Day: October 4, 2023

Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

Oral Tradition Theory in literature, a fundamental framework in literary studies, investigates the intricate dynamics of cultural transmission through spoken language and storytelling.

Rooted in the recognition of the paramount importance of orality in preliterate societies and its enduring influence in literate cultures, this theory probes the multifaceted aspects of narratives, myths, and knowledge passed down orally across generations.

Central to Oral Tradition Theory in literature is the notion of variability and flexibility, wherein stories evolve and adapt within the constraints of the tradition, fostering creativity and adaptation.

By delving into the mnemonic devices, communal memory, and performance contexts inherent in oral traditions, scholars unravel the profound impact of orality on the preservation and interpretation of cultural heritage in literary and cultural studies.

Criticism Against Oral Tradition in Literature

1. Lack of Authenticity: Critics argue that oral traditions may be susceptible to distortion and modification over time, leading to potential inaccuracies or changes in the original narratives.
2. Fragmentation and Loss: Oral transmission can result in the fragmentation or partial loss of cultural knowledge and stories, hindering the preservation of complete narratives.
3. Difficulty in Verification: Unlike written texts, which offer a tangible record, oral traditions may be challenging to verify or authenticate, making them susceptible to embellishment or manipulation.
4. Exclusivity: Critics contend that oral traditions can be exclusive, as access to these narratives may be limited to specific communities or individuals, potentially excluding broader audiences.
5. Vulnerability to Extinction: In the face of modernization and globalization, oral traditions are often at risk of fading away, as they may struggle to adapt to changing cultural contexts.
6. Influence of External Factors: External influences, such as colonialism and cultural assimilation, can impact oral traditions negatively, leading to the loss of indigenous knowledge and languages.
7. Dependence on Memory: Oral traditions heavily rely on memory, which can be fallible, and this reliance may result in variations or inconsistencies in the retelling of narratives.
8. Lack of Standardization: The absence of standardized forms of oral traditions can make it challenging to study and compare narratives across different cultures or regions.
9. Marginalization of Written Literature: Some argue that the emphasis on oral traditions may marginalize the value of written literature and disregard the richness of literary texts.
10. Difficulty in Documentation: Documenting oral traditions can be complex, as the nuances of performance, intonation, and non-verbal elements may not be fully captured in written transcripts.

Examples of Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

1. The Epic of Gilgamesh:
   • This ancient Mesopotamian epic, one of the earliest known works of literature, embodies the principles of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Passed down orally for generations, it showcases the variability and adaptability of narratives within an oral tradition. The epic’s formulaic composition, repetition of phrases, and mnemonic devices aid in its memorization and transmission.
2. The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer:
   • The works of Homer, particularly “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey,” exemplify Oral Tradition Theory. These epic poems were originally transmitted orally before being transcribed in written form. The formulaic nature of these narratives, featuring recurring epithets and phrases, reflects the hallmarks of oral tradition, where storytellers rely on memory and performance.
3. Beowulf:
   • The Old English epic poem “Beowulf” is another prime example of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Composed orally and later transcribed, it demonstrates the flexibility and adaptability of oral narratives. The use of formulaic language, alliteration, and the emphasis on communal memory within the text align with oral tradition principles.
4. The Mahabharata:
   • “The Mahabharata,” an Indian epic, is an extensive oral tradition that encompasses a rich tapestry of stories, legends, and philosophical discourse. It illustrates the role of communal memory in preserving cultural and historical knowledge. Within its narrative, mnemonic devices and performance contexts play significant roles in its transmission.

Keywords in Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

1. Oral Tradition: The transmission of cultural knowledge, stories, and literature through spoken language and memorization rather than written texts.
2. Variability: The inherent flexibility and adaptability within oral traditions, allowing for variations in narratives across different retellings.
3. Formulaic Composition: The use of recurring patterns, stock phrases, and formulas in the creation of oral narratives, aiding in their memorization and transmission.
4. Communal Memory: The collective cultural memory within a community or culture, where stories, knowledge, and traditions are shared and preserved orally.
5. Mnemonic Devices: Techniques such as rhyme, rhythm, and repetition used to aid memory and facilitate the oral transmission of complex narratives.
6. Performance Context: The specific settings and occasions in which oral traditions are performed, often featuring skilled storytellers or performers.
7. Dynamic Nature: The adaptability and evolution of oral traditions over time in response to changing cultural, social, and historical circumstances.
8. Oral-Literate Interface: The study of the interaction and influence between oral and written forms of communication within a culture.
9. Contextual Interpretation: The understanding and interpretation of oral narratives based on the context in which they are performed, with listeners actively engaged in the meaning-making process.
10. Cultural Preservation: The role of oral traditions in preserving a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and identity across generations through spoken narratives.

Suggested Readings

1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.

Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory

Oral Tradition Theory, rooted in the etymology of “oral” and “tradition,” is a scholarly framework employed in the study of cultural transmission. The term “oral” derives from the Latin word “os,” signifying “mouth,” highlighting the central role of spoken language in this theory. “Tradition,” originating from the Latin “traditio,” refers to the act of handing down customs, beliefs, narratives, and knowledge from one generation to the next.

As a theoretical construct, Oral Tradition Theory elucidates the dynamics of preserving and conveying cultural expressions through verbal communication across societies and epochs. It delves into the mechanics of memory, the adaptability of narratives, and the communal aspects of oral transmission, thus offering a comprehensive lens through which to explore the interplay between orality and cultural continuity in various human societies.

Oral Tradition Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

• Oral Tradition Theory has its roots in the early 20th century, primarily emerging as a response to the prevailing view that literature and culture were solely reliant on written texts. Scholars like Milman Parry and Albert Lord laid the groundwork for the theory by examining oral epic poetry, such as the works of Homer, and identifying patterns of oral composition.

Theorists:

• Milman Parry (1902-1935): Milman Parry is considered one of the founding figures of Oral Tradition Theory. He conducted extensive research on the oral composition of ancient epic poetry, particularly the Iliad and the Odyssey, highlighting the formulaic nature of these texts and the role of oral traditions in their creation.
• Albert Lord (1912-1991): Building on Parry’s work, Albert Lord expanded and refined the theory. His book The Singer of Tales (1960) further elucidated the oral-formulaic nature of epic poetry and proposed the concept of “oral tradition” as a dynamic and flexible means of cultural transmission.
• Walter J. Ong (1912-2003): Ong explored the characteristics of oral cultures in contrast to literate ones. His work, Orality and Literacy (1982), delved into how oral traditions shape thought, communication, and memory.

Key Works:

• Milman Parry’s The Making of Homeric Verse (1971): This posthumous publication encapsulates Parry’s research on the oral composition of Homeric epics and its implications for understanding the transmission of ancient literature.
• Albert Lord’s The Singer of Tales (1960): Lord’s seminal work outlines the principles of Oral Tradition Theory and provides extensive examples from various cultures to support his arguments.
• Walter J. Ong’s Orality and Literacy (1982): Ong’s book offers a comprehensive exploration of the characteristics of oral cultures, the transition to literate societies, and the impact of these shifts on human cognition and communication.

Key Arguments:

• Central to Oral Tradition Theory is the idea that oral cultures rely on spoken language, memory, and mnemonic devices for the transmission of knowledge, stories, and cultural traditions.
• The theory posits that oral traditions are not fixed, but rather flexible and adaptable, allowing for variations and creativity within the retelling of narratives.
• Scholars in this field argue that oral traditions have played a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage, fostering a sense of community, and transmitting knowledge across generations, challenging the notion that written texts are the sole repository of culture and knowledge.

Principles of Oral Tradition Theory

Suggested Readings

1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.
9. Tedlock, Dennis. Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians. Bison Books, 1972.
10. Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. Routledge, 1965.

Introduction: Ontological Criticism in Literature

Ontological criticism in literature, deeply rooted in existential philosophy, engages with profound questions concerning the essence of human existence and the pivotal choices individuals make within the context of literary narratives.

This critical approach prioritizes the exploration of existential themes, such as the fundamental inquiries into the nature of being, the exercise of freedom, and the pursuit of authenticity.

Moreover, it rigorously examines the authenticity of characters’ choices, often within the framework of societal norms, thereby illuminating their inner conflicts related to identity and the quest for meaning.

Ontological criticism underscores the nuanced portrayal of the human experience, emphasizing emotions of alienation, isolation, and the relentless pursuit of significance. By adeptly applying a philosophical lens to literary analysis, this approach reveals profound philosophical implications within the narratives it scrutinizes, ultimately urging a critical reflection on the intricate tapestry of existence woven throughout literature.

Criticism Against Ontological Criticism

1. Overemphasis on Philosophy: Detractors assert that ontological criticism in literature places an excessive emphasis on philosophy, sometimes at the expense of the literary aspects of a work. This approach often prioritizes abstract philosophical concepts over the narrative, character development, and other literary elements.
2. Simplification of Literature: Some contend that ontological criticism in literature tends to oversimplify the complexities of literary texts by reducing them to existential themes. This reductionist approach may overlook the rich layers of meaning and symbolism present in literature.
3. Neglect of Cultural and Historical Context: Critics argue that ontological criticism in literature often neglects the cultural and historical context in which a literary work is situated. Focusing solely on existential themes can lead to a narrow interpretation that disregards the broader social, political, and cultural influences on the text.
4. One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Ontological criticism in literature relies heavily on existential philosophy, which may not be suitable for all types of literature. Critics assert that this approach may not effectively analyze works from diverse genres and cultural backgrounds, as not all literature is concerned with existential questions.
5. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some argue that ontological criticism in literature does not adequately consider the author’s intent when interpreting a text. Critics claim that this approach may impose philosophical interpretations on works that the author did not intend or may have had different thematic goals in mind.
6. Potential for Overlooking Alternative Interpretations: Critics contend that ontological criticism in literature may limit the range of possible interpretations by focusing narrowly on existential themes. This could lead to the neglect of alternative interpretations that consider different literary and thematic dimensions.
7. Lack of Practical Application: Detractors argue that ontological criticism in literature can be overly theoretical and may not offer practical insights or contribute significantly to understanding a literary work’s cultural or societal relevance.
8. Difficulty in Accessibility: Some critics suggest that ontological criticism in literature’s heavy reliance on philosophical concepts and terminology can make it inaccessible to a broader readership and limit its applicability in educational settings.

Examples of Ontological Criticism

1. The Road by Cormac McCarthy (2006):
   • In this post-apocalyptic novel, a father and his young son traverse a desolate, ashen landscape stripped of humanity. Ontological criticism examines their harrowing journey as they confront the bleakness of existence while seeking survival. The father’s unwavering determination and the boy’s innocence in the face of a grim world become focal points for existential analysis.
2. The Stranger by Harlan Coben (2015):
   • In this contemporary thriller, the protagonist, a detective named Adam Price, becomes embroiled in a complex mystery when he learns a disturbing secret about his wife. Ontological criticism analyzes Adam’s quest for truth, the unraveling of his identity as a husband and father, and the moral dilemmas he faces as he dives deeper into the enigma that challenges the very core of his existence.
3. The Buried Giant by Kazuo Ishiguro (2015):
   • Set in a mythical, post-Arthurian Britain, this novel follows an elderly couple, Axl and Beatrice, who embark on a journey to visit their estranged son. Ontological criticism delves into the couple’s relationship, their hazy memories, and the collective amnesia that shrouds the land. The story becomes a canvas for exploring the nature of memory, identity, and the existential implications of a society that forgets its past.
4. Lincoln in the Bardo by George Saunders (2017):
   • This experimental novel unfolds in a cemetery where the spirit of Abraham Lincoln’s deceased son, Willie, resides in the “bardo,” a transitional state between life and afterlife. Ontological criticism examines the spectral characters’ experiences in this liminal space, their existential crises, and how their existence challenges conventional perceptions of life, death, and the afterlife. The novel offers a unique perspective on the existential journey of these otherworldly beings.
5. The Memory Police by Yoko Ogawa (2019):
   • In a dystopian society, a novelist and her editor grapple with the oppressive regime’s mandate to forget certain objects and concepts. Ontological criticism applies to this world of enforced oblivion, where characters confront the erosion of memory and identity. The novel raises profound questions about the nature of existence, individuality, and the power of memory in shaping one’s sense of self.

Keywords in Ontological Criticism in Literature

1. Existentialism: A philosophical movement that emphasizes the individual’s experience and freedom in an inherently meaningless or absurd world.
2. Authenticity: The quality of being true to one’s own nature, values, and beliefs; often explored in literature through characters’ actions and choices.
3. Absurdity: The concept that human existence lacks inherent meaning or purpose, often explored in literature to convey the sense of life’s futility.
4. Freedom: The capacity for individuals to make choices independently of external influences, a central theme in existential literature.
5. Identity: The distinctive characteristics and sense of self that define an individual; often examined in literature in relation to characters’ struggles with self-discovery.
6. Alienation: A feeling of isolation or estrangement from oneself, others, or society, frequently explored in literature to depict characters’ disconnection from the world.
7. Responsibility: The moral obligation of individuals to make choices and take actions in an existence devoid of predetermined meaning; a recurring theme in existentialist literature.
8. Individualism: The emphasis on the uniqueness and autonomy of the individual, often examined in literature to portray characters who challenge societal norms.
9. Communication: The process of conveying thoughts, ideas, and emotions, often examined in literature to highlight the limitations of language in expressing existential experiences.
10. Nihilism: The belief that life lacks inherent value or meaning, often explored in literature to depict characters who grapple with nihilistic perspectives.

Suggested Readings

1. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers, Hill and Wang, 2013.
2. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage International, 1991.
3. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
6. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
7. Saunders, George. Lincoln in the Bardo. Random House, 2017.
8. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

Introduction: Ontological Criticism

Ontological criticism, also known as ontological literary criticism, is a type of literary theory that focuses on the question of being and existence as it pertains to literature.

The term “ontological” is derived from the Greek word “ontos,” which means “being.” Ontological criticism attempts to understand how literature and language function as forms of being and existence in the world, rather than simply as representations or reflections of reality. It is concerned with how literature and language create, shape, and reveal different kinds of realities, and how they interact with the human experience of existence.

Ontological criticism is based on the belief that literary works are not simply linguistic constructs, but are instead complex, dynamic entities that have their own being and existence. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the fundamental nature of literary works, including their ontology to fully appreciate their meaning and significance. It also emphasizes the importance of examining how literature and language create and reflect different aspects of reality, and how they relate to the human experience of existence.

Ontological Criticism: Origin, Theorists, Work and Arguments

Origin of Ontological Criticism:

• Emerged in the mid-20th century as a branch of literary criticism.
• Developed as a response to structuralism and formalism.
• Rooted in philosophical ontology, which deals with the nature of being and existence.

Prominent Theorists of Ontological Criticism:

1. Martin Heidegger:
   • A German philosopher who greatly influenced ontological criticism.
   • His work on existentialism and ontology laid the foundation for this approach in literary criticism.
   • Notable works include Being and Time.
2. Jean-Paul Sartre:
   • A French existentialist philosopher.
   • Applied existentialist ideas to literary analysis, emphasizing human existence and the choices individuals make.
   • Existentialism is a Humanism is one of his influential texts.
3. Albert Camus:
   • An Algerian-French philosopher and writer.
   • Known for his exploration of the absurdity of human existence.
   • Works like The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus are central to ontological criticism.
4. Friedrich Nietzsche:
   • A German philosopher who questioned traditional values and morality.
   • His ideas about the will to power and the eternal recurrence influenced existentialist thought.
   • Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil are key texts.
5. Gabriel Marcel:
   • A French existentialist philosopher.
   • Explored the nature of human existence and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
   • Being and Having and The Mystery of Being are relevant to ontological criticism.

Key Works in Ontological Criticism:

1. Being and Time by Martin Heidegger:
   • Central to the development of ontological criticism.
   • Explores the concept of “Dasein” (human being) and its relation to being-in-the-world.
   • Influenced subsequent discussions of existence in literature.
2. The Stranger by Albert Camus:
   • A novel that exemplifies the absurdity of human existence.
   • The protagonist, Meursault, embodies existential themes of indifference and detachment.
3. No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre:
   • A play that delves into the existential concept of “hell is other people.”
   • Characters confront their actions and their impact on each other, emphasizing the idea of human responsibility.
4. The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus:
   • A philosophical essay that explores the absurdity of life and the concept of the “absurd hero.”
   • Discusses the idea of living authentically in the face of a meaningless universe.
5. Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche:
   • Nietzsche’s work challenges traditional values and morality.
   • The concept of the “Übermensch” (overman or superman) reflects existentialist themes of individualism and self-creation.

Main Arguments in Ontological Criticism:

1. Existentialism in Literature:
   • Ontological criticism emphasizes the exploration of existential themes in literature.
   • It examines how characters grapple with questions of existence, freedom, and choice.
2. Authenticity and Inauthenticity:
   • Heavily influenced by Heidegger’s ideas, ontological criticism delves into the authenticity of characters and their choices.
   • It explores how characters either embrace their authentic selves or succumb to inauthenticity, often driven by societal norms.
3. Human Experience and Alienation:
   • Ontological criticism analyzes how literature portrays the human experience, including feelings of alienation, isolation, and the search for meaning.
   • It delves into how characters confront the absurdity of existence.
4. Freedom and Responsibility:
   • Building on Sartre’s philosophy, ontological criticism examines the concept of radical freedom.
   • It explores how characters’ choices and actions reveal their sense of responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.
5. Language and Communication:
   • This approach also considers the limitations of language and communication in conveying existential experiences.
   • It looks at how language may fail to capture the depth of human existence.

Principals of Ontological Criticism

Ontological criticism provides a philosophical lens through which literary works are analyzed, emphasizing the fundamental questions of human existence and the choices individuals make in the face of an often uncertain and absurd world.

Suggested Readings

1. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
2. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
3. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage, 1991.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
5. MacDonald, Paul S., editor. The Existentialist Reader: An Anthology of Key Texts. Routledge, 2000.
6. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. Translated by Matthew Ward, Vintage International, 1989.
7. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
8. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 2003.

Introduction: Narrative Theory

Narrative Theory is an analytical framework that explores the structural, thematic, and interpretative elements of storytelling within literary works.

It delves into the ways narratives are constructed, the roles of characters and plot development, and how readers engage with and interpret stories. Narrative Theory seeks to uncover the underlying principles that govern the art of storytelling, shedding light on the intricacies of narrative discourse and its impact on the meaning and reception of literary texts.

By examining the interplay between narrative elements, this critical approach enriches our understanding of how narratives function as powerful vehicles for conveying meaning, emotions, and cultural messages in literature.

Principals of Narrative Theory

Criticism Against Narrative Theory in Literature

1. Overemphasis on Structure: Critics argue that narrative theory places excessive emphasis on the formal structure of a story, potentially neglecting deeper thematic and cultural nuances.
2. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some scholars contend that narrative theory often sidelines the author’s original intent and creative choices, focusing more on structural analysis.
3. Limited Cultural Scope: Critics suggest that narrative theory can be culturally biased, with a tendency to prioritize Western literary traditions, overlooking the rich narratives of non-Western cultures.
4. Reader-Centric Approach: Some argue that narrative theory’s emphasis on reader interpretation may overlook the author’s role in shaping the narrative and the intended message.
5. Inadequate Consideration of Socio-Political Context: Critics assert that narrative theory may not sufficiently account for the socio-political context in which a narrative is situated, potentially missing important socio-cultural critiques.

Examples of Narrative Theory in Literature (Critique)

1. The Night Circus by Erin Morgenstern (2011):
   • Narrative Structure: The novel employs a non-linear narrative structure, jumping between different timelines and perspectives. This use of narrative theory in literature creates a sense of magic and mystery in the storytelling, aligning with theories of narrative structure.
2. Where the Crawdads Sing by Delia Owens (2018):
   • Character Development: The novel explores the transformation of the protagonist, Kya Clark, from a young, isolated girl into a resilient and independent woman. This character evolution is a key aspect of narrative theory in literature concerning character development.
3. The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides (2019):
   • Plot Dynamics: The novel uses intricate plot dynamics and unreliable narration to keep readers engaged in solving the mystery. These narrative techniques align with the principles of narrative theory in literature regarding plot construction.
4. The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates (2019):
   • Meta-Narratives: Coates’ novel addresses themes of slavery, freedom, and memory within the broader context of African American history. It serves as a meta-narrative that reflects and challenges cultural norms, aligning with narrative theory in literature’s exploration of meta-narratives.

These examples illustrate how narrative theory in literature is applied in recent literature to enhance storytelling, character development, and thematic exploration.

Keywords in Narrative Theory

1. Narrator: The person who tells the story.
2. Point of View: The perspective from which the story is told.
3. Plot: The events that make up the story.
4. Characterization: The way a character is presented and developed in the story.
5. Time: The order and duration of events in the story.
6. Setting: The time and place in which the story takes place.
7. Closure: The sense of completeness or resolution at the end of a story.
8. Focalization: The way the narrator directs the reader’s attention to a particular character or aspect of the story.
9. Frame narrative: A story within a story.
10. Intertextuality: The relationship between a text and other texts, both literary and non-literary.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1961.
2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
3. Herman, David. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
4. Phelan, James, and Peter J. Rabinowitz. Understanding Narrative. Ohio State University Press, 2012.
5. Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 2003.