• English Literary Tradition as Imperialist and Nationalist
  The Victorian era’s English literature reflected the anxieties of the imperial middle class, attempting to establish a unified national identity. However, this identity was challenged by three interrelated events: World War I, modernism, and shifts in capitalist production. Eagleton argues that modern English literature “was violently assailed” by these global forces, creating a tension between national cultural formations and a rising internationalism. This led to English literary criticism adopting a regressive stance, turning back toward an “imaginary past” rather than engaging with the radical modernist movement.
• Modernism vs. Englishness
  Eagleton discusses how modernism, rooted in cosmopolitanism and transgression, collided with English nationalism. He draws a distinction between modernism’s borderless, international vision and the insular, reactionary nature of the English literary establishment, represented by figures like F.R. Leavis. The struggle of modernism to find acceptance in England is explained by the nation’s “resistance to subversive cultural forms” and its focus on maintaining national identity through literary realism and liberal empiricism. This resulted in modernism being seen as a foreign aberration and pushed to the margins of English culture.
• The Decline of Empire and the Collapse of “Englishness”
  Eagleton posits that English literature’s global significance was buttressed by the reach of the British Empire, which allowed the English language to “subsume all regional particularities” and position itself as a universal medium. However, with the decline of empire, English literature began to lose its global guarantee. Eagleton refers to this as the “pathetic farce” of Commonwealth Literature, marking the diminishing global relevance of English literature. The “loss of empire” marked a significant blow to the cultural ideology of Englishness.
• Postmodernism and the Erosion of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton highlights how postmodernism has further threatened the ideology of “Englishness.” He identifies the audio-visual dominance of contemporary culture as symptomatic of this threat, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs traditional literary forms, it also exposes the “increasing irrelevance” of English literary discourse. Eagleton notes the irony that postmodern theories of cultural relativism and intertextuality have arisen at a time when Englishness is “culturally speaking, pretty much like North America,” stripped of its unique identity and authenticity.
• Theory as the New Battleground
  In the absence of a vibrant national literature, Eagleton argues that critical theory has become the new space for contesting cultural and political ideas. He draws a parallel between the earlier struggles of modernism and contemporary theory, suggesting that the debates over “high modernism” are being re-enacted within literary criticism today. The rise of theory represents a shift away from traditional Englishness and towards a more international, politically charged discourse.

Quotations:

1. “It is the colonised and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”
2. “English literature was violently assailed by three phenomena: the Great War, the explosion of modernism, and the mutation of the capitalist mode of production.”
3. “Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Context
Modernism	A movement in literature and the arts characterized by a break with traditional forms.	Eagleton examines how modernist writers like Joyce and Eliot, positioned outside the English tradition, challenged and subverted its conventions, bringing in international and cosmopolitan elements.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	Eagleton connects the rise of English literature with British imperialism and shows how colonized writers used the English language to critique and subvert imperial culture.
Liberal Humanism	An ideology that emphasizes the autonomy of the individual, moral values, and universal truths.	Eagleton argues that the English literary tradition is steeped in liberal humanism, which is increasingly irrelevant in the postmodern and post-colonial world.
Postmodernism	A cultural, artistic, and literary movement characterized by a rejection of traditional narratives, embracing relativism and fragmentation.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, poses a significant threat to the ideology of “Englishness,” especially as it undermines fixed narratives and notions of cultural stability.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality.	Eagleton highlights the cosmopolitan nature of modernist writers, who transcended national boundaries and engaged with diverse literary traditions.
Parody	A work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work, often as a form of critique.	Eagleton describes how modernist writers like Joyce parodied English literary conventions, using them as tools to both inhabit and critique English culture.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.	Eagleton links the rise of English literature and its academic study to the British Empire’s desire to create a cohesive national identity, now challenged by post-colonial and global developments.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over others, culturally, politically, or ideologically.	Eagleton sees the English literary tradition as an expression of bourgeois, imperial hegemony, which is now being undermined by modernist and postmodernist forces.
Avant-garde	Works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, particularly in art and literature.	Eagleton discusses how modernist writers, operating from the margins, adopted avant-garde techniques to break away from bourgeois and imperialist literary traditions.
Nativism	A policy or belief that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants or colonizers.	Eagleton refers to the conservative reaction of English critics who sought to defend “native” Englishness against the perceived threats of modernist cosmopolitanism and colonial influence.
Discourse	Written or spoken communication, often associated with power structures and ideologies.	Eagleton examines the “discourse” of English literature as a form of cultural power, historically used to support imperialism and liberal humanism.
Cultural Relativism	The idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than judged against the criteria of another.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, embraces cultural relativism, challenging the universalizing tendencies of liberal humanism and the English literary tradition.
Realism	A literary movement aimed at representing everyday experiences and conditions as they are, without idealization or romanticism.	Eagleton argues that English literature’s traditional attachment to realism was a defense against the disruptive forces of modernism and the declining empire.
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding between nations.	Eagleton identifies modernism’s internationalism as opposed to the insular nature of the English literary tradition, which sought to preserve a national cultural identity.
Aesthetic Elitism	The belief that certain art forms, styles, or cultural products are inherently superior to others.	Eagleton critiques how modernist and colonial writers often became isolated due to their aesthetic elitism, resulting from their marginalized cultural positions.

Contribution of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “The End of English”	Key Concepts from Eagleton’s Text
Ulysses by James Joyce	Eagleton would view Ulysses as a quintessential example of a colonial modernist work, where Joyce, a peripheral Irish writer, subverts and appropriates the English language. Joyce’s complex narrative form challenges imperialist traditions of language and identity.	– Modernism – Colonial Modernism – Subversion of English Literary Tradition
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s The Waste Land embodies the modernist breakdown of national and cultural boundaries. Eagleton might critique Eliot’s cosmopolitan approach, where fragments of different cultures are appropriated and integrated, reflecting the collapse of English cultural hegemony.	– Cosmopolitanism – Breakdown of National Formations – Modernism’s Challenge to “Englishness”
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Eagleton might argue that Waiting for Godot exemplifies the post-colonial condition of alienation from one’s own language. Beckett, an Irish writer, writes in French, signaling the dislocation of identity and language central to modernism and post-colonialism.	– Disinheritance from Mother Tongue – Post-Colonial Alienation – Modernist Deracination
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Through Eagleton’s lens, Mrs Dalloway can be critiqued for its bourgeois liberal humanism, focusing on the internal consciousness of individuals. Eagleton would argue that Woolf’s modernist technique remains anchored in the subjective experience of the imperial center.	– Liberal Humanism – Bourgeois Consciousness – Resistance to Radical Modernist Subversion of Imperial Norms

Criticism Against “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Ideology:Critics argue that Eagleton focuses too heavily on the political and ideological implications of literature, often overshadowing aesthetic and literary qualities. This Marxist approach reduces literature to merely a tool for class struggle and imperialist critique, ignoring the artistic innovations and individual expressions in the works he critiques.
2. Reductionist View of English Literature: Eagleton’s argument that English literature is primarily a product of Victorian imperialism and bourgeois ideology is seen as reductionist by some scholars. They claim that this perspective overlooks the diversity of English literary traditions, which include dissenting voices and works critical of empire and nationalism.
3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Voices: While Eagleton discusses postcolonialism and the subversion of the English literary tradition, some critics suggest that he doesn’t fully engage with postcolonial writers from non-Western regions. His focus remains on Irish, American, and European modernists, neglecting voices from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.
4. Neglect of Feminist Perspectives: Eagleton’s critique largely overlooks feminist perspectives in literature, failing to engage with how gender intersects with imperialism and modernism. Scholars argue that his analysis of works like Mrs. Dalloway underplays the role of gender in shaping narratives of identity and alienation within English literature.
5. Postmodernism Critique Oversimplified: Some critics claim that Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernism as a threat to “Englishness” lacks nuance. They argue that postmodernism is more than just a critique of national identity; it offers valuable insights into fragmentation, plurality, and the complexities of cultural production in a globalized world.
6. Binary Between National and Cosmopolitan Literature: Eagleton establishes a rigid binary between English national literature and modernist cosmopolitanism. Critics argue that this dichotomy oversimplifies the relationship between local and global influences in literature, failing to recognize how even English writers were shaped by cosmopolitan movements and global exchanges.
7. Nostalgic for Marxist Criticism: Some critics view Eagleton’s critique as overly nostalgic for the Marxist critical tradition, particularly his longing for the kind of politically engaged criticism associated with movements like Scrutiny. This focus on a specific type of Marxist literary criticism is seen as outdated in a more pluralistic academic environment.

Representative Quotations from “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”	Eagleton argues that writers from colonized or peripheral nations, such as Ireland and America, have taken over the English literary tradition, challenging the imperial center by appropriating and subverting its language and conventions.
“English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”	Eagleton critiques how English literature, as a discipline, emerged from imperialist and bourgeois concerns, particularly in the Victorian era, where it was used to forge a cohesive national identity and justify colonial domination.
“Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”	This highlights how modernist writers broke down traditional boundaries, not just in literary form but in cultural and political spheres, moving away from the rigid nationalisms that defined English literary tradition and embracing cosmopolitanism.
“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”	Eagleton argues that the British Empire allowed English literature to resist modernism’s destabilizing forces. The global reach of the English language enabled the country to maintain its cultural hegemony even as modernist and internationalist movements threatened national boundaries.
“Post-modernism, whether it knows it or not, is the appropriate coding of this real historical situation.”	Eagleton suggests that postmodernism reflects the current historical condition, particularly the disintegration of national and imperial identities, and the global commodification of culture. It captures the fragmented, decentered nature of contemporary capitalism.
“Liberal humanism, already in the process of being historically superseded, remains the major subjacent ideology of English studies.”	He critiques how liberal humanism—focused on universal values and individual morality—continues to dominate English literary studies, even though it has become irrelevant in the face of modern and postmodern cultural shifts.
“The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”	This emphasizes the paradox of capitalism, where national identities are manipulated to maintain political control, while global economic activities erode those very identities, creating a tension within capitalist societies.
“The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”	Eagleton points out that in the postmodern age, the concept of “native Englishness” is no longer tenable, and this collapse clarifies the cultural and ideological conflicts between global capitalism and its political opponents.
“Criticism confronts the unenviable destiny of becoming its own avant-garde, doubly estranged from its contemporary cultural moment.”	Eagleton argues that English literary criticism has become increasingly disconnected from contemporary cultural production. In trying to preserve past traditions while opposing modernism, criticism has become an avant-garde movement of its own, detached from the realities of current culture.
“The experiences of both modernism and colonialism were kept at bay, but in the latest historical irony now offer to repossess the metropolitan culture from inside in the shape of post-modernism.”	Eagleton identifies a historical irony: while English literature resisted both modernism and colonialism, these forces have now returned in the form of postmodernism to challenge and undermine the core ideologies of English culture from within.

Suggested Readings: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
2. ___ After Theory. Basic Books, 2004.
3. ___ Culture and the Death of God. Yale University Press, 2014.
4. ___ The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
5. ___ The Function of Criticism. Verso, 2005.
6. ___ The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. ___ Why Marx Was Right. Yale University Press, 2011.
   
   

Introduction: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1998 in the journal Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. This article holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its critical examination of the term “postcolonialism” itself. Eagleton challenges the assumptions and limitations of the concept, arguing that it often obscures rather than illuminates the complex realities of postcolonial experiences. His essay has sparked important debates and continues to influence discussions on postcolonial theory and its applications.  

Summary of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Critique of the Term “Postcolonialism”:
   • Eagleton opens by emphasizing how postcolonial theorists often start by questioning the very concept of postcolonialism. The term is viewed as oversimplified, falsely homogeneous, and problematic in addressing ongoing forms of colonization, both direct and indirect.
   • He asserts that postcolonialism is criticized for presenting a chronological issue where the colonial condition still persists. It “suggests a confident posteriority to a condition which still prevails in transformed guise” (Eagleton, 1998).
2. Distinction Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton differentiates between two forms of postcolonialism: the political-economic reality of former colonies and the academic, theoretical construct labeled ‘postcolonialism’.
   • The latter has its roots in Western intellectual history and operates within the scope of modern theoretical concepts. “‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish western theoretical concepts” (Eagleton, 1998).
3. Hostility Toward Essentialism:
   • A major aspect of ‘postcolonialism’ is its hostility to essentialism, which includes the rejection of a universal human nature. Postcolonialists reject liberal humanist ideals that generalize human experiences, preferring to focus on cultural differences.
   • Eagleton challenges this approach by pointing out its inherent contradictions, such as replacing one form of essentialism with another when cultural difference is emphasized over universal humanity.
4. Criticism of Key ‘Postcolonial’ Concepts:
   • Concepts such as hybridity, non-exclusivity, and openness to the Other are integral to ‘postcolonialism’. However, Eagleton argues that such ideals can be hypocritical because they implicitly assume the value of a common humanity, a notion they outwardly reject.
   • Furthermore, Eagleton notes that not all forms of hybridity or difference are positive, citing examples such as exclusionary nationalist movements (Mussolini vs. Mozambique).
5. Rejection of Totalities:
   • Eagleton critiques postcolonial theorists for their rejection of systematic thinking and totalities. He points out that, in the real world, social and economic systems are interconnected and can have widespread consequences (e.g., a crisis in Asia affecting the West).
   • He criticizes postcolonialism for ignoring this reality, stating that the dismissal of totalities is a weakness in the face of global economic and political interconnectedness.
6. Suppression of Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton accuses ‘postcolonialism’ of sidelining class struggle in favor of cultural identity politics. He notes that postcolonial discourse has played a role in displacing socialist ideas and class-based political movements.
   • The focus on cultural identity, he argues, has emerged partly due to the difficulty of addressing more significant political conflicts in the West.
7. Culturalism and Political Ethic:
   • Eagleton views ‘postcolonialism’ as a form of culturalism that inflates the importance of cultural factors in global politics. He critiques the tendency to focus on identity and marginality rather than on economic issues such as trade agreements and military alliances.
   • He suggests that the acknowledgment of cultural difference, while necessary, should not overshadow the broader ethical imperative of human solidarity and reciprocity.
8. Conclusion – The Conflict Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton concludes by calling for a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’, arguing that while openness, dialogue, and hybridization are important, ‘postcolonialism’—as the theoretical construct—should ultimately “lose out.”
   • He emphasizes that solidarity and coherence in political action are necessary for addressing real-world inequalities, implying that the academic focus on cultural hybridity is insufficient.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Postcolonialism	Refers to the political, cultural, and economic conditions of former colonies after they gained independence, often addressing the lingering effects of colonialism.	“There is obviously a lot of the globe which used to be colonized directly and is now colonized by other means…” (Eagleton, 1998)
‘Postcolonialism’	A theoretical framework, rooted in Western intellectual history, that critically examines postcolonial conditions using contemporary concepts such as hybridity, identity, and cultural difference. This version is more abstract and controversial.	“At the same time, there is a particular theoretical agenda known as ‘postcolonialism’…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Essentialism	The belief in an intrinsic, unchanging human nature or characteristics. In postcolonial theory, it is rejected as a means of suppressing cultural difference and homogenizing identities.	“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Hybridity	A key concept in postcolonial theory, hybridity refers to the mixing of cultures, identities, and ideas resulting from colonial encounters. Postcolonialists often view this as positive, but Eagleton questions its universal virtue.	“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Non-exclusivity	The idea that identities or cultures are not rigidly defined and can be open to multiple influences. This concept is aligned with the postcolonial emphasis on fluidity and rejection of fixed categories.	“Non-exclusivity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Multiplicity	Refers to the postcolonial idea that identities and realities are plural, diverse, and cannot be reduced to singular narratives.	“Multiplicity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Transgressiveness	A postcolonial term denoting the act of crossing cultural, social, or political boundaries, often associated with resistance to established norms and power structures.	“Take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of… transgressiveness…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Culturalism	A concept Eagleton critiques, where cultural factors are given disproportionate importance in explaining global inequalities, often sidelining economic and political dimensions.	“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism, which inflates the significance of cultural factors in human affairs.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Anti-Essentialism	The rejection of the idea of a universal human nature or essence. Postcolonialists often argue that this view allows for the recognition of cultural difference without resorting to generalizations.	“A fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’… means rejecting the idea of a general common humanity, or human nature, as a liberal humanist stratagem for suppressing cultural difference.” (1998)

Contribution of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critiques the Term “Postcolonialism”:
  • It oversimplifies diverse situations (Bullet point 1).
  • It suggests a false sense of “post” – colonialism still exists in new forms (Bullet point 2).
  • It focuses on trendy Western theories instead of the realities of postcolonial societies (Bullet point 3).
• Distinguishes Between “Postcolonialism” and “‘Postcolonialism'”:
  • “Postcolonialism” refers to the actual state of former colonies (exploitation by new means) (Bullet point 1).
  • “‘Postcolonialism'” refers to a specific theoretical approach with limitations (Bullet point 3).
• Highlights Issues with “‘Postcolonialist'” Theory:
  • Overemphasis on cultural factors and identity over economic realities (Bullet points 4 & 5).
  • Disdain for class struggle as a concept (Bullet point 6).
  • Neglect of global power structures like the IMF (Bullet point 5).
  • Preference for celebrating difference over human solidarity (Bullet point 5).

Overall Argument:

Eagleton argues that “‘postcolonialism'” theory, while well-intentioned, suffers from limitations. It prioritizes trendy Western ideas and cultural factors over the harsh realities of ongoing economic exploitation faced by former colonies. He suggests a more nuanced approach that acknowledges both cultural complexities and the importance of class struggle and global economic structures.

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Using Eagleton’s Concepts	Relevant Concept
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Eagleton’s critique would focus on the way Conrad presents a Eurocentric perspective of Africa, where colonial subjects are either marginalized or dehumanized. While postcolonialism addresses this imbalance, ‘postcolonialism’ might analyze it through modern theoretical constructs like hybridity and cultural difference.	Eurocentrism, Hybridity
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Eagleton would likely praise the novel for exposing the consequences of colonialism, particularly its psychological impact on the colonized, while critiquing ‘postcolonialism’ for overly theoretical discussions on identity politics and hybridity that may overshadow material concerns like class and economic exploitation.	Culturalism vs. Class Struggle
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Eagleton would acknowledge Achebe’s exploration of colonial disruption in traditional African society but might critique ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too heavily on cultural identity, potentially overlooking the broader economic systems of exploitation highlighted in the novel.	Cultural Identity, Class Struggle
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Eagleton might critique Forster’s novel for presenting cultural encounters between British and Indian characters through a lens of essentialism and cultural difference. While postcolonialism addresses this, ‘postcolonialism’ may overly focus on hybridity and dialogue, downplaying the material inequalities of the British Empire.	Essentialism, Hybridity vs. Materialism

Criticism Against “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Oversimplification of Postcolonialism:
   • Critics argue that Eagleton oversimplifies the vast and complex field of postcolonial theory by reducing it to a binary between postcolonial reality and ‘postcolonial’ theoretical abstraction.
2. Dismissal of Cultural Identity Politics:
   • Eagleton’s critique of postcolonialism as a form of “culturalism” is seen as dismissive of the significance of cultural identity in postcolonial struggles. Critics contend that he undermines the importance of recognizing marginalized identities and their fight against cultural hegemony.
3. Excessive Focus on Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton’s emphasis on class struggle as the primary lens for analyzing postcolonial societies is criticized for being overly Marxist, neglecting the specificities of race, ethnicity, and culture, which are central to postcolonial analysis.
4. Inadequate Engagement with Postcolonial Theorists:
   • Some critics suggest that Eagleton does not engage deeply enough with key postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, or Homi Bhabha, whose works are foundational in shaping the field of postcolonial studies.
5. Undervaluation of Hybridity and Difference:
   • Eagleton’s skepticism toward concepts like hybridity, multiplicity, and transgressiveness is seen by some as reactionary. Postcolonial theorists argue that these ideas are crucial for understanding the fluid, dynamic identities and conditions of postcolonial societies.
6. Neglect of Global Economic and Political Systems:
   • Although Eagleton criticizes ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing on cultural factors, some critics point out that his essay itself lacks substantive analysis of the global economic and political systems that sustain neocolonialism.
7. Elitism and Overly Theoretical Approach:
   • Eagleton’s language and critique are sometimes viewed as elitist, catering more to an academic audience and lacking practical relevance for real-world postcolonial struggles and movements.
8. Binary Opposition Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Critics argue that the binary opposition between postcolonialism (as reality) and ‘postcolonialism’ (as theory) in Eagleton’s essay is artificial, as both aspects are interrelated and influence each other.
9. Minimization of the Role of Cultural Studies:
   • Eagleton’s critique downplays the role of cultural studies in postcolonialism, which has been instrumental in exploring how colonial power is exercised not just politically and economically but also through culture, media, and representation.

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There must surely be in existence somewhere a secret handbook for aspiring postcolonial theorists…”	Eagleton humorously critiques the formulaic nature of postcolonial writing, where theorists begin by questioning the legitimacy of the term “postcolonialism.”
“The term ‘postcolonialism’ won’t do because it falsely homogenizes a set of diverse conditions…”	Eagleton points out the flaws in the term “postcolonialism,” arguing that it simplifies and generalizes complex historical and cultural situations.
“There is something called postcolonialism and … something called ‘postcolonialism’ too.”	He makes a distinction between the real political-economic conditions of postcolonial societies and the theoretical, intellectual construct labeled ‘postcolonialism.’
“‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish concepts.”	Eagleton critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for relying heavily on trendy Western theoretical concepts rather than focusing on concrete material conditions.
“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism.'”	This highlights the postcolonial rejection of universal human nature and emphasis on cultural difference, a key critique Eagleton engages with.
“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity, transgressiveness…”	Eagleton challenges the overuse of concepts like hybridity and multiplicity in ‘postcolonialism,’ arguing that they are often applied without critical examination of their actual value in specific contexts.
“Not all differences are positive, not all exclusions are pathological.”	Eagleton warns that the celebration of difference in postcolonial theory can be simplistic, and some exclusions, such as rejecting harmful ideologies, can be necessary.
“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism…”	He critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too much on cultural identity and symbolism while neglecting larger material and economic realities, which he views as more pressing in global power dynamics.
“Class struggle is now embarrassingly passé, whereas the affirmation of cultural identity is not.”	Eagleton points out that ‘postcolonialism’ has shifted attention away from class-based political struggles to cultural identity, which he believes is a less urgent political focus in many postcolonial contexts.
“It would be enheartening… to see this welcome new journal staging a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’.”	Eagleton encourages a critical dialogue between the real conditions of postcolonialism and the theoretical concerns of ‘postcolonialism,’ calling for a more grounded approach to addressing global inequalities.

Suggested Readings: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204
2. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.
   https://archive.org/details/orientalism00said
4. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674177642
5. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
   https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648
6. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
   https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Postcolonialism%3A+An+Historical+Introduction-p-9780631200693
7. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
   https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth00fanorich
8. “Postcolonial Studies @ Emory.” Emory University.
   http://postcolonialstudies.emory.edu/
9. “Postcolonial Web.” National University of Singapore.
   http://www.postcolonialweb.org/
10. Huggan, Graham. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins. Routledge, 2001.
    https://www.routledge.com/The-Postcolonial-Exotic-Marketing-the-Margins/Huggan/p/book/9780415207270

Introduction: “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

“The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared on the pages of the influential journal Cultural Critique in the winter of 1985-1986. This groundbreaking piece, published in the second issue of the journal, significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the complex relationship between the subject and the literary text challenged prevailing assumptions and offered a new perspective on the role of literature in shaping our understanding of the world.

Summary of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

1. Introduction to the Context
   Terry Eagleton introduces the essay’s context, aimed at educators grappling with applying modern cultural theory in British schools, particularly those in multiracial, working-class urban areas. He outlines how English literature is being taught through a critical lens in a pedagogical framework aimed at rethinking traditional ideologies.
   “The struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)
2. Production of Subjects and Subjectivity
   Eagleton argues that society produces human subjects through various institutions like the family, church, and school. Literature plays a significant role in producing “subjectivities” – ways of being that align with societal needs. The creation of subjects is thus historically contingent, just like the production of goods.
   “There is a history of techniques for the production and reproduction of human subjects.” (p. 96)
3. Literature as a ‘Moral Technology’
   Eagleton introduces the idea of literature as a “moral technology,” which shapes and assesses subjective emotional and moral responses, often in ways that serve social control. Literature, in this framework, molds subjects to conform to societal norms.
   “The particular function of a moral technology is to map, measure, assess, and certify the emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity.” (p. 97)
4. Depoliticizing Subjectivity
   The essay emphasizes how literature, particularly in liberal humanist education, creates a depoliticized form of subjectivity, which is an end in itself. This subjectivity may appear free and autonomous but is subtly bound to capitalist ideologies, presenting itself as a form of control.
   “We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)
5. Literature as Formalism
   Eagleton discusses literature as a form of “moral formalism,” where the focus is not on specific moral content but on the cultivation of sensibility, imagination, and creativity. These traits are seen as universal values that are abstract and detached from any concrete political or social reality.
   “Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)
6. Liberal Humanism’s Ideological Function
   Liberal humanism, Eagleton argues, masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity. However, this growth is constrained within a political framework that prioritizes maintaining the existing social order. Literature, under this ideology, fosters a form of subjectivity that aligns with capitalist society.
   “Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)
7. Contradictions in Liberal Humanism
   Eagleton points out that liberal humanism is self-contradictory in its desire for peace, justice, and personal growth, while simultaneously failing to address the necessary conflicts and breaks required to achieve these goals. Liberal humanism favors gradualism, ignoring the transformative potential of political action.
   “Liberal humanism appears to speak only of growth, gradualism, evolutionary continuity.” (p. 102)
8. Critique of ‘Immediate Experience’
   Eagleton criticizes the liberal humanist emphasis on “immediate experience” as abstract and detached from political reality. He argues that every experience is shaped by social and historical contexts, making the notion of pure personal growth or experience nonsensical outside a political framework.
   “‘Immediate experience’ in itself is nothing; it is only by the political interpretation of experience that existence becomes fruitful.” (p. 103)
9. Language and Power
   Eagleton concludes by noting that language is not merely a medium for creative exploration but a tool of power and struggle. He warns that the liberal humanist view of language and literature as tools for personal enrichment ignores their role in political and social conflicts.
   “Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Moral Technology	A set of practices and techniques in literature aimed at shaping and instilling specific moral values and behaviors in individuals.	“A moral technology consists of a particular set of techniques and practices for the instilling of specific kinds of value, discipline, behaviour…” (p. 97)
Subjectivity	The way human subjects are produced and shaped by social institutions like literature, forming an individual’s internal self.	“The production of subjects/subjectivities is just as historically relative and changing as the production of economic goods.” (p. 96)
Depoliticized Subjectivity	A form of subjectivity created by literature that appears to be autonomous but is actually bound to societal control mechanisms.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized…this form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity.” (p. 99)
Liberal Humanism	A literary ideology that values individual growth, creativity, and personal experience, but which conceals its support for the status quo.	“Liberal humanism works as a literary ideology…believing as they do that it is the one enclave of freedom.” (p. 100)
Literary Formalism	The emphasis on the aesthetic and emotional response to literature, rather than its specific moral or political content.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)
Imaginative Sympathy	A concept in liberal humanism that stresses empathetic understanding of others’ experiences, often abstracted from political context.	“‘Imaginative sympathy’ in itself is nothing…Only when imbued with a specific social and historical content can we know what we are arguing about.” (p. 104)
Kantian Morality	Refers to Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, which focuses on formal moral principles without specifying particular ethical content.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…treat others as ends not means, universalise your actions…which could be given a whole number of specific historical contents.” (p. 98)
Cultural Theory	Contemporary theoretical approaches to analyzing literature, focusing on how culture and power shape the production and reception of texts.	“Modern critical ideas translated into terms intelligible to children and televisually attractive.” (p. 95)
Creative Transformation	The idea that genuine change in society comes not from gradual growth but from conflict and radical breaks with the status quo.	“There is one major way in which men and women in our society have over the years experienced creative transformation…at the end of a policeman’s truncheon.” (p. 104)

Contribution of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton  to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Contribution by Eagleton	Quotation/Reference
Marxist Literary Criticism	Eagleton argues that literature is a form of “moral technology” that shapes subjectivities according to the needs of the dominant social order. He critiques how liberal humanism conceals power relations in literature.	“What these techniques at once map and produce…are certain forms of value and response” (p. 97); “Liberal humanism… masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity” (p. 100).
Ideology Critique	Eagleton’s essay analyzes how literature functions ideologically to produce depoliticized subjects. He critiques the illusion of literary subjectivity being “free” when it is, in fact, bound to capitalist ideology.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all” (p. 99); “This is what is meant by saying that in a liberal capitalist society we are now ‘free.'” (p. 99).
Post-structuralism	The essay challenges the liberal humanist view of literature as a space for universal moral truths and emphasizes that subjectivity itself is socially constructed, contingent, and political.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order” (p. 99); “What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility.” (p. 100).
Formalism (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism, which values the aesthetic and emotional response over the political or moral content of literature. He argues that this formalism ultimately serves the interests of the ruling class.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object… Literature is a formalism.” (p. 99).
Kantian Morality (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques the Kantian notion of morality as abstract and formal, arguing that it resonates in the depoliticized, contentless subjectivity fostered by literature in capitalist society.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…could be given a whole number of specific historical contents” (p. 98); “What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99).
Critical Pedagogy	The essay highlights the political implications of teaching literature and critiques how literature education in schools shapes students’ subjectivities in ways that conform to the needs of capitalist society.	“We do not teach our children to revere water-sprites or regard authority as evil because these responses would be naturally disruptive of our particular social order.” (p. 98).
Cultural Studies	Eagleton emphasizes that literature is a cultural product that serves social and political functions, rather than an isolated aesthetic experience. This aligns with the focus of cultural studies on power and ideology.	“Literature is a technology… for mapping, measuring, assessing and certifying emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity” (p. 97).
Post-Marxism	Eagleton’s arguments engage with the post-Marxist critique of culture, emphasizing the constructed nature of subjectivity and the ideological role of literature in reproducing capitalist values.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100).

Key Contributions:

1. Marxist Critique of Literature and Subjectivity
   Eagleton expands on Marxist theory by arguing that literature is instrumental in producing subjectivities that align with the needs of capitalist society. He critiques how literature depoliticizes the subject and hides power relations. “Any society will produce those modes of subjectivity which it deems in general appropriate to the furtherance of its own ends.” (p. 98)
2. Critique of Liberal Humanism
   Eagleton’s analysis challenges the liberal humanist belief in the autonomy of literature and the individual. He exposes how literature, under this ideology, actually serves capitalist interests by creating subjects who are supposedly “free” but are, in fact, shaped by dominant ideologies. “This form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity – which is to say, the place where we are bound most firmly to the capitalist social order.” (p. 99)
3. Post-structuralist Influence
   Eagleton’s notion that subjectivity is socially constructed rather than innate aligns with post-structuralist ideas about the instability of meaning and the role of power in shaping identity. He critiques the “universal” subjectivity promoted by liberal humanism. “The very form of our subjection lies in our trust in a subjectivity transcendental of all determinations.” (p. 100)
4. Critique of Aesthetic Formalism
   Eagleton critiques the literary tradition that privileges form over content, suggesting that this detachment from political and social realities helps maintain the existing social order. “The task of the moral technology of Literature is to produce an historically peculiar form of human subject who is sensitive, receptive, imaginative and so on… about nothing in particular.” (p. 99)
5. Pedagogical Implications
   By addressing how literature is taught in schools, Eagleton contributes to critical pedagogy, arguing that education in literature shapes students into subjects that conform to the existing social order. “In this ideological climate, the struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton  

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Theories	Key Concepts from Eagleton
King Lear by William Shakespeare	Eagleton argues that although King Lear contains themes of solidarity with the oppressed, liberal humanist readings often fail to transform these moral insights into political action. The play is instead interpreted as fostering a personal emotional experience, depoliticizing its revolutionary potential.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	From an Eagletonian perspective, Pride and Prejudice can be seen as reinforcing bourgeois subjectivity by promoting values of social decorum, individual growth, and personal morality that align with capitalist ideology. The novel trains readers to value personal virtue over systemic change, thus depoliticizing the subject.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99); “Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave…” (p. 100)
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	In Eagleton’s framework, The Great Gatsby may be critiqued as illustrating the moral emptiness of capitalist society. While the novel critiques the American Dream, it does so through a focus on personal failure and disillusionment, which leads to a depoliticized understanding of broader class conflict.	“What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value… It teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99); “The workings of the particular moral technology…” (p. 97)
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Eagleton would critique Wuthering Heights as a novel that, while engaging in complex portrayals of passion and social conflict, ultimately reinforces traditional class and gender hierarchies through its emotional focus. The readers are trained to focus on personal emotional responses rather than critically engaging with the oppressive social structures within the novel.	“What is important is just the production of a specific form of subjectivity, about which we can say… that it is sensitive, creative, imaginative and so on.” (p. 99)

Explanation of Critiques:

1. Depoliticization of Morality
   In King Lear, despite the play’s potential to inspire political solidarity with the oppressed, Eagleton’s framework critiques how literary criticism tends to focus on personal emotional responses, thereby weakening its political potential.
2. Reinforcement of Bourgeois Subjectivity
   Pride and Prejudice trains readers to embrace personal virtues and individual morality that fit into capitalist social structures, leading to the production of bourgeois subjectivity.
3. Moral Emptiness in Capitalist Society
   In The Great Gatsby, Eagleton’s perspective would highlight the way literature critiques societal ideals like the American Dream but does so by focusing on individual experiences of failure, which removes the political context of class struggle.
4. Subjectivity Focus Over Political Critique
   Wuthering Heights provides intense emotional experiences but, under Eagleton’s critique, is seen as producing subjectivity that prevents readers from questioning class and gender hierarchies, thus reinforcing oppressive social structures.

Criticism Against “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

• Overemphasis on Ideology
  Eagleton’s critique of literature as a “moral technology” shaping subjectivities primarily for social control might be seen as overly deterministic. Critics argue that not all literature operates as a tool of ideological reproduction, and many literary works foster critical thinking and social change rather than simply reinforcing dominant ideologies.
• Reduction of Literary Experience to Politics
  By focusing heavily on the political implications of literature, Eagleton might be criticized for reducing the complexity of literary experience to political and ideological dimensions. Critics could argue that Eagleton overlooks the aesthetic, emotional, and imaginative value that literature offers to readers beyond its ideological function.
• Dismissal of Individual Agency
  Eagleton’s argument that subjectivity is constructed almost entirely by social forces could be criticized for downplaying individual agency. His view might be seen as too structuralist, implying that readers have little capacity to resist or reinterpret the ideological messages embedded in literary works.
• Narrow View of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton critiques liberal humanism for its supposed role in depoliticizing subjectivity, but some might argue that this view oversimplifies the diverse and often critical perspectives within liberal humanist thought. Not all liberal humanists ignore political and social critique, and many engage with literature as a means of questioning and transforming societal norms.
• Lack of Engagement with Reader Response
  Eagleton’s essay focuses on how literature shapes subjectivity in line with social and political ideologies, but it does not adequately consider how individual readers might actively interpret, resist, or challenge these ideologies. Critics may argue that Eagleton’s analysis neglects the role of reader response theory, which emphasizes the active role of readers in constructing meaning.
• Generalization of Literature’s Role
  Eagleton’s argument that literature functions as a tool of social control may be seen as a generalization. Critics could argue that literature’s role varies widely across time periods, genres, and cultures, and that his analysis doesn’t account for this diversity or for works that actively challenge dominant power structures.
• Undermining the Aesthetic Value of Literature
  Eagleton’s focus on literature as a form of ideological control may be criticized for undermining its aesthetic value. Critics might argue that literature also serves as an art form with intrinsic value, not just as a means of shaping or controlling subjectivity within a political framework.
• Disregard for the Complexities of Literary Creation
  Some may argue that Eagleton’s view of literature as part of an ideological apparatus overlooks the creative and complex process of literary creation. Authors often engage in nuanced and multifaceted ways with their cultural and political environments, which Eagleton’s framework may not fully capture.

Representative Quotations from “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Among the various modes of production in any society, one of the most central is the mode of production of human subjects.” (p. 96)	Eagleton establishes that societies produce subjects through institutions, including literature. This highlights how literature functions within the broader social system to shape individual identities and subjectivities.
“Literature is a moral technology.” (p. 97)	This summarizes Eagleton’s argument that literature is a tool used to instill specific moral values and behaviors, often serving the interests of social control and power structures.
“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques how literature creates a form of subjectivity that appears autonomous but is actually depoliticized, serving the interests of the dominant class by disconnecting personal experiences from political contexts.
“Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)	This critique of liberal humanism suggests that it falsely portrays subjectivity as a free, internal space, while ignoring the broader social and political forces that shape individuals.
“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)	Eagleton highlights how capitalist ideology operates invisibly, creating an illusion of freedom while subtly binding individuals to the system of power and control.
“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism for prioritizing the subjective response to a work over its actual content, which can depoliticize literature by focusing on personal emotions rather than its social implications.
“What literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99)	Eagleton argues that literature does not promote specific moral values, but rather a general disposition of being moral, which he sees as problematic because it detaches morality from concrete social and political realities.
“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response… is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)	This quotation underscores Eagleton’s critique of liberal humanism: while literature may contain radical content, the form in which it is taught or received often prevents readers from translating that into political or moral action.
“What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility, indifferent to any particular moral or political contents.” (p. 100)	Eagleton critiques the liberal humanist notion of the subject as free and autonomous, arguing that this conception of subjectivity is abstract and disconnected from any real-world social or political issues.
“Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)	Eagleton stresses the dual nature of language, viewing it not only as a tool for communication and creativity but also as an instrument of power and control within social and political struggles.

Suggested Readings: “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
2. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
   https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470694192
3. Eagleton, Terry. “The Rise of English.” Falling into Theory: Conflicting Views on Reading Literature, edited by David Richter, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000, pp. 34-40.
   https://archive.org/details/fallingintotheory
4. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971.
   https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm
5. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977.
   https://archive.org/details/marxismliteratur00will
6. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010. https://archive.org/details/interpretationof0000freu

Introduction: “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

“The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1988 in the journal Poetics Today, is considered a significant contribution to the field of literature and literary theory due to its incisive analysis of the concept of aesthetics and its ideological underpinnings. Eagleton argues that aesthetics, far from being a neutral or objective category, is deeply intertwined with social, political, and economic structures. By examining the historical development of aesthetics and its relationship to various cultural and philosophical discourses, Eagleton offers a compelling critique of the notion that art and beauty are autonomous and independent of broader social concerns.

Summary of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

• Aesthetics and Power:
  • Aesthetics is not solely about art but a broader “program of social, psychical, and political reconstruction.”
  • Eagleton links aesthetics to the political concept of hegemony, stating, “It denotes instead a whole program of social, psychical and political reconstruction on the part of the early European bourgeoisie.”
• Aesthetics as a Discourse of the Body:
  • Aesthetics mediates between sensation and reason, initially introduced by Baumgarten as a “sister of logic.”
  • Aesthetics is the bridge between material life (the body, sensations) and intellectual life (reason and thoughts), addressing how reason and sensibility integrate to dominate human experience.
• Shift from Coercion to Hegemony:
  • Eagleton interprets the aesthetic as a method to “rule and inform our sensuous life from within while allowing it to thrive in all its relative autonomy,” transitioning from coercive power to consensual hegemony.
• Schiller and Aesthetic Education:
  • Friedrich Schiller’s work focuses on social hegemony, advocating for the modulation of the psyche through aesthetics, making it a subtle yet powerful force for ideological control.
  • “The aesthetic modulation of the psyche” plays a central role in softening Kant’s rigid rationalism, blending ethics and aesthetics into a cohesive system of social control.
• Aesthetics and Manners:
  • Aesthetics are involved in disciplining the body and converting morality into style. “Manners,” as Eagleton describes, are a “crucial hinge between ethics and aesthetics.”
  • Social practices become aestheticized, where “ethical ideology loses its unpleasantly coercive force and reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.”
• Aesthetic as Social Control:
  • The aesthetic subject internalizes the law as “the very principle of its free identity” and works “all by itself,” resembling the self-regulating subject in Althusser’s ideological theory.
  • Aesthetic judgments mask deeper ideological control, as noted by Eagleton, “Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation… is the aesthetic.”
• The Sublime and the Beautiful:
  • Eagleton contrasts beauty as a “consensual power” with the sublime, which is “coercive.”
  • This distinction reflects the tension between the softer, hegemonic forms of power (beauty) and more overt, authoritarian forms (sublime).
• Ideology and Aesthetic Judgment:
  • Aesthetic judgments, Eagleton argues, are “constative” but fundamentally performative and ideological, operating as emotive utterances while posing as objective truths.
  • This duality ties aesthetics to ideology, where subjective experiences are universalized and enforced as societal norms.
• Hegel and the Aestheticization of Reality:
  • Hegel sought to reconcile subjectivity and freedom with the alienation experienced by individuals in bourgeois society. He projected “subjectivity into the object itself” to achieve unity, leading to an “aestheticization of the whole of reality.”
• Aesthetics and Bourgeois Ideology:
  • Eagleton points out that bourgeois ideology uses aesthetics as a means to make the world feel more hospitable, even though bourgeois values often contradict this.
  • The aesthetic provides a sense of community and unity in bourgeois society, standing in for the failures of both the coercive state and fragmented civil society.
  • However, Eagleton notes the precariousness of this unity, commenting on how “human unity must be…rooted in nothing more resilient than the vagaries of aesthetic judgment.”
• Critique of Bourgeois Individualism:
  • Aesthetics emerges as a critique of bourgeois individualism, and while it serves as an ideological tool for the ruling class, it also offers glimpses of utopian critique, particularly in its potential for fostering empathy and shared human experience.
• Conclusion – Aesthetics and Materialism:
  • Eagleton concludes by suggesting that aesthetics, originally a “supplement to reason,” now poses a threat to reason, challenging the division between reason and sensation.
  • He foresees the next stage of aesthetic thought moving toward a materialist perspective, citing the works of Marx and Freud, who approach aesthetics from the vantage of the “laboring body” and the “desiring body.”

Key Quotations:

1. “The aesthetic, in other words, marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”
2. “Aesthetics is thus the ‘sister’ of logic, a kind of inferior feminine analogue of reason, at the level of material life.”
3. “The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”
4. “Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Argument
Aesthetics	A philosophical study of beauty and taste, focusing on the senses and emotions, particularly how they mediate our perception of art and life.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, aesthetics is framed as a project of social, political, and psychical reconstruction by the bourgeoisie, transcending mere art to serve as an ideological tool.
Hegemony	A form of power that is maintained through consensual domination rather than overt coercion.	Eagleton argues that aesthetics functions as a form of hegemony, subtly governing individuals’ sensuous life and ensuring that ideology is internalized without force.
Sublime	A concept associated with overwhelming, awe-inspiring experiences, often invoking fear or admiration.	Eagleton contrasts the “sublime” with the “beautiful” to highlight two forms of power: the sublime as coercive authority, while beauty serves as consensual, pleasurable hegemony.
Beautiful	Aesthetic judgment focused on harmony, balance, and pleasure, typically evoking a sense of consensual approval.	Represents a consensual, agreeable form of social control in Eagleton’s analysis, in contrast to the more oppressive nature of the sublime.
Ideology	A system of ideas and ideals that shapes individuals’ perceptions of reality and social structures.	Eagleton explores how aesthetics operates ideologically, shaping individuals’ internal lives, making social control seem natural and consensual.
Materialism	The philosophical belief that reality is primarily composed of physical, material elements, often contrasted with idealism or abstract concepts.	Eagleton traces the aesthetic to a form of “incipient materialism,” focusing on the sensuous, bodily experiences that ground social reality.
Hegemony vs. Coercion	A distinction between power exercised through voluntary consent (hegemony) versus power enforced through fear or violence (coercion).	Eagleton argues that aesthetics marks a historical shift from coercion to hegemony, as social control becomes internalized in everyday life through aesthetic experiences.
Lawfulness without Law	The idea that rules and norms can be internalized and followed without overtly acknowledging their authority, akin to the “unconscious” following of social codes.	Eagleton uses this concept to explain how bourgeois subjects regulate themselves, turning aesthetic and ethical norms into unspoken, internalized behaviors.
Phenomenology	A branch of philosophy that explores subjective experiences and consciousness as the primary means of understanding reality.	Eagleton references Husserl’s phenomenology to highlight how aesthetics reflects the structures of everyday life and consciousness, deeply tied to lived experience.
Political Unconscious	A concept from Fredric Jameson, referring to the hidden ideologies embedded in cultural forms that reflect societal power structures.	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, are embedded with ideological content that reflects the political unconscious, regulating social behaviors and beliefs.
Kantian Aesthetics	Immanuel Kant’s view that aesthetic judgments are disinterested and universally valid, grounded in the harmony between the faculties of understanding and imagination.	Eagleton critiques Kantian aesthetics for its idealism but notes that it serves bourgeois ideology by providing a model for how individual subjectivity can align with universal social norms.
Ethical Relativism	The belief that moral principles are not absolute but are culturally or individually determined.	Eagleton discusses how aestheticizing moral judgments risks slipping into ethical relativism, undermining the bourgeoisie’s control over moral values.
Sensuous Representation	A representation of ideas or experiences through sensory perception and emotional response.	Eagleton critiques Hegel for underestimating the ideological power of sensuous representation, which plays a crucial role in maintaining bourgeois social order through aesthetics.
Universal Subjectivity	The notion that aesthetic judgments reflect universal human experiences, rather than being limited to individual perspectives.	Eagleton critiques this as an ideological function of aesthetics, where the subject is led to believe that their personal, subjective experiences reflect universal truths, masking the societal forces behind those experiences.
Civil Society vs. State	Civil society refers to the realm of private individuals and economic relationships, while the state is a coercive, public authority.	Eagleton shows how aesthetics resolves the problem of fractured bourgeois civil society, providing a “third realm” where communal unity is achieved through shared aesthetic experiences, bypassing the state’s coercive authority.
Imaginary (Lacan)	A concept in Lacanian psychoanalysis that refers to a realm of illusions and images where the subject misrecognizes itself as whole and unified.	Eagleton uses Lacan’s Imaginary to describe how the aesthetic allows the bourgeois subject to misperceive the fragmented social reality as harmonious, thus serving as an ideological tool for masking contradictions in society.
Moral Sense Theory	A theory, particularly associated with British philosophers like Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, that moral judgments are based on innate feelings or “senses.”	Eagleton contrasts the aesthetic-based “moral sense” theory with rationalist approaches to morality, noting its potential for both ideological control and subversion of bourgeois values.

Contribution of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “The Ideology of the Aesthetic”
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	– Aestheticization of Social Norms: The characters in Pride and Prejudice operate within rigid social structures, where manners and decorum reflect the ideological construction of morality. Elizabeth Bennet’s wit and judgments are shaped by an aesthetic sensibility that aligns with Eagleton’s idea of “manners,” where “moral ideology reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.” Austen critiques the superficiality of social norms, but these norms are nonetheless aestheticized, embedding class and gender hierarchies in daily interactions.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	– Colonial Ideology and the Sublime: The novel’s portrayal of the African wilderness as a terrifying and incomprehensible force reflects the sublime in Eagleton’s terms—coercive and crushing. Marlow’s aesthetic judgments about the African landscape are ideological, presenting Europe as rational and civilized while the African wilderness is portrayed as chaotic and dangerous. The aesthetic of the sublime here masks the colonial ideology, which justifies exploitation and domination through the contrast between the “civilized” and the “savage.”
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Aestheticization of the Bourgeois Ideal: The Great Gatsby embodies Eagleton’s critique of how bourgeois society turns ethics into aesthetics. Gatsby’s pursuit of Daisy is not just emotional but framed as an aesthetic quest, turning her into a symbol of wealth, beauty, and social status. The novel critiques the American Dream, showing how its ideals of freedom and success are aestheticized and commodified, making Gatsby’s obsession with Daisy an ideological reflection of class and materialism.
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	– Sensuous Experience and Bourgeois Hegemony: Wuthering Heights can be read through Eagleton’s lens as a critique of how aesthetics internalizes ideological control. The novel’s intense focus on emotional and sensory experiences—particularly in the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff—reflects Eagleton’s notion of sensuous particularity. The wildness and raw emotion of the characters contrast with the bourgeois values of control and order, highlighting a tension between natural human passion and the socially imposed hegemony of class and property relations. This tension questions the ideology of social conformity.

Criticism Against “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

• Reduction of Aesthetics to Ideology:
  • Critics argue that Eagleton reduces the entire field of aesthetics to a mere tool of bourgeois ideology, neglecting the complexities and nuances of aesthetic experience. By viewing all aesthetic judgments through the lens of power and ideology, he overlooks the autonomy of art and its potential for subversion and resistance.
• Overemphasis on Marxist Framework:
  • Eagleton’s analysis is heavily reliant on Marxist theory, which some critics feel limits his ability to engage with aesthetic theory in a broader, more interdisciplinary way. This rigid Marxist lens might oversimplify the historical and cultural dimensions of aesthetics, focusing primarily on class and power dynamics.
• Neglect of Aesthetic Pleasure and Artistic Value:
  • By focusing on the ideological functions of aesthetics, Eagleton is accused of downplaying or ignoring the intrinsic pleasures and values that people derive from art and beauty. His analysis tends to disregard the emotional and subjective responses individuals have to art, reducing aesthetic pleasure to a function of social control.
• Simplification of Kant and Other Philosophers:
  • Eagleton’s critique of philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Edmund Burke is seen by some as overly reductive. Critics claim that he simplifies complex philosophical concepts, particularly Kant’s notion of “disinterestedness,” to fit his argument about bourgeois ideology, thus missing the depth and subtleties of their aesthetic theories.
• Insufficient Engagement with Postmodern Aesthetics:
  • Eagleton’s focus on the Enlightenment and bourgeois aesthetic theory is critiqued for not adequately addressing postmodern developments in aesthetics. The text has been seen as somewhat dated or lacking engagement with more contemporary critiques of aesthetics that explore postmodernism, globalization, or digital culture.
• Overgeneralization of Bourgeois Society:
  • Some critics suggest that Eagleton tends to overgeneralize the bourgeoisie’s use of aesthetics, implying a monolithic control over art and culture. This neglects the diversity within bourgeois culture and the potential for alternative interpretations and uses of aesthetics within different social contexts.
• Undermining Aesthetic Autonomy:
  • Eagleton is criticized for undermining the idea of aesthetic autonomy— the belief that art can exist independently of politics and ideology. By treating all aesthetics as fundamentally ideological, he dismisses the possibility that art and aesthetic experiences could transcend social and political constraints.

Representative Quotations from “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Aesthetics is born as a discourse of the body.”	Eagleton emphasizes that aesthetics originally relates to sensory experiences and physicality, rather than purely intellectual or artistic pursuits. This materialist approach highlights how aesthetics interacts with bodily sensations, making it a crucial part of understanding power and social control.
“Aesthetics marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”	This quote connects aesthetics to the concept of hegemony, suggesting that aesthetics allows the ruling class to maintain power through consent rather than overt force. Eagleton frames aesthetics as a tool for subtle social control, aligning with Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony.
“The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”	Eagleton explains the bourgeois class’s dilemma: by exposing power through political victories, they risk making the law (and thus power structures) subject to contestation, which is why aesthetics becomes a way to “naturalize” law and make it seem inherent and unquestionable.
“Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation from property to propriety is the aesthetic.”	Aesthetic experience becomes a way of transforming abstract power structures into something felt and experienced in everyday life. The shift from “property to propriety” indicates how the bourgeoisie uses aesthetics to regulate behavior and social norms, linking material and moral worlds.
“Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”	Here, Eagleton suggests that when people find pleasure in their social roles and behaviors, it indicates that hegemony has been internalized. Aesthetics plays a role in making submission to social order feel natural and even enjoyable, masking the ideological control beneath it.
“The aesthetic is thus the first stirrings of a primitive, incipient materialism.”	Eagleton ties the emergence of aesthetics to materialism, suggesting that aesthetic experience deals with the material, bodily world rather than abstract ideals. This highlights how aesthetics is rooted in the sensory and the tangible, which makes it an important tool for shaping social realities.
“Aesthetic judgment conceals an essentially emotive (subject-oriented) content within an apparently referential form.”	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, may appear to be objective or universal, but they are deeply tied to subjective emotions and ideological values. This masking of subjectivity as objectivity plays a key role in the functioning of ideology within aesthetics.
“The sublime—that which crushes us into admiring submission—is coercive.”	Eagleton contrasts the beautiful (consensual power) with the sublime (coercive power). The sublime, like oppressive authority, overwhelms the individual and demands submission, highlighting a form of aesthetic experience that mirrors authoritarian control.
“The Kantian subject of taste… is in effect the infantile narcissist of the Lacanian mirror phase.”	By linking Kantian aesthetics to Lacan’s mirror stage, Eagleton critiques Kant’s theory of aesthetic judgment, suggesting that it reflects a narcissistic misrecognition of unity and harmony. This shows how aesthetics can foster a false sense of self and social coherence, masking deeper contradictions.
“What is from one viewpoint an absolute rightness is from another viewpoint just something I happen to feel.”	This quote captures the ideological nature of aesthetic judgments, where something that seems universally valid is actually a subjective experience. Eagleton critiques how aesthetics presents personal tastes and values as if they were universally binding, thus reinforcing ideological norms.

Suggested Readings: “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

1. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 2001.
   https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/ideology.htm
2. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
   https://archive.org/details/gramsci-prison-notebooks
3. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
4. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Judgment. Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing, 1987.
5. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 2008.
6. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Wiley-Blackwell, 1990.
7. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Alan Sheridan, W. W. Norton & Company, 1977.
   
   

Introduction: “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

“Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton is an influential essay that first appeared in the Spring 2000 issue of the journal New Literary History. This essay is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory because it revisits and challenges the traditional Marxist concept of the base and superstructure. Eagleton argues that the relationship between these two concepts is much more complex and dynamic than previously thought. He emphasizes that the base (the economic system) and the superstructure (the cultural and ideological systems) are not simply cause and effect but rather mutually influence and shape each other. This essay has been widely discussed and debated, and it continues to be an important resource for understanding the complex interplay between economics and culture.

Summary of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Money as a Meta-Good
   • Eagleton opens by discussing how money functions as a “meta-good” in capitalist society. It facilitates the pursuit of various desires and lifestyles without effort. He humorously imagines an alien visitor baffled by the contradiction in human behavior, where money is considered vital but also despised: “The alien would soon find himself puzzling over the performative contradiction between what we said about money and what we did with it” (Eagleton, 232).
2. Contradictions in Economic and Cultural Perceptions
   • Eagleton argues that the discrepancy between money’s importance and contempt is a “genuine conundrum” about its ontological status. He references Marx’s “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts” to explore the paradoxical nature of money as both “everything and nothing” (233). This reflects the larger base-superstructure contradiction between economic reality (base) and cultural morality (superstructure).
3. Wealth and Power as Necessary Conditions
   • Drawing from the philosopher Francis Hutcheson, Eagleton explains that wealth and power are not fundamental human desires but essential conditions for achieving other aspirations. He asserts that money is “the capacity of capacities,” a tool that enables various human goals (234).
4. The Economic Base and its Role in Culture
   • Eagleton emphasizes that while the economic base is not the most “precious thing in life,” it is a necessary condition for most human activities, including cultural production. He notes that even socialism requires advanced material conditions, as “socialism is only possible on the basis of reasonably advanced material conditions” (234). Without this, attempts to develop a socialist state could lead to authoritarianism.
5. Culture’s Relative Autonomy from Material Conditions
   • Eagleton critiques both left-wing and right-wing views on the relationship between culture and material conditions. He argues that culture becomes relatively autonomous as a result of material conditions, stating, “art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (235). This autonomy allows culture to critique its surrounding conditions.
6. Base and Superstructure Model
   • Eagleton defends the base-superstructure model, arguing that it is not inherently hierarchical or deterministic, but acknowledges its limitations. He critiques the simplistic view that the superstructure (law, culture, ideology) is entirely determined by the economic base, noting that “a school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces” (239).
7. Superstructures and Social Contradictions
   • According to Eagleton, superstructures arise because the economic base is internally contradictory, and their role is to manage these contradictions in favor of the ruling class. He states, “superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity…generates certain social contradictions” (239). Thus, the superstructure is a flexible concept, not rigidly tied to specific institutions or functions.
8. Cultural Materialism and the Future of Socialism
   • Eagleton discusses the concept of “cultural materialism,” which seeks to reconcile the material base with cultural development. He notes that socialism’s long-term goal is to create conditions where people can live by culture rather than economics: “the project of socialism is to try to lay down the kinds of material conditions in which…they will be able to live by culture a great deal more than they do now” (240).
9. Historical Materialism and the Role of Culture
   • In the final sections, Eagleton ties his argument to historical materialism, asserting that the economic is foundational, but culture will become increasingly important as society progresses beyond scarcity and toil. He ends by quoting Oliver Goldsmith to emphasize that culture is “superfluity” built into human nature, necessary yet not reducible to purely economic terms (237-240).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Usage in the Text
Base and Superstructure	A Marxist concept where the “base” refers to the economic foundation of society (productive forces and relations) and the “superstructure” refers to cultural, legal, political, and ideological institutions.	Eagleton revisits the base-superstructure relationship, emphasizing that while the superstructure is influenced by the base, it has relative autonomy. He critiques reductive interpretations of the model, arguing for a more nuanced, dialectical view.
Materialism	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of material conditions (economic and social factors) in shaping society and human consciousness.	Eagleton supports a historical materialist perspective, arguing that the economic base shapes culture and consciousness but allows culture some independence under specific material conditions.
Cultural Materialism	A critical theory that examines the relationship between material conditions (the base) and cultural forms, emphasizing the historical context of culture.	Eagleton discusses how culture, while shaped by material conditions, can become relatively autonomous, especially in modern capitalist societies. He explores how culture resists commodification through ideological autotelism.
Dialectics	A method of analysis based on contradiction and change, often associated with Marxist theory. It seeks to understand how conflicting forces (thesis and antithesis) lead to new syntheses.	Eagleton uses a dialectical approach to argue that the contradictions between the economic base and cultural superstructure are essential to understanding their relationship, showing how autonomy and dependency co-exist in culture.
Autonomy	In Marxist theory, cultural or ideological autonomy refers to the idea that certain aspects of the superstructure (like art and culture) may operate independently of direct economic influence.	Eagleton emphasizes the relative autonomy of culture, arguing that culture can critique and resist its material conditions despite being economically determined to some extent.
Commodity Fetishism	A Marxist concept where social relations between people are expressed as economic relations between commodities, obscuring the true labor relations that produced them.	Though not explicitly mentioned, Eagleton alludes to commodity fetishism when discussing the paradoxical nature of money, where it is both “everything and nothing,” masking the true social relations behind its acquisition.
Use-Value vs. Exchange-Value	Use-value refers to the practical usefulness of an object, while exchange-value refers to its value in a market context as a commodity.	Eagleton contrasts use-value and exchange-value when discussing art. He argues that art, as a commodity, resists commodification by asserting its autotelism (self-justification), becoming an image of what life could be like under different conditions.
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve to justify the interests of the dominant social group, often obscuring the true nature of social relations.	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal ideologies that downplay the importance of power and material conditions, advocating for a Marxist interpretation that reveals the economic roots of cultural and social systems.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that emphasizes the role of material economic conditions in shaping history and human society. History progresses through the development of productive forces and class struggles.	Eagleton’s essay is grounded in historical materialism, exploring how economic development (the base) shapes culture (the superstructure) and how contradictions within the base necessitate the development of the superstructure.
Performative Contradiction	A situation where there is a discrepancy between what people say and what they do, often revealing underlying ideological conflicts.	Eagleton discusses the performative contradiction in society’s attitude toward money, which is both essential and despised, reflecting deeper contradictions between the material base and the moral superstructure.

Contribution of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Revisiting and Nuancing Marxist Theory
   • Eagleton’s essay significantly contributes to the ongoing conversation within Marxist Literary Theory, specifically concerning the relationship between the economic base and the cultural superstructure. He addresses how traditional Marxist theory has often been misinterpreted or reduced to economic determinism. Eagleton critiques this simplification by emphasizing the dialectical nature of the relationship: “The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth” (Eagleton, 237). By reaffirming the model’s relevance, Eagleton defends its continued applicability in analyzing culture in a capitalist society, arguing that the superstructure can have a degree of autonomy while still being rooted in the base.
2. Cultural Materialism and the Role of Autonomy
   • Eagleton extends the theory of Cultural Materialism by explaining how culture, while economically conditioned, gains relative autonomy under certain historical conditions. This autonomy allows culture to critique its own material origins, a point of significant importance for literary criticism. He states, “Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (Eagleton, 235). This idea that culture can resist commodification while being produced within a capitalist economy has shaped how scholars think about the political function of literature and art.
3. Critique of Postmodernism and Liberal Theories
   • Eagleton’s essay also engages with Postmodernist and Liberal Theories by critiquing their suspicion of power and material conditions. He argues that only a materialist framework, rooted in economic realities, can fully explain culture’s contradictions. He writes, “Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power. It is selflessness here which is ideological” (Eagleton, 235). Eagleton’s critique of these theories contributes to the broader debate on ideology, reminding literary theorists of the importance of material conditions in shaping culture, rather than abstract notions of autonomy or individualism.
4. Revitalizing the Base-Superstructure Debate in Cultural Criticism
   • Eagleton revitalizes the Base-Superstructure Debate within cultural and literary criticism by highlighting the dynamic, rather than static, relationship between these spheres. He dismantles the misconception that the superstructure is simply a passive reflection of the base, asserting instead that cultural forms actively interact with and sometimes resist their economic conditions. As he points out, “Superstructures are necessary in a Marxist view…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions” (Eagleton, 239). This approach encourages literary critics to explore the nuanced ways in which literature and other cultural forms are influenced by, but also challenge, their economic foundations.
5. Autotelism and Resistance to Commodification in Literature
   • Eagleton introduces the concept of Autotelism—the idea that literature and art, in asserting themselves as ends in themselves, resist the commodification that defines their economic context. He argues that literature, by claiming “to be its own end, ground, and raison d’être,” opposes the commodifying tendencies of capitalism (Eagleton, 235). This concept contributes to Aesthetic Theory and Marxist Criticism, offering a way to understand how literary texts can be politically resistant despite being produced within a commodified cultural economy.
6. Historical Materialism and Literary Theory
   • Eagleton’s reaffirmation of Historical Materialism—the idea that material conditions shape history and culture—has significant implications for literary theory. He suggests that the study of literature must always consider the historical and material context of its production: “It is what we do which lies at the bottom of our language games” (Eagleton, 238). This grounding of literary criticism in material conditions aligns with Marxist Historicism, pushing literary theorists to interrogate the socio-economic contexts that give rise to particular literary forms and genres.
7. Criticism of Reductionism in Cultural Theories
   • Eagleton critiques the reductionism often found in Culturalist Theories, which either sever culture from its material base or reduce culture entirely to an expression of economic conditions. He argues that culture is neither completely autonomous nor entirely determined by the base but operates within a dialectical relationship with it: “The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic” (Eagleton, 240). This dual perspective, where culture is understood both as a product of material conditions and as having a degree of independence, encourages more complex readings of literary texts in relation to their socio-economic contexts.
8. Superfluity and Culture as Surplus
   • Eagleton’s idea that culture is a kind of “superfluity” or surplus to biological needs also contributes to Cultural and Literary Theory. He draws on Marx’s concept of surplus value to explain how culture, though not necessary for survival, is integral to human expression and civilization: “Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need” (Eagleton, 237). This framing challenges literary theorists to consider the role of excess and surplus in cultural production, offering new ways to think about art and literature as both products of and reactions to material surplus.
9. Integration of Marxist Aesthetic Theory
   • Eagleton’s essay integrates Marxist Aesthetic Theory into his analysis, particularly through the concept of art as a critique of its own conditions. He argues that art, in asserting its autonomy, becomes a form of critique against the utilitarianism of capitalism: “Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique” (Eagleton, 235). This perspective contributes to literary theory by positioning art and literature as sites of resistance within a capitalist economy, thus encouraging scholars to explore the political potential of literary forms.

Examples of Critiques Through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton
Charles Dickens’ “Hard Times”	Critique of Capitalism and Material Conditions: Dickens’ portrayal of the industrial town of Coketown reflects the harsh material conditions of the working class. Through Eagleton’s lens, Hard Times can be seen as exposing the contradictions of capitalism, where economic forces dominate human life. The novel depicts how the economic “base” shapes the moral and educational institutions (superstructure), but Dickens also critiques the inhumanity of the system through characters like Stephen Blackpool, highlighting how cultural responses (literature) can act as resistance to the commodification of life.
James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”	Autonomy of Art and Culture: In Joyce’s novel, Stephen Dedalus’s pursuit of artistic independence mirrors Eagleton’s concept of cultural autonomy. Stephen’s journey away from family, religion, and nation can be interpreted through Eagleton’s idea of art asserting its autonomy from the superstructure. Stephen’s decision to live as an artist reflects the tension between economic/material pressures and cultural aspirations, where the artist seeks to escape commodification and the restrictions of the dominant ideologies of religion and nationalism.
Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”	Superstructure and Ideology in the Legacy of Slavery: Morrison’s Beloved reveals how the superstructure of the post-slavery American society continues to perpetuate ideological control over the African-American community. Through Eagleton’s framework, the novel critiques the material base of slavery and its lingering effects on culture and identity. The characters’ trauma represents the contradictions in the economic base of slavery that demanded the repression of black bodies and the shaping of cultural memories. The ghost of Beloved can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved social contradictions of this historical base-superstructure relationship.
Virginia Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse”	Art and Domestic Life under Capitalism: Woolf’s To the Lighthouse can be read through Eagleton’s analysis of how culture gains autonomy but remains tied to material conditions. The novel portrays the intricate dynamics of family life within the framework of early 20th-century capitalism. Mr. Ramsay’s concerns with intellectual and economic success reflect the pressures of the base, while Mrs. Ramsay’s nurturing role reveals how the superstructure of gender and domestic ideology is shaped by these economic realities. Through Woolf’s exploration of art (Lily Briscoe’s painting), we see the tension between art’s autonomous form and the material conditions of life, mirroring Eagleton’s concept of art resisting commodification while being grounded in the base.

Criticism Against “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Economic Determinism
   • While Eagleton critiques overly deterministic interpretations of the base-superstructure model, some critics might argue that his framework still places too much emphasis on the economic base as the primary determinant of cultural and ideological forms. This could lead to reductive readings of literature and culture, where complex cultural phenomena are overly simplified as reflections of economic conditions.
2. Limited Scope of Cultural Autonomy
   • Eagleton’s claim that culture gains “relative autonomy” from the economic base may be criticized for not fully accounting for the true independence of cultural production. Some critics might argue that Eagleton’s view of autonomy is too constrained by Marxist orthodoxy, not allowing for a fuller recognition of how culture can operate independently of economic forces.
3. Neglect of Postmodernist Insights
   • Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernist skepticism toward power and ideology may be seen as overly harsh. Critics could argue that postmodernism offers valuable insights into the fragmentation of power and the multiplicity of cultural narratives, which Eagleton seems to downplay in favor of a more unified, Marxist view of cultural production.
4. Simplistic View of Superstructure Functions
   • Eagleton’s approach to the superstructure, which he argues functions primarily to manage social contradictions in favor of the ruling class, may be viewed as reductive. Critics might claim that this overlooks the complexity and diversity of superstructural institutions, many of which may serve purposes beyond simply maintaining the status quo.
5. Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Perspectives
   • Eagleton’s analysis, like much Marxist theory, tends to focus primarily on Western capitalist societies. Some critics may point out that his framework does not sufficiently engage with non-Western or postcolonial contexts, where the relationship between base and superstructure may operate differently due to different historical and material conditions.
6. Resistance to Post-Marxist Theories
   • Eagleton’s insistence on the continued relevance of the base-superstructure model may be critiqued by those who favor post-Marxist or neo-Marxist theories, which incorporate more flexible, pluralistic approaches to culture and economics. Some might argue that Eagleton’s defense of the model is outdated in light of these more contemporary frameworks.
7. Potential for Ideological Dogmatism
   • By maintaining a strong commitment to historical materialism, Eagleton runs the risk of promoting a somewhat dogmatic approach to literary and cultural criticism. Critics may argue that his reliance on Marxist categories limits the scope of analysis, potentially excluding alternative perspectives on culture that do not fit neatly into the base-superstructure dichotomy.
8. Underdeveloped Treatment of Aesthetic Experience
   • Although Eagleton touches on the autonomy of art and culture, some critics may argue that his treatment of aesthetic experience and the role of art in society is underdeveloped. The focus on the political and economic aspects of culture may overlook the personal, emotional, and subjective dimensions of literary and artistic works.
9. Ambiguity in Defining Cultural Autonomy
   • Eagleton’s concept of “relative autonomy” may be seen as ambiguous or vague, leading to confusion about the exact relationship between culture and material conditions. Some critics may argue that he does not provide a clear enough framework for determining how and when culture can resist or transcend economic forces.

Representative Quotations from “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth.”	Eagleton humorously acknowledges that the base-superstructure model is widely rejected in contemporary theory, but argues for its continued relevance. He critiques the dismissal of Marxist theory and calls for a more nuanced understanding of its contributions to analyzing culture and economics.
“Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic.”	This paradoxical statement highlights Eagleton’s argument that culture gains autonomy by becoming deeply intertwined with the economic base. Art can critique its own conditions while still being economically produced, which is key to understanding culture under capitalism.
“Superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions.”	Here, Eagleton explains why superstructures exist in Marxist theory. They are not independent phenomena but arise from the contradictions within the economic base, helping to manage and maintain the stability of the ruling class’s interests.
“Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power.”	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal theorists for their abstract distrust of power, arguing that power is not inherently negative. He suggests that materialist thinkers must recognize the importance of power in shaping and sustaining cultural and social structures.
“One thing which only money can buy is of course socialism.”	This ironic statement underscores the necessity of advanced material conditions for establishing socialism. Eagleton draws on Marxist theory to argue that socialism cannot succeed without sufficient productive forces, which must be developed under capitalism.
“Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need.”	Eagleton emphasizes that culture exists beyond mere survival needs, as something that exceeds material necessity. He argues that culture is a form of surplus, not required for basic biological functioning but essential for the richness of human life.
“A school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces.”	This quote exemplifies Eagleton’s view that not all functions of institutions are superstructural. Certain activities within institutions may serve ideological purposes, while others do not, highlighting the complexity of how the base and superstructure interact in specific contexts.
“The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic.”	Eagleton advocates for a materialist approach to cultural criticism that recognizes both the cultural artifact’s aesthetic value and its embeddedness in material conditions. This “double optic” involves examining how art is shaped by, and can resist, its economic context.
“Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique.”	Eagleton discusses how the relative autonomy of art under capitalism allows it to act as a form of critique. By becoming less directly tied to state or elite control, art can offer resistance to dominant ideologies and critique the social conditions from which it emerges.
“The economic is certainly foundational in the sense that it is what most men and women, most of the time, have had to concern themselves with.”	Eagleton reinforces the Marxist argument that the economic base is foundational to human life. He asserts that material concerns have historically dominated human activity, influencing the superstructure and shaping social and cultural institutions.

Suggested Readings: “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.  https://www.routledge.com/Marxism-and-Literary-Criticism/Eagleton/p/book/9780415285841
2. Williams, Raymond. Base and Superstructure in Marxist Cultural Theory. NLB, 1973.
3. Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Verso, 2005.
4. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
5. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
6. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. MIT Press, 1971.