Tag: literary devices

Etymology of Pathos

The English term “pathos” traces its roots to the ancient Greek word pathos (πάθος). Itoriginally referred to suffering, experience, or feeling. As it migrated into English, “pathos” retained its fundamental meaning as a powerful appeal to the emotions. It came to represent the quality or element in a work of art, literature, or speech that evokes pity, sympathy, or compassion in the audience.

Meanings of Pathos

1. Evoking Pity or Sadness: Pathos refers to a quality that elicits feelings of pity or sadness in art, literature, or performance.
2. Emotional Appeal in Persuasion: Pathos involves using emotions to influence an audience’s response in persuasive writing or speech.
3. Rhetorical Appeal: Pathos is one of the three main rhetorical appeals, alongside ethos and logos, emphasizing emotional persuasion.
4. Emotional State or Temperament: Pathos can describe a person’s overall emotional disposition, often associated with strong emotions or a sense of melancholy.

Pathos in Grammar

Grammatically, “pathos” is a singular noun that refers to a singular quality or emotion. However, it can be used in a plural form to refer to multiple instances or expressions of pathos. In this case, “pathos” takes on a plural form and becomes “pathoses”. However, it is important to note that the use of “pathoses” is relatively rare and not commonly used in everyday language. In most cases, the singular form “pathos” is sufficient to convey the intended meaning.

Definition of Pathos

Pathos, a literary device, refers to the use of language or imagery to evoke emotions in the reader or audience. It is often used in literature, particularly in works of fiction or drama, to create an emotional response and build a connection between the reader or audience and the characters or story. Pathos could also be used to create a range of emotions, from empathy and sympathy to sadness, anger, or even a sense of moral outrage.

Types of Pathos

There are several types of pathos that can be used in literature or other forms of communication to evoke emotional responses from the audience. Here are some common examples:

Type of Pathos	Explanation	Example
Personal Anecdotes	Sharing personal stories or experiences that evoke empathy in the audience	“Let me tell you about a time when I faced a similar struggle…”
Vivid Imagery	Using descriptive language to create emotionally evocative images	“The vibrant colors of the sunset painted the sky with a sense of tranquility and warmth.”
Emotional Language	Utilizing words and phrases with strong emotional connotations	“Our hearts were filled with sorrow as we witnessed the devastating aftermath.”
Metaphors and Similes	Employing figurative language to create emotional associations	“Her smile was like a ray of sunshine, bringing joy to everyone around her.”
Appeal to Suffering or Injustice	Highlighting instances of suffering, injustice, or hardship	“Imagine a world where no child goes to bed hungry, where every voice is heard.”
Testimonials	Presenting firsthand accounts that express emotions and build credibility	“I never thought I could achieve my dreams, but thanks to this program, I did it!”
Symbolism	Utilizing symbols to convey deeper meanings and evoke emotions	The dove symbolizes peace and hope in the midst of chaos.”
Visual and Audiovisual Elements	Incorporating impactful visuals or audio to enhance emotional impact	A heart-wrenching documentary with powerful images and moving soundtrack.
Humor or Irony	Using humor or irony to engage the audience and provoke emotional responses	“In a twist of fate, the comedian who brought joy to millions was hiding his own pain.”
Appeal to Shared Values or Beliefs	Connecting with the audience’s values or beliefs to create emotional bond	“As a community, we value compassion and equality for all.”

Literary Examples of Pathos

Literary Example	Explanation	Type of Pathos	Pathos in Action
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	In this novel, Tom Robinson’s unjust conviction for rape evokes sympathy and moral outrage, highlighting the injustice and racism of the era.	Appeal to Suffering or Injustice	Through the portrayal of an innocent black man facing racial injustice, the author creates an emotional connection, evoking sympathy and eliciting a desire for societal change.
The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini	The novel uses pathos to create an emotional bond between the reader and the characters, emphasizing the effects of war and the power of friendship.	Emotional Connection	By exploring themes of betrayal, guilt, and redemption, the author elicits empathy from the reader, making them emotionally invested in the characters’ experiences and emphasizing the human cost of conflict.
The Fault in Our Stars by John Green	The novel employs pathos to evoke empathy and compassion, focusing on the fragility of life and the importance of love and human connection.	Reflection on Mortality	Through the portrayal of terminally ill teenagers who fall in love, the author explores the delicate nature of life, evoking emotions and emphasizing the significance of embracing life fully despite adversity.
Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck	Steinbeck utilizes pathos in the portrayal of mentally disabled Lennie, evoking sympathy and highlighting the challenges faced by marginalized individuals.	Sympathy for Marginalized Characters	By depicting Lennie’s struggles and tragic fate, the author evokes a sense of compassion in the reader, shedding light on the difficult circumstances faced by marginalized individuals during the Great Depression.
The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck	The novel uses pathos to create an emotional connection to the Joad family’s struggles, highlighting the injustices faced by migrant workers during the Great Depression.	Social and Economic Injustice	By depicting the hardships, poverty, and exploitation experienced by the Joad family, the author evokes empathy and a sense of moral outrage, emphasizing the need for social and economic justice in society.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
2. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Fiction. Prentice-Hall, 1959.
3. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
4. Fisher, Walter R. Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Value, and Action. University of South Carolina Press, 1987.
5. Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, and Chaïm Perelman. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
6. Weaver, Richard M. The Ethics of Rhetoric. University of Chicago Press, 1953.

You may read more on Literary Devvices below:

• Induction: A Literary Device
• Induction: Creating and Critiquing
• Double Entendre: A Literary Device
• Double Entendre: Creating and Critiquing
• Discourse: Writing and Critiquing It

Introduction to Pathetic Fallacy

Pathetic fallacy, an essential literary device, involves attributing human emotions, traits, or attributes to elements of the natural world such as weather, landscapes, or animals. Authors use this technique to create an emotional atmosphere, accentuating the mood or theme of their work. Specifically, supported by Romantic poets, this device serves to convey the emotional state of characters or the overarching tone of a narrative, thereby eliciting empathy and resonance among readers.

Literary Examples of Pathetic Fallacy

Type of Pathetic Fallacy	Pathetic Fallacy Example	Source and Explanation
Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	“The wind howled in the night, like the cries of a thousand lost souls.”	Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein The howling wind represents the character’s internal turmoil and despair, reflecting the emotional state of the character as he contemplates the consequences of his creation.
Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	“The sky was dark and gloomy, the air thick with the scent of impending rain.”	Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights The dark and gloomy sky mirrors the stormy emotions of the characters, foreshadowing the turbulent events that will occur in the story.
Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	“The sun smiled down upon them, casting a golden light upon the field of wildflowers.”	F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby The smiling sun personifies nature, representing the happiness and joy experienced by the characters during a carefree day, creating an idyllic atmosphere in the scene.
Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	“The trees whispered to each other, as if sharing secrets in the night.”	J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone The whispering trees anthropomorphize nature, adding a touch of magic and mystery to the scene, setting the stage for the enchanting events that will unfold in the magical world of Hogwarts.
Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	“The sea heaved and roared, as if in anger at the ship for daring to cross its waters.”	Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick The angry sea symbolizes the power and danger of nature, as well as reflecting the internal struggles of the characters on the ship, highlighting the tumultuous and perilous nature of their journey.

How to Create Pathetic Fallacy in a Fictional Work

Here are some tips on how to create pathetic fallacy in a fictional work:

Step	Explanation	Practical Example
1. Identify the emotion you want to convey	Begin by determining the specific emotion or mood you aim to evoke in your writing. Pathetic fallacy is most effective when it aligns with the narrative’s emotional core.	In a suspenseful scene, dark clouds gathered overhead, foreshadowing the impending danger and instilling fear in the characters and readers.
2. Choose the right natural element	Select a natural element (e.g., weather, landscapes, animals) that symbolizes or mirrors the chosen emotion. Ensure that this element complements your narrative context.	The serene, sun-drenched meadow reflected the protagonist’s inner peace, highlighting their happiness and contentment.
3. Use descriptive language	Employ vivid and evocative descriptions when attributing human qualities to the chosen natural element. Paint a clear picture to immerse the reader in the emotional atmosphere.	The icy wind howled through the desolate streets, echoing the protagonist’s loneliness and despair.
4. Make it relevant to the story	Ensure that the use of pathetic fallacy serves a narrative purpose. It should advance the plot, develop characters, or contribute to the overall thematic message of the story.	As the storm raged outside, the character’s internal turmoil reached its climax, mirroring the chaos in their life.
5. Use it sparingly	While pathetic fallacy can be a powerful literary tool, avoid overusing it. Strategic application is more impactful, creating moments of heightened emotional resonance within your writing.	The gentle rain began to fall, signifying a fresh start for the protagonist after a series of hardships and setbacks.

These steps and examples demonstrate how to effectively utilize pathetic fallacy in your writing to enhance emotional depth and narrative impact.

Benefits of Pathetic Fallacy

Pathetic fallacy is a powerful literary device that can bring several benefits to your writing. Here are some of the benefits of using pathetic fallacy in your work:

1. Creates atmosphere: Pathetic fallacy helps establish the overall mood and tone of your narrative, immersing readers in the desired atmosphere of your story.
2. Conveys emotions: It provides a subtle yet effective means to convey characters’ and situations’ emotions, allowing readers to connect with the story on an emotional level.
3. Adds depth and complexity: By attributing human qualities to the natural world, it adds layers of depth and complexity to your storytelling, making it more engaging and thought-provoking.
4. Foreshadows events: Pathetic fallacy can serve as a literary tool to hint at or foreshadow upcoming events or changes in the narrative, adding intrigue and suspense.
5. Enhances imagery: It aids in creating vivid mental images for readers, making your descriptions more evocative and memorable.
6. Symbolizes themes: You can use it to symbolize or mirror the overarching themes of your work, reinforcing the message you want to convey.
7. Facilitates character development: Pathetic fallacy can mirror or contrast with characters’ emotions, helping to highlight their internal struggles and growth throughout the story.
8. Engages readers’ senses: By connecting emotions with sensory experiences, it engages readers’ senses and makes your writing more immersive.
9. Evokes empathy: Readers often empathize more readily with characters when their emotions are reflected in the surrounding natural elements, enhancing reader-character connections.
10. Creates memorable moments: It can lead to powerful, memorable scenes that linger in readers’ minds long after they’ve finished your work.

Pathetic Fallacy and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Pathetic Fallacy Critique	Example from Literature/Criticism	Pathetic Fallacy in Example
Marxist theory	Marxist critics might analyze how the use of natural elements to represent human emotions or events reflects the social and political structures of the time.	In Charles Dickens’ novel Hard Times, the gloomy and industrialized setting reflects the dehumanizing effects of capitalism on society, and the polluted air and bleak landscape symbolize the working-class struggles during the Victorian era.	The gloomy and industrialized setting, as well as the polluted air and bleak landscape, constitute a pathetic fallacy, where the natural elements reflect the social and political structures of the time.
Psychoanalytic theory	Psychoanalytic critics might analyze how the use of natural elements to represent human emotions or events reflects the characters’ unconscious desires or fears.	In William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, the stormy weather and chaotic natural elements surrounding significant events mirror the psychological turmoil and guilt experienced by the characters, particularly Macbeth’s internal struggles.	The stormy weather and chaotic natural elements in the play constitute a pathetic fallacy, representing the characters’ psychological turmoil and guilt, which aligns with psychoanalytic analysis.
Feminist theory	Feminist critics might analyze how the use of natural elements to represent human emotions or events reflects gender roles or power dynamics.	In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the decaying and oppressive environment of the protagonist’s room mirrors the restrictive and oppressive nature of traditional gender roles and patriarchal society, critiquing the treatment of women at the time.	The decaying and oppressive environment of the protagonist’s room, symbolizing traditional gender roles and a patriarchal society, is an example of pathetic fallacy, highlighting the power dynamics and gender-related implications through natural elements.

Pathetic fallacy is a literary device that can be analyzed and interpreted through different literary theories. Here are some examples:

Overall, the use of it could be subjected to analysis and interpretations through a variety of literary theories, each offering a unique perspective on the role of natural elements in literature.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth Publishing, 2013.
2. Barrell, John. The Idea of Landscape and the Sense of Place, 1730-1840: An Approach to the Poetry of John Clare. Cambridge University Press, 1972.
3. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Biographia Literaria. Oxford University Press, 1985.
4. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
5. Eliot, T. S. The Waste Land. Faber and Faber, 1922.
6. Forsyth, Mark. The Elements of Eloquence: How to Turn the Perfect English Phrase. Berkley, 2014.
7. Keats, John. Selected Poems. Penguin Classics, 2004.
8. Miller, J. Hillis. The Disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth-Century Writers. Harvard University Press, 1963.
9. Richardson, Alan. British Romanticism and the Science of the Mind. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
10. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Prometheus Unbound. Oxford University Press, 1820.

Etymology of Pathetic Fallacy

The term “pathetic fallacy” originated in the 19th century. John Ruskin is stated to have used this phrase for the first time.

The word “pathetic” here does not refer to something pitiful but means “emotion” or “feeling.” It is a derivative of the Greek term, pathos. However, “fallacy” refers to a false or mistaken belief.

The purpose of Ruskin coining the term was to describe the perceived error of attributing human emotions or characteristics to inanimate objects.

Meanings of Pathetic Fallacy

1. Symbolism and Meaning: In literature, it means to deepen symbolism and meaning. By associating natural elements with human emotions, writers intend to evoke specific responses from readers, manipulate the atmosphere, or convey deeper meanings of the narrative.
2. Literary Device: Pathetic fallacy is a literary device used to attribute human emotions or characteristics to inanimate objects or nature. It involves projecting human qualities onto non-human entities to create a specific mood, emphasize certain aspects, or establish a connection between the human experience and the natural world.
3. Emotional Attribution: It involves ascribing feelings such as joy, sadness, anger, or fear to natural phenomena or non-living things, treating them as if they possess human-like sensibilities.
4. Ruskin’s Critique: Coined by the Victorian critic, John Ruskin, the term “pathetic fallacy” originated as a critique. Ruskin argued that attributing human emotions to nature was a fallacy, an error in perception or reasoning. He viewed it as an incorrect projection of human sentiment in the non-human world.
5. Rhetorical Effect: As a rhetorical device, writers use the pathetic fallacy intentionally to create a desired effect. It serves as a persuasive tool to engage readers emotionally, heighten the impact of a scene, or underscore thematic elements in a work.
6. Connection to Nature: It establishes a connection between humans and the natural world by anthropomorphizing elements of nature. It suggests that nature reflects or responds to human experiences, drawing parallels between the emotions felt by humans and the perceived responses of the environment.

Definition of Pathetic Fallacy

It is a literary device in which human emotions and qualities are attributed to inanimate objects or nature. It is a form of personification that suggests a flawed or mistaken representation of the world by ascribing human attributes to non-human entities.

Types of Pathetic Fallacy

Several types could be found in literature, including:

Type of Pathetic Fallacy	Explanation	Example from Literature
Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	Attributing human-like qualities to non-human things or creatures.	In Aesop’s Fables, animals are often anthropomorphized and given human traits to convey moral lessons. For instance, in “The Tortoise and the Hare,” the animals show human attributes like competitiveness and overconfidence.
Mechanomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	Assigning human-like qualities to mechanical or man-made objects.	In the animated film “Cars,” the cars are portrayed with distinct personalities and voices, exhibiting human traits like friendship, rivalry, and humor. They communicate, make decisions, and engage in relationships just like humans.
Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	Ascribing emotions or feelings to natural phenomena or inanimate objects.	In William Shakespeare’s play Julius Caesar, Cassius says, “The clock hath stricken three.” Here, the clock is given the ability to strike as if it is expressing an emotion or signaling an event.
Mythological Pathetic Fallacy	Attributing mythological or supernatural qualities to nature or objects.	In Greek mythology, the River Styx is personified as a deity. It is believed to have the power to grant invulnerability, and in works like Homer’s “Iliad,” it plays a mythological role by acting as a boundary between the mortal and divine realms.

Common Examples

As is known that it is a literary device in which human emotions or characteristics are attributed to inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena. Here are some common examples of pathetic fallacy:

Pathetic Fallacy Example	Type	Explanation
The flowers wept as the storm approached.	Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	The flowers are ascribed the human emotion of weeping, suggesting a sense of sadness or vulnerability before the storm.
The sun smiled down on the happy couple as they walked down the aisle.	Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	The sun is given the human-like action of smiling, portraying a sense of joy or happiness during the couple’s wedding.
The raging storm mirrored the character’s emotions as he lost his temper.	Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	The storm is described as mirroring the character’s emotions, suggesting a parallel between the storm’s intensity and the character’s anger.
The dark clouds signaled the impending doom.	Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	The dark clouds are attributed the ability to signal or indicate something, creating a sense of foreboding or impending danger.
The trees whispered to each other as the wind blew through them.	Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	The trees are personified, given the human-like action of whispering, implying communication or sharing secrets among themselves.
The peaceful stream reflected the character’s serenity.	Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	The stream is described as reflecting the character’s emotional state, suggesting a connection between the serenity of the character and the calmness of the stream.
The gentle breeze kissed her cheeks as she walked through the park.	Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	The breeze is personified, given the human-like action of kissing, conveying a sense of tenderness or affection in the surroundings.
The angry sea roared and crashed against the shore.	Emotive Pathetic Fallacy	The sea is described with the human emotion of anger, roaring and crashing against the shore, evoking a sense of turbulence or fury.
The trees danced in the wind, celebrating the arrival of spring.	Anthropomorphic Pathetic Fallacy	The trees are personified, given the human-like action of dancing, representing a sense of joy or celebration in response to the arrival of spring.
The barren land mourned the loss of life during the drought.	Emotive Fallacy	The land is attributed with the human emotion of mourning, conveying a sense of sadness or grief over the loss of life caused by the drought.

These examples show how inanimate objects, animals, or natural phenomena are given human-like emotions or characteristics to create a deeper emotional impact on the reader.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth Publishing, 2013.
2. Barrell, John. The Idea of Landscape and the Sense of Place, 1730-1840: An Approach to the Poetry of John Clare. Cambridge University Press, 1972.
3. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. Biographia Literaria. Oxford University Press, 1985.
4. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
5. Eliot, T. S. The Waste Land. Faber and Faber, 1922.
6. Forsyth, Mark. The Elements of Eloquence: How to Turn the Perfect English Phrase. Berkley, 2014.
7. Keats, John. Selected Poems. Penguin Classics, 2004.
8. Miller, J. Hillis. The Disappearance of God: Five Nineteenth-Century Writers. Harvard University Press, 1963.
9. Richardson, Alan. British Romanticism and the Science of the Mind. Cambridge University Press, 2001.
10. Shelley, Percy Bysshe. Prometheus Unbound. Oxford University Press, 1820.

Introduction

Parody, as a literary device, involves the deliberate imitation and exaggeration of another work’s style, themes, or elements for comedic or satirical purposes. It often highlights and mocks the original work’s characteristics to create humor, critique, or commentary, relying on the audience’s familiarity with the source material for effective communication.

Literary Examples of Parody

• Northanger Abbey by Jane Austen

This novel parodies the Gothic genre popular in the late 18th century, with its exaggerated melodrama, mysterious castles, and fainting heroines. The protagonist, Catherine Morland, is a parody of the typical Gothic heroine, as she frequently misunderstands and misinterprets the situations, she finds herself in.

• Ulysses by James Joyce

This novel parodies the epic poem The Odyssey by Homer as it follows the protagonist, Leopold Bloom, on a single day in Dublin, rather than on a grand adventure. The novel also uses a stream-of-consciousness style that satirizes traditional narrative techniques.

• Pride and Prejudice and Zombies by Seth Grahame-Smith

This novel parodies Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” by adding a zombie apocalypse to the story. The novel uses Austen’s original text as a framework, but adds elements of horror and action to create a humorous and unexpected effect.

• The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams

This novel parodies the science fiction genre, with its absurd plot twists, quirky characters, and irreverent humor. The novel uses satire to critique the conventions of science fiction, while also offering a commentary on contemporary society.

Creating Parody in a Fictional Work: Tips for Humor and Social Commentary

Step	Explanation	Example
Identify the Elements You Want to Parody	Pinpoint specific themes, characters, situations, or tropes you wish to satirize. Choose elements that are recognizable to your audience for maximum impact.	Parody the “chosen one” trope by creating a protagonist who is anything but heroic.
Mimic the Style	Study the writing style, tone, and techniques of the original work or genre you’re parodying. Replicate the linguistic and narrative features to create a convincing imitation.	Parody a gothic romance novel by using overly dramatic language and descriptions in a comedic context.
Add a Twist	Infuse your parody with unexpected deviations from the original, creating humorous contrasts. Subvert audience expectations while still maintaining a connection to the source material.	In a parody of a detective story, reveal that the crime was committed by a character who had been portrayed as innocent throughout the story.
Use Humor and Satire	Employ wit, clever wordplay, and exaggeration to generate comedic effects. Utilize satire to criticize, mock, or comment on real-world issues through fictional representation.	Create a political satire by portraying fantastical creatures running for office and highlighting absurdities in the political system.
Be Respectful	Approach parody with a lighthearted intent rather than malicious mockery. Avoid crossing the line into offensive or hurtful territory.	Parody a celebrity’s mannerisms without attacking their personal life or making hurtful jokes.
Get Feedback	Share your work with beta readers or peers to gauge their reactions and identify areas for improvement. Constructive feedback can help refine your parody’s effectiveness and relevance.	Share your comedic parody script with a group of friends and revise it based on their suggestions for better comedic timing.

Remember, creating successful parody involves a delicate blend of humor, commentary, and an understanding of the elements you’re satirizing.

Benefits of Using Parody in Creative Works

1. Engages the Audience
   • Parody captures attention by presenting familiar elements in unexpected and humorous ways.
   • The element of surprise and the challenge of recognizing references keep the audience engaged.
2. Offers Social Commentary
   • Parody can serve as a vehicle for subtle or direct commentary on societal issues, norms, and behaviors.
   • By exaggerating or twisting real-world situations, parody prompts reflection and critical thinking.
3. Allows for Creative Expression
   • Parody provides writers and creators a platform to showcase their wit, imagination, and creativity.
   • Through re-imagining established concepts, creators can explore unconventional ideas and perspectives.
4. Increases Exposure
   • Parodies often draw attention due to their connection to popular culture or well-known works.
   • The inherent humor and relatability can lead to content being shared widely, increasing visibility.
5. Builds Community
   • Parody often resonates with like-minded individuals who share an appreciation for the original work.
   • It fosters a sense of belonging and community among those who understand and enjoy the references.
6. Provides Relief
   • Parody serves as a comedic break, offering entertainment and laughter in a world filled with serious content.
   • It lightens the mood and provides relief from stress, making it a valuable form of escapism.

Using parody in creative works can be a powerful tool that not only entertains but also stimulates thought and fosters connections among creators and audiences.

Parody and Literary Theory

It can be analyzed through various literary theories, as it often involves the subversion or critique of existing literary conventions or genres. Here are some examples of literary theories that can be applied to the study of parody:

Literary Theory	Critique of Parody in the Theory	Example
Structuralism Literary Theory	Parody subverts or plays with established literary structures or conventions	In Miguel de Cervantes’ novel, Don Quixote, the protagonist’s misguided quest to become a knight-errant parodies the traditional chivalric romances, subverting the established narrative and character roles of the genre.
Postmodernism Literary Theory	Parody blends genres or styles, embraces irony and self-reflexivity, reflecting fragmented reality	“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot is a postmodern poem that incorporates multiple voices, literary references, and fragmented imagery, blending different styles and genres to create a complex, ironic, and self-aware reflection of the fragmented modern world.
Marxism Literary Theory	Parody critiques or exposes underlying power structures in a genre or cultural trend	George Orwell’s novel, Animal Farm is a satirical allegory that parodies the Russian Revolution and critiques the power dynamics and corruption of the ruling class, highlighting the exploitation and manipulation inherent in the political system.
Feminism Literary Theory	Parody challenges or subverts traditional gender roles or stereotypes	In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the unreliable narrator’s descent into madness parodies and critiques the restrictive gender roles imposed on women in the 19th century, exposing the damaging effects of patriarchal society.
Cultural Studies	Parody reflects or critiques cultural trends or values of a specific time or community	In Douglas Adams’ novel, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, the comedic and satirical elements parody and critique various cultural and social aspects of contemporary society, including bureaucracy, technology, and the human pursuit of meaning.

Suggested Readings

1. Eco, Umberto. The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. Indiana University Press, 1984.
2. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. University of Illinois Press, 2000.
3. Rabkin, Eric S. The Fantastic in Literature. Princeton University Press, 1976.
4. Rose, Maragret. Parody: Ancient, Modern, and Post-Modern. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
5. Wickham, Glynne William Gladstone. A History of the Theatre. Routledge, 2014.

Etymology of Parody

The word “parody” traces its roots back to the Greek word parōidia. It is a combination of para (meaning “beside” or “alongside”) and ōidē (meaning “song” or “ode”). The term originally referred to a type of poetic composition that imitated existing songs or verses, often with a satirical or humorous intention. The concept of parody evolved further in ancient Greek and Roman theatre, where it involved the imitation and exaggerated portrayal of well-known characters and their actions for comedic effect.

Meanings of Parody

1. Imitating Style, Tone, and Content: A parody directly imitates and replicates the specific style, tone, and content of a particular work, author, or genre.
2. Commentary and Critique: Parodies are created with the purpose of providing commentary or criticism on the original work or genre that is being parodied.
3. Humorous or Serious: Parodies can be created with a humorous intent, aiming to entertain and provoke laughter, or they can be more serious in nature, aiming to provoke thought and reflection.
4. Exaggeration and Irony: Parodies often use techniques such as exaggeration and irony to emphasize and mock the flaws or peculiarities of the original work or genre.
5. Cultural Commentary: Parodies serve as a means of cultural commentary, offering insights and criticisms of social and political norms that are present in society.
6. Historical Use: Parodies have been used throughout history as a means to challenge established societal and political norms, providing a platform for satire and criticism.

Parody in Grammar

• Noun: In grammar, “parody” primarily functions as a noun, referring to a humorous or satirical imitation of a particular work, author, or genre.
• Adjective: “Parody” can also be used as an adjective to describe something that resembles or is characteristic of a parody. For example, “a parody film” or “parody lyrics.”
• Verb: As a verb, “parody” describes the act of creating or imitating a work, author, or genre in a humorous or satirical manner. For example, “They parodied the popular TV show with their own comedic sketch.”
• Gerund: The gerund form of “parody” functions as a noun and is formed by adding “-ing” to the verb form. For example, “Creating parodies is his favorite hobby.”
• Participial Adjective: The present participle form of “parody” (-ing form) can be used as an adjective to describe something that is in the process of being parodied. For example, “The singer delivered a parody performance, imitating famous musicians.”
• Derived Forms: Additional derived forms of “parody” include “parodied” (past tense verb), “parodies” (plural noun), and “parodying” (present participle verb).

Remember, the different grammatical forms of it allow for versatility in expressing the concept of humorous or satirical imitation in various linguistic contexts.

Definition of Parody

As a literary device, it is an imitation of a particular work or style of writing in a way that exaggerates or emphasizes its key features for humorous or satirical effect. It is intended to mock or ridicule the original work, author, or genre by exposing its flaws, exaggerating its weaknesses, or turning its conventions on their head.

Types of Parody

There are several types of parody, each of which involves a different approach to imitating and mocking an original work or genre. Some common types of parody include:

Type	Definition	Example
Satirical	Uses humor to critique or ridicule a subject, employing irony and exaggeration to highlight flaws	“Saturday Night Live” sketches are well-known for their satirical parodies of political figures and social issues. For example, their skits imitating politicians like Donald Trump or their satirical commentary on current events provide humorous critiques of the political landscape.
Musical	Alters lyrics or melody of existing songs for humorous effect	“Weird Al” Yankovic is famous for his musical parodies. He takes popular songs and changes the lyrics to create humorous and often satirical versions. For instance, his parody of Michael Jackson’s “Beat It” is transformed into “Eat It,” featuring comical lyrics that poke fun at food and eating habits.
Literary	Imitates style and content of an author or work for humorous effect	Jane Austen’s Northanger Abbey is a literary parody that humorously imitates and satirizes the Gothic novel genre. Austen exaggerates the conventions and tropes of Gothic literature to create a witty commentary on the genre’s melodramatic elements.
Film	Imitates style and content of a film or genre for humorous effect	Mel Brooks’ “Blazing Saddles” is a classic film parody that satirizes the Western genre. Through clever dialogue, comedic situations, and deliberate exaggeration, the movie both pays homage to and mocks the conventions of traditional Western films.
Commercial	Imitates style and content of an advertisement for humorous effect	The “Got Milk?” ads have become well-known and have been parodied numerous times. These parodies often mimic the iconic “Got Milk?” format but present humorous twists or alternate messages, showcasing how parody can playfully subvert the original advertising message. Another example is the “This Is SportsCenter” ads, which have been parodied in various forms of media, such as online videos or TV shows, mimicking the humorous tone and style of the original commercials while offering satirical or comedic commentary.

Suggested Readings

1. Eco, Umberto. The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. Indiana University Press, 1984.
2. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. University of Illinois Press, 2000.
3. Rabkin, Eric S. The Fantastic in Literature. Princeton University Press, 1976.
4. Rose, Maragret. Parody: Ancient, Modern, and Post-Modern. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
5. Wickham, Glynne William Gladstone. A History of the Theatre. Routledge, 2014.

Introduction

Parallelism, as a literary device, entails the deliberate repetition of grammatical structures, patterns, or syntax to achieve a rhythmic and stylistic effect. This technique fosters symmetry and cohesion within sentences or passages, emphasizing key ideas, enhancing the flow of language, and contributing to the overall aesthetic quality of the text.

How to Create Parallelism in a Fictional Work

Here are some tips on how to create parallelism in a fictional work:

Step	Explanation	Example
Identify Key Ideas or Elements for Emphasis	Determine the concepts, themes, or elements that you want to highlight within your narrative.	Example: In a story about self-discovery, key ideas might include personal growth, inner conflict, and the pursuit of authenticity.
Utilize Grammatical Parallelism for Balance	Employ parallel grammatical structures, such as matching verb tenses, sentence patterns, or clauses, to achieve symmetry and clarity.	Example: “She danced with grace, sang with passion, and spoke with eloquence.”
Employ Antithetical Parallelism for Contrast	Create contrast by juxtaposing opposing ideas using parallel grammatical structures, generating dynamic tension in your prose.	Example: “In wealth, some find poverty; in poverty, some find richness.”
Harness Isocolon for Rhythmic Impact	Utilize isocolon, where clauses or phrases have similar lengths and structures, to establish a rhythmic cadence that resonates with readers.	Example: “His ambition was grand, his determination unyielding, his dreams boundless.”
Experiment with Various Forms of Parallelism	Explore techniques like chiasmus (reversal of grammatical structure), anaphora (repetition at the beginning), or epiphora (repetition at the end) to create diverse effects.	Example: Chiasmus – “To err is human, to forgive divine; divine to err, human to forgive.”
Edit and Revise for Consistency	Review your work to ensure that parallel structures are maintained consistently throughout the narrative, enhancing their impact on the reader.	By incorporating these strategies and refining them through careful editing, you can infuse your fictional work with parallelism that amplifies its coherence, aesthetic appeal, and thematic resonance.

By following these steps and refining your approach through diligent editing, you can seamlessly integrate parallelism into your fictional work, augmenting its cohesion, aesthetic allure, and thematic depth.Top of Form

Benefits of Parallelism

There are several benefits of using parallelism in writing:

Benefits of Parallelism

1. Clarity: Parallelism helps convey ideas clearly by maintaining a consistent structure and rhythm in sentences. It prevents confusion and aids comprehension.
   1. Example: “She enjoys hiking, swimming, and cycling.” In this sentence, the parallel structure of the list (“hiking,” “swimming,” “cycling”) makes it easy to understand the activities she enjoys.
2. Emphasis: Parallelism draws attention to key points in your writing by presenting them in a similar format. It emphasizes the importance of the ideas being presented.
   1. Example: “We must face challenges with courage, tackle obstacles with determination, and overcome adversity with resilience.” Here, the repeated “with” construction emphasizes the qualities needed to overcome challenges.
3. Memorability: Parallelism creates a memorable impact on the reader, making the content more likely to be retained and recalled later.
   1. Example: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.” The parallel repetition in this famous line from Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar” makes it memorable and quotable.
4. Aesthetics: Parallelism enhances the aesthetic quality of writing, making it sound more balanced, rhythmic, and pleasing to the ear.
   1. Example: “Easy come, easy go.” The parallel structure of this phrase contributes to its catchy, rhythmic quality.
5. Persuasion: Parallelism can be persuasive by creating a persuasive cadence that resonates with readers, making arguments more compelling.
   1. Example: “We will fight for justice, for equality, and for a better future.” The repetition of “for” emphasizes the causes being fought for and adds persuasive impact.

Remember, the key to effectively using parallelism is maintaining consistent grammatical and structural patterns within sentences or lists.

Parallelism and Literary Theory

Type of Literary Theory	Critique of Parallelism
Formalism	Critics argue that an overreliance on parallelism may result in a lack of originality and creativity in literary works, as it can lead to formulaic and predictable writing styles.
Structuralism	Some structuralist theorists argue that an excessive use of parallelism oversimplifies complex meanings and overlook the intricacies and ambiguities present in a text.
Deconstruction	Deconstructionists may challenge parallelism as a fixed and stable form, instead emphasizing the destabilizing effects of language and the presence of contradictory meanings.
Feminist Theory	Feminist critics may point out that parallelism has historically reinforced traditional gender roles and binaries, limiting the representation and agency of marginalized voices.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial theorists may critique parallelism for perpetuating power imbalances by replicating colonial structures and hierarchies in literary works.
New Historicism	Scholars influenced by New Historicism may criticize parallelism for overlooking historical and cultural contexts, neglecting the complexities of social and political dynamics.
Reader-Response Theory	Some reader-response theorists argue that an excessive use of parallelism may limit readers’ interpretations and restrict their engagement with a text, reducing it to a single meaning.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth Publishing, 2008.
2. Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2004.
3. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2000.
4. Cuddon, J. A. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
5. DiYanni, Robert. Literature: Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. McGraw-Hill, 2019.
6. Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Pearson, 2017.
7. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.
8. Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2020.
9. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, 2012.
10. Roberts, Edgar V., and Henry E. Jacobs. Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Pearson, 2017.

Etymology of Parallelism

The literary device parallelism is a foreign term. It originated from the Greek word parallēlismos, which means “a placing alongside” or “a side-by-side comparison.” The concept of parallelism has been used in various fields, including mathematics, linguistics, and literature, and refers to the repetition or similarity of structures or patterns in adjacent or corresponding elements.

Meanings of Parallelism

1. Parallelism in Literature:
   • Symmetrical Parallelism: A literary technique that involves repeating similar grammatical structures, phrases, or clauses to create balance and rhythm in a sentence or paragraph.
   • Antithetical Parallelism: It presents contrasting ideas or opposites in parallel grammatical structures, often used to emphasize the differences between concepts.
2. Parallelism as a Rhetorical Device:
   • Anaphora: A rhetorical device where words or phrases are repeated at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences for emphasis or dramatic effect.
   • Chiasmus: A figure of speech that involves reversing the order or structure of two parallel phrases or clauses to create an inverted symmetry.
3. Parallelism as a General Term:
   • Similarity or Comparison: Describing two or more things that have corresponding characteristics or features.
   • Equality or Equivalence: The state of being equal or having the same value or importance.
4. Parallelism in Sentence Structure:
5. Parallel Clauses: The use of similar grammatical structures such as verb forms, in a series of clauses within a sentence. Example: She likes to swim, to run, and to hike.
6. Parallel Phrases: The use of similar grammatical structures such as noun phrases or prepositional phrases, in a series within a sentence. Example: The cat slept peacefully, curled up on the couch, or stretched lazily in the sun

Parallelism in Grammar

In grammar, it is the use of similar grammatical structures, forms, or patterns in adjacent or corresponding parts of a sentence, clause, or phrase. This involves repeating the same grammatical

Definition of Parallelism

As a literary device, it refers to the use of similar structures or patterns in sentences, phrases, or clauses. It involves repeating grammatical or syntactical elements to create balance, rhythm, and emphasis in a text. By employing parallelism, writers can enhance the impact and effectiveness of their writing by creating a sense of harmony and cohesion.

Types of Parallelism

There are several types of parallelism, including:

Type	Definition	Example
Grammatical parallelism	Using the same grammatical structure or form for two or more words or phrases in a sentence	“She enjoys swimming, biking, and hiking.”
Antithetical parallelism	Contrasting two ideas or concepts using parallel structures	“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.” – Charles Dickens
Climactic parallelism	Arranging a series of phrases or clauses in ascending order of importance	“I came, I saw, I conquered.” – Julius Caesar
Isocolon	Creating parallel clauses or phrases of the same length and structure	“Buy one, get one free.”
Chiasmus	Creating a crosswise pattern of parallel structures	“Fair is foul, and foul is fair.” – William Shakespeare
Anaphora	Repeating the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences	“I have a dream… I have a dream… I have a dream.” – Martin Luther King Jr.
Epiphora	Repeating the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences	“We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall never surrender.” – Winston Churchill
Assonance	Creating a pattern of repeating vowel sounds within words	“fleet feet sweep by sleeping geeks.”
Consonance	Creating a pattern of repeating consonant sounds within words	“pitter patter of little feet.”
Alliteration	Creating a pattern of repeating initial consonant sounds in adjacent or closely connected words	“Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”

Literary Examples of Parallelism

Example	Type	Explanation
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…” A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens	Antithetical parallelism	Dickens employs antithetical parallelism to contrast the extremes of life in London and Paris during the French Revolution.
“Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, or to take arms against a sea of troubles…” Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Grammatical parallelism	Shakespeare uses grammatical parallelism to balance two alternatives – enduring suffering or taking action – in Hamlet’s soliloquy.
“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.” Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	Grammatical parallelism	Austen uses grammatical parallelism to create a memorable and humorous opening line that highlights the social expectations and pressures of the time.
“I came, I saw, I conquered.” Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare	Isocolon	Shakespeare employs isocolon to create a concise and impactful statement, emphasizing Julius Caesar’s triumphant military conquests.
“To be, or not to be, that is the question.” – Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Antithetical parallelism	Shakespeare uses antithetical parallelism to present the fundamental existential dilemma faced by Hamlet – the choice between life and death.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth Publishing, 2008.
2. Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2004.
3. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2000.
4. Cuddon, J. A. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.
5. DiYanni, Robert. Literature: Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. McGraw-Hill, 2019.
6. Kennedy, X. J., and Dana Gioia. Literature: An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Pearson, 2017.
7. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.
8. Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2020.
9. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, 2012.
10. Roberts, Edgar V., and Henry E. Jacobs. Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Pearson, 2017.

Introduction to Paradox

It is easy to define paradox. It, as a literary device, refers to the deliberate juxtaposition of contradictory ideas or statements within a narrative framework, aimed at generating intellectual or rhetorical impact. Therefore, paradox means contradiction of things. This technique serves to engage readers by provoking contemplation of apparent contradictions, fostering nuanced interpretation, and encouraging a deeper appreciation of the complexities inherent in the subject matter or theme being explored.

How to Create Paradox

Creating paradoxes in literature is a powerful way to challenge readers’ assumptions and create a sense of intellectual and emotional tension. Here are some tips for creating effective paradoxes in your writing:

Step	Explanation	Practical Example
Start with an Apparent Contradiction	Begin by introducing conflicting ideas or concepts that seem incompatible at first glance. This contrast forms the foundation of the paradox.	In Shakespeare’s play “Hamlet,” the line “I must be cruel to be kind” presents a paradox by suggesting that an act of cruelty can be motivated by kindness, challenging the conventional understanding of these two opposing traits.
Use Figurative Language	Employ metaphors, similes, or other forms of figurative language to juxtapose disparate elements, enhancing the vividness of the paradox and amplifying its impact.	In John Donne’s poem “The Flea,” the speaker uses the metaphor of a flea to connect the act of intimate physical contact with the concept of innocence, creating a paradoxical situation that links seemingly unrelated ideas.
Use Irony	Employ situational, verbal, or dramatic irony to underscore the disparity between what is expected and what actually transpires, accentuating the paradoxical nature of the situation.	In O. Henry’s short story “The Gift of the Magi,” the characters’ selfless actions to buy gifts for each other result in situations where the gifts become useless due to the sacrifices made, emphasizing the paradox of well-intentioned actions leading to unexpected outcomes.
Create a Sense of Surprise	Craft unexpected outcomes or conclusions that subvert conventional expectations, leading readers to reassess their initial assumptions and perceptions.	In George Orwell’s “Animal Farm,” the phrase “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others” creates a paradox by juxtaposing equality and inequality, challenging readers to reconsider the true nature of the society being depicted.
Emphasize the Tension	Heighten the tension between opposing elements by elaborating on their implications, forcing readers to grapple with the complexity of the paradox and its underlying themes.	In Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” the protagonist’s transformation into a giant insect presents a paradoxical situation that explores themes of identity, isolation, and societal norms, compelling readers to confront the tension between the familiar and the bizarre.

Benefits of Using Paradox

1. Provoking Critical Thinking: Paradoxes stimulate readers to engage actively with the text, encouraging them to question assumptions and analyze the interplay of contradictory concepts.
2. Enhancing Literary Depth: By introducing paradoxes, writers can imbue their work with layers of complexity, inviting readers to explore deeper meanings and interpretations.
3. Arousing Emotional Resonance: Paradoxes evoke a sense of intrigue and emotional tension, fostering a connection between readers and the text’s themes on a visceral level.
4. Captivating Reader Attention: The inherent intrigue of paradoxes captures readers’ interest and compels them to delve further into the narrative, sustaining their engagement.
5. Highlighting Theme Significance: Paradoxes serve as vehicles for accentuating key themes or ideas within a story, guiding readers’ focus to the heart of the narrative’s message.
6. Encouraging Reflective Analysis: Readers are prompted to reflect on the broader implications of paradoxes, promoting contemplation of real-world complexities beyond the fictional realm.
7. Deepening Character Development: Paradoxes can be employed to create internal conflicts within characters, contributing to their multidimensional portrayal and personal growth.
8. Fostering Memorable Impressions: The memorable nature of paradoxical statements leaves a lasting impact, contributing to the text’s enduring resonance in readers’ minds.
9. Expanding Literary Exploration: Incorporating paradoxes expands the possibilities for exploring innovative narrative structures and unconventional storytelling approaches.
10. Cultivating Intellectual Engagement: Readers appreciate the intellectual challenge posed by paradoxes, making the reading experience intellectually rewarding and thought-provoking.

Incorporating paradoxes into literary works can thus yield multifaceted advantages, enriching the reading experience and fostering a deeper connection between authors and their audience.

Paradox in Literary Theory

Paradox is often analyzed in literary theory for its function and effect on the reader. Some common approaches to analyzing paradox in literature include:

Literary Theory	Interpretation of Paradoxes	Critique Example
New Criticism Literary Theory	Focuses on close reading and formal analysis of the text to uncover multiple layers of meaning. Paradoxes are seen as intentional and contribute to the complexity of the work.	In analyzing a poem, New Critics may examine paradoxes as linguistic devices that enhance the aesthetic experience.
Structuralism Literary Theory	Emphasizes the underlying structures and systems of meaning in literature. Paradoxes are viewed as disruptions or contradictions within the larger system.	Structuralist critics might analyze how paradoxes challenge and subvert the established binary oppositions or linguistic structures in a literary work.
Reader-Response Literary Theory	Shifts the focus to the reader’s subjective response and interpretation of the text. Paradoxes may evoke different emotional or intellectual responses from readers.	A reader-response critic may explore how paradoxes in a novel elicit a range of interpretations and engage readers in actively deciphering the underlying meanings.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Examines the relationship between literature and power dynamics in a postcolonial context. Paradoxes may highlight contradictions and tensions in cultural identities.	A postcolonial critic might analyze paradoxes in a novel to explore the complexities of identity negotiation and the power dynamics between colonizers and the colonized.

Critique Example: In the context of New Criticism, a critique example would involve examining how paradoxes contribute to the overall aesthetic quality of a poem. For instance, in T.S. Eliot’s “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” the paradoxical statement “I have measured out my life with coffee spoons” creates a sense of mundanity and futility, emphasizing the speaker’s existential angst. A New Critic may argue that the intentional use of paradox adds depth and richness to the poem’s themes of disillusionment and the search for meaning in a modern world.

It is important to note that these examples are simplified and that literary theory is a complex and diverse field with various interpretations and perspectives. The table provides a general overview of how different literary theories approach the interpretation of paradoxes and offers a glimpse into the potential critique examples that can be explored within each framework.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M.H., and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 12th ed., Cengage Learning, 2019.
2. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Eco, Umberto. Six Walks in the Fictional Woods. Harvard University Press, 1994.
4. Frow, John. Genre. Routledge, 2015.
5. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
6. Harmon, William, and Hugh Holman. A Handbook to Literature. 12th ed., Pearson, 2015.
7. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
8. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. Routledge, 1987.
9. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The New Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics. 3rd ed., Princeton University Press, 1993.
10. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2014.

Etymology of Paradox

Etymologically, the term paradox shows its origin in French and subsequently from Latin language. Its Latin version is paradoxum that means a statement that is absurd yet true. In Grecian language, it is paradoxon that means not a believable statement. However, it has entered in the English language from French where it is paradoxe which also is a contradictory statement.

Meanings of Paradox

Semantically, it means fantastic or absurd. However, a full statement that is called a paradox is actually illogical and contradictory. In rhetoric, it is used in arguments though with good premises and illogical conclusions. Despite this, it makes sense.

Definition of Paradox

In literature, it is a literary device that seems to oppose its own logic, yet it seems sensible or that seems a practical way out.

Difference between Paradox and Oxymoron

	Paradox	Oxymoron
Definition	A statement or situation that appears contradictory or absurd but may actually be true or logical.	A figure of speech that combines two contradictory terms to create a paradoxical effect or meaning.
Meaning	Paradoxes often reveal deeper truths and challenge conventional thinking.	Oxymorons create a dramatic or humorous effect and may involve wordplay or irony.
Structure	Paradoxes can be longer statements or situations that contain contradictory elements or ideas.	Oxymorons consist of two opposing words or concepts placed together for a specific effect or emphasis.
Examples	“I can resist anything except temptation.” – Oscar Wilde	“Living dead,” “jumbo shrimp,” “bittersweet”
Purpose	Paradoxes provoke thought, create tension, or highlight the complexity of a situation.	Oxymorons evoke a specific emotion, create humor, or emphasize a contrasting idea.

Types of Paradox

1. Veridical: A statement that appears to be false but is actually true.

Example: “This statement is false.”

2. Self-referential: Statements that refer to themselves in a way that creates a contradiction.

Example: “I always lie.”

3. Epistemic: Paradoxes arising from issues of knowledge and truth.

Example: The liar paradox – “This sentence is false.”

4. Zeno’s paradox: These involve a series of logical or mathematical steps leading to a seemingly contradictory conclusion.

Example: Achilles and the Tortoise paradox.

5. Sorites paradox: Paradoxes of gradual change in quantity or quality leading to a contradiction.

Example: The paradox of the heap – When does a collection of grains become a heap?

6. Fitch’s paradox: Paradoxes related to knowledge and belief, where a statement cannot be known unless it is true, but it cannot be true unless it is known.

Example: “I do not know that this statement is true.”

7. Russell’s paradox: A paradox in set theory that arises when considering sets that do not contain themselves as members.

Example: The set of all sets that do not contain themselves.

8. Berry paradox: A paradox that arises when defining a number that cannot be described by a finite number of words.

Example: “The smallest number that cannot be described in fewer than twenty words.”

9. Paradox of the preface: The belief that although individual statements in a book may be true, the book as a whole may contain falsehoods.

Example: A book claiming to contain all known facts but admitting there may be errors.

10. Ship of Theseus paradox: A paradox questioning the identity of an object when all its original parts have been replaced over time.

Example: If all the planks of a ship are replaced, is it still the same ship?

11. Grandfather paradox: A paradox arising from time travel, where a person traveling back in time could potentially prevent their own birth.

Example: A person goes back in time and prevents their grandparents from meeting, thereby erasing their own existence.

12. Unexpected hanging paradox: A paradox involving a death sentence and a surprise execution that cannot be logically predicted.

Example: A prisoner is told they will be hanged on a weekday but cannot deduce which day the hanging will occur.

13. Bootstrap paradox: In this type, an object or information exists without any origin or creator.

Example: A person receives a time machine blueprint from their future self and uses it to build the time machine, creating a loop.

14. Omnipotence paradox: It means questioning whether an omnipotent being can create a task it cannot complete.

Example: Can an all-powerful being create a stone so heavy that they cannot lift it?

15. Fermi paradox: It explores the contradiction between the probability of extraterrestrial civilizations and the lack of evidence to support this argument.

Example: If intelligent life exists elsewhere in the universe, why haven’t we detected any signals or signs of their presence?

Common Examples

1. To save money, you need to spend it.
2. Knowing nothing means knowing everything.
3. Under your brave face lies a coward.
4. You are residing in a vulnerably safe house.
5. When you live together, you live alone.
6. To know more, you need to forget more.
7. If you want to get more, you need to lose more.

Literary Examples of Paradox

Paradox	Reference	Interpretation
“I can resist anything except temptation.”	Oscar Wilde, Lady Windermere’s Fan	This statement shows that it contradicts itself. It highlights the character’s weakness and adds humor to the play.
“This statement is false.”	Lewis Carroll, “What the Tortoise Said to Achilles”	Here it questions the nature of truth and language, as the statement cannot be simultaneously true and false.
“Less is more.”	Robert Browning, “Andrea del Sarto”	Here it challenges conventional wisdom and suggests that simplicity or restraint can be more effective or powerful than excess or elaboration.
“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”	George Orwell, Animal Farm	This paradox highlights the hypocrisy and corruption of power, where some individuals or groups may have more privilege despite the claim of equality.
“The child is the father of the man.”	William Wordsworth, “My Heart Leaps Up”	This paradox suggests that childhood experiences shape a person’s adult identity and challenges linear notions of time, emphasizing the influence of the past.
“O miserable of happy! Is this the end Of this new glorious world?”	John Milton, Paradise Lost	This paradox reflects Satan’s complex character, experiencing both misery and happiness simultaneously, despite their opposing nature.

These paradoxes, each with their unique references and interpretations, demonstrate the intriguing nature of paradoxical statements found in literature and provoke thought by challenging conventional thinking and highlighting the complexities of human experience.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M.H., and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 12th ed., Cengage Learning, 2019.
2. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2011.
3. Eco, Umberto. Six Walks in the Fictional Woods. Harvard University Press, 1994.
4. Frow, John. Genre. Routledge, 2015.
5. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
6. Harmon, William, and Hugh Holman. A Handbook to Literature. 12th ed., Pearson, 2015.
7. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
8. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. Routledge, 1987.
9. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The New Princeton Encyclopaedia of Poetry and Poetics. 3rd ed., Princeton University Press, 1993.
10. Tyson, Lois. Critical Theory Today: A User-Friendly Guide. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2014.

More from Literary Devices:

• Sarcasm: A Literary Device
• Sarcasm: Using and Critiquing
• Rhyme: Using and Writing