Day: October 18, 2023

Introduction: Muslim English Literature

Muslim English Literature refers to the literary works written in the English language by Muslim writers around the world. It encompasses a broad range of literary genres, including fiction, poetry, drama, and non-fictional prose. Muslim English Literature is a rapidly growing field that reflects the diversity of the Muslim world and its diaspora.

It provides a platform for Muslim writers to share their experiences, perspectives, and insights with a global audience, and to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam and Muslims.

Muslim English Literature is characterized by a distinctive blend of Islamic and Western literary traditions, as well as the cultural and linguistic influences of the regions where the writers reside or have roots.

Key Factors Behind Muslim English Literature

1. Colonialism: British colonial rule in various parts of the Muslim-majority world, including South Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, led to the introduction of English as a medium of instruction and administration. This exposure to English language and literature planted the seeds for future literary works in English.
2. Educational Institutions: The establishment of English-medium schools and universities by colonial powers provided access to English education for a select segment of the Muslim population. This education nurtured the development of English language skills among Muslim scholars and writers.
3. Literary Adaptation: As English gained prominence, Muslim writers and intellectuals began to adapt their cultural and literary traditions to the English language. They sought to convey their religious, cultural, and sociopolitical perspectives to a wider, often Western, audience.
4. Social and Political Change: The colonial period brought about significant social and political changes, contributing to the need for new literary forms and discourses. Muslim writers used English to engage with these transformative experiences and to advocate for their communities.
5. Post-Independence Period: After gaining independence from colonial rule, many countries with Muslim-majority populations continued to use English as a language of governance, education, and communication. This further solidified the position of English in literary and cultural expression.
6. Diaspora Communities: The Muslim diaspora in Western countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States, has also played a significant role in the development of Muslim English literature. Immigrant and second-generation Muslim writers use English to explore their identities and experiences in the West.

The works of early Muslim English writers, such as Mulk Raj Anand, Ahmad Ali, and Hanif Kureishi, contributed to the establishment of this literary tradition. Over time, Muslim writers have continued to produce literature that reflects their experiences, identities, and perspectives within the English language. Today, Muslim English literature is a diverse and dynamic field, encompassing various genres and voices that convey the rich tapestry of Muslim cultures and societies in the global context.

Major Features of Muslim English Literature

Feature	Explanation	Example
Multilingual and Multicultural Influences	Muslim English literature by Muslim writers incorporates various languages, reflecting the diverse cultures and linguistic influences of Muslim communities.	In the novel The Golden House by Salman Rushdie, linguistic and cultural diversity plays a central role in the characters’ lives.
Diverse Themes and Topics	This literature explores a wide range of themes, from religious exploration to issues of identity and social justice.	In The Taqwacores by Michael Muhammad Knight, the novel delves into the punk subculture and the intersection of faith and rebellion.
Religious and Spiritual Exploration	Muslim writers delve into themes of faith, spirituality, and religious identity, often portraying the spiritual journeys of characters.	In The Forty Rules of Love by Elif Shafak, the novel explores Rumi’s teachings and spiritual awakening.
Global Perspectives	Muslim English literature by Muslim authors provides global viewpoints, addressing universal themes, and connecting with diverse readers.	In The Moor’s Account by Laila Lalami, the novel offers a global perspective on exploration and identity.
Intertextuality	Muslim writers engage with Islamic and world literature, enriching their narratives.	Leila Aboulela’s The Translator interweaves Islamic texts and cultural references in the story of a Sudanese translator.
Cultural and Identity Conflicts	This literature often delves into the challenges of cultural and identity conflicts, especially for diaspora communities.	In “Brick Lane” by Monica Ali, the novel explores the cultural and identity conflicts faced by a Bangladeshi woman in the UK.
Social and Political Commentary	Many works by Muslim authors offer commentary on social and political issues, such as human rights, gender dynamics, and postcolonial legacies.	“Infidel” by Ayaan Hirsi Ali discusses her journey from a conservative Muslim upbringing to women’s rights activism.
Multiple Voices	Muslim English literature by Muslim writers showcases a multitude of voices, reflecting the diversity of Muslim authors and their characters.	In “Exit West” by Mohsin Hamid, the novel features multiple characters, each with a unique perspective on migration and displacement.
Hybridity and Postcolonial Discourse	Muslim authors often incorporate postcolonial themes, critically examining the impact of colonialism, power dynamics, and cultural hybridity.	In “The Reluctant Fundamentalist” by Mohsin Hamid, the novel explores postcolonial themes and cultural identity.
Narrative Innovation	Muslim writers experiment with narrative techniques and diverse genres, adding depth and complexity to the literary tradition.	“The Ghost Bride” by Yangsze Choo combines historical fiction with elements of the supernatural, reflecting cultural diversity.
Global Literary Citizenship	Many Muslim writers who are actively engaged in the global literary community participate in international literary events and dialogues.	Kamila Shamsie, a British-Pakistani author, actively contributes to global literature and discourse.

Principals of Muslim English Literature

1. Cultural Authenticity: Muslim English literature should reflect the cultural authenticity of the Muslim communities it represents. It should capture the nuances, traditions, and values of these communities, contributing to a richer understanding of their cultural identities.
2. Diversity and Inclusivity: The literature should embrace the diversity within the Muslim world. It should include a broad spectrum of voices, representing various regions, backgrounds, and experiences, and strive to be inclusive of different perspectives and identities.
3. Intersectionality: Muslim English literature often explores the intersection of various identities, such as faith, gender, ethnicity, and nationality. It should acknowledge and navigate the complex interplay of these identities in storytelling.
4. Global Relevance: The literature should transcend geographic boundaries and resonate with a global audience. It should address universal themes and issues, making it relatable to readers from diverse cultural backgrounds.
5. Linguistic Hybridity: Given the multilingual backgrounds of many Muslim writers, the literature may incorporate linguistic hybridity. It should embrace the interplay of languages, dialects, and cultural references, enriching the narratives.
6. Cultural Exchange: Muslim English literature often serves as a platform for cultural exchange. It should foster dialogue and understanding between Muslim and non-Muslim audiences, promoting mutual respect and appreciation.
7. Social and Political Commentary: The literature often engages with social and political issues. It should encourage critical examination of these issues, advocate for social justice, and challenge prevailing norms and power structures.
8. Interfaith and Intercommunity Dialogue: Muslim English literature may facilitate interfaith and intercommunity dialogue. It should promote a better understanding of Islam and foster conversations between different religious and cultural groups.
9. Narrative Experimentation: Writers in this tradition should feel free to experiment with narrative techniques and genres. This experimentation can lead to innovative storytelling that pushes the boundaries of conventional literary forms.
10. Literary Citizenship: Muslim English literature is often globally engaged. Writers should actively participate in the global literary community, contributing to international literary events, dialogues, and cultural exchanges.
11. Ethical Responsibility: Authors are often expected to uphold ethical responsibilities in their portrayals and representations. They should be conscious of the potential impact of their work and consider the implications of their narratives on readers and society.

Suggested Readings

1. Ahmed, Leila. A Quiet Revolution: The Veil’s Resurgence, from the Middle East to America. Yale University Press, 2011.
2. Dabashi, Hamid. Post-Orientalism: Knowledge and Power in a Time of Terror. Transaction Publishers, 2008.
3. Malik, Iftikhar H. Islam and Modernity: Muslims in Europe and the United States. Westview Press, 2004.
4. Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Islamic Art and Spirituality. State University of New York Press, 1987.
5. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
6. Siddiqui, Mona. Muslim Women and Power: Political and Civic Engagement in West European Societies. Routledge, 2010.
7. Suleiman, Yasir. The Arabic Novel: An Historical and Critical Introduction. Syracuse University Press, 2011.

Introduction: Muslim Discourse in English

Muslim Discourse in English refers to the use of the English language by Muslim individuals and communities across the world, encompassing a wide range of linguistic and cultural practices.

It reflects the intersection of Islamic values, beliefs, and traditions with English communication, including both written and spoken forms. This discourse often manifests in the form of religious texts, literature, media, and everyday interactions, shaping a unique linguistic and cultural identity.

It serves as a vital medium for Muslims to convey their religious and cultural heritage while engaging with a global, English-speaking audience.

Muslim Discourse in English and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Analyzing how it is shaped by colonial history and decolonization processes. – Understanding the adoption and adaptation of English by Muslim communities in response to colonial legacies.
Reader-Response Theory	– Applicable for studying how readers engage with and interpret various texts within Muslim Discourse in English. – Takes into account the subjective responses of readers influenced by their backgrounds and cultural contexts.
Cultural Studies Theory	– Relevant for examining how Muslim Discourse in English contributes to the broader cultural landscape. – Highlights the diversity of voices and perspectives within English literature, emphasizing the value of various cultural contributions.
Multiculturalism Theory	– Provides insights into how Muslim Discourse in English reflects the diversity of cultures and communities. – Emphasizes the importance of recognizing and celebrating cultural diversity within English literature and society.

Criticism Against Muslim Discourse in English

1. Cultural Appropriation: Some critics argue that the use of English by Muslim communities might be seen as a form of cultural appropriation, as it involves adopting a language with colonial associations. This perspective suggests that using English may compromise the preservation of native languages and cultures.
2. Erosion of Traditional Languages: Concerns are raised about the potential erosion of traditional languages and dialects within Muslim communities as English becomes more dominant. Critics argue that the emphasis on English might lead to the neglect of indigenous languages.
3. Loss of Authenticity: Critics contend that while a reflection of global connectivity and cultural exchange, may sometimes be perceived as inauthentic or diluted in terms of its representation of Islamic values and cultural nuances. There are concerns about the potential dilution of religious and cultural authenticity.
4. Colonial Legacy: Some critics argue that the use of English in Muslim Discourse in English is a lingering legacy of colonialism, reinforcing the historical dominance of Western powers over Muslim-majority regions. They suggest that this perpetuates a power imbalance in global communication.
5. Westernization and Secularization: Critics may argue that the adoption of English in Muslim discourse can be seen as a form of Westernization, leading to a secularization of Islamic culture and values. This perspective raises concerns about a potential dilution of religious and cultural authenticity.
6. Heterogeneity and Misrepresentation: The diversity within Muslim communities worldwide can make it challenging to represent their experiences accurately through a single discourse in English. Critics argue that Muslim Discourse in English may inadvertently homogenize and misrepresent these varied experiences.
7. Market-Driven Content: In media and literature, some critics argue that the market-driven approach to Muslim Discourse in English may lead to the sensationalization of certain aspects of Muslim culture and religion to appeal to Western audiences, potentially perpetuating stereotypes.

It’s important to note that these criticisms are not universally applicable to all instances, and the use of English by Muslim communities varies widely. Moreover, proponents argue that it can serve as a means of cultural exchange, dialogue, and a bridge between cultures, facilitating greater understanding and collaboration in a globalized world.

Examples of Muslim Discourse in English

1. Friday Khutbah in English: In many Western countries with English-speaking Muslim communities, Friday sermons (khutbahs) are often delivered in English. These sermons address contemporary issues, offer guidance to the congregation, and provide a platform for discussing Islamic principles in the English language.
2. Novel The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid: This novel, written by Pakistani author Mohsin Hamid, explores the post-9/11 experiences of a Pakistani Muslim living in the United States. It delves into themes of identity, belonging, and the impact of global events on the Muslim diaspora, all in the English language.
3. Islamic Lifestyle Blogs and Websites: Websites like “Productive Muslim” provide guidance on various aspects of life, from time management and personal development to Islamic rituals, all in English. They cater to a global audience seeking to integrate Islamic principles into their daily lives.
4. Muslim Vloggers on YouTube: Muslim YouTubers like “Aminah Khan” and “The Daily Reminder” create video content in English, discussing topics such as Islamic spirituality, youth issues, and educational material. These channels use the English language to connect with viewers around the world.
5. TED Talks by Muslim Speakers: Muslim individuals have delivered TED Talks in English, sharing their perspectives on a wide range of subjects. For instance, Nouman Ali Khan’s TEDx talk, “The Real You,” explores self-identity and purpose through the lens of Islamic teachings.

These specific examples illustrate the diversity, encompassing various media, genres, and topics, while making Islamic perspectives and experiences accessible to a global, English-speaking audience.

Keywords in Muslim Discourse in English

1. Narrative Styles: Refers to the various storytelling techniques and structures used in literature and discourse to convey Muslim experiences and identities in English.
2. Cultural Expressions: The creative and artistic forms through which Muslims in English-speaking contexts articulate their cultural and religious affiliations.
3. Intersecting Identities: The complex interplay of various aspects of individual and group identities, such as ethnicity, religion, and language, as portrayed in Muslim Discourse in English.
4. Multivocality: The presence of multiple voices, perspectives, and narrative points of view within Muslim Discourse in English, reflecting the diversity of experiences.
5. Literary Symbolism: The use of symbols, metaphors, and allegorical elements in English-language works to convey deeper meanings related to Muslim culture and faith.
6. Hybrid Discourse: The blending of linguistic and cultural elements from different traditions and backgrounds within Muslim Discourse in English.
7. Cultural Critique: The examination and analysis of cultural representations, stereotypes, and portrayals of Muslims within English literature and discourse.
8. Postcolonial Perspectives: The incorporation of postcolonial theories and frameworks in the analysis of Muslim Discourse in English, exploring how colonial legacies influence contemporary narratives.
9. Global Literary Citizenship: The active participation of Muslims within the global literary community, engaging in dialogues and debates using English as a medium.
10. Intertextuality: The referencing and incorporation of texts, ideas, and narratives from various sources, including Islamic and Western literature, within Muslim Discourse in English.

Suggested Readings

1. Ahmed, Leila. A Quiet Revolution: The Veil’s Resurgence, from the Middle East to America. Yale University Press, 2011.
2. Esposito, John L., and Dalia Mogahed. Who Speaks for Islam? What a Billion Muslims Really Think. Gallup Press, 2008.
3. Schneider, Nadja-Christina. “Islamic feminism and Muslim women’s rights activism in India: from transnational discourse to local movement-or vice versa?.” Journal of International Women’s Studies 11.1 (2009): 56-71.
4. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
5. Johanyak, Debra. Behind the Veil An American Woman’s Memoir of the 1979 Iran Hostage Crisis. University of Akron Press, 2006.
6. Ziad, Iman. Muslim Women in America: The Challenge of Islamic Identity Today. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Introduction: Islam in English Literature

Islam in English Literature means it has been a recurring theme in English literature, reflecting the dynamic interaction between Islamic culture and the Western world. Writers, both Muslim and non-Muslim, have explored various aspects of Islam, from its spiritual and philosophical dimensions to the sociopolitical and historical contexts. Works Orhan Pamuk’s Snow have grappled with complex issues related to faith and identity.

These writings often challenge stereotypes, misconceptions, and prejudices about Islam while providing a platform for cross-cultural dialogue. By engaging with Islamic themes and narratives, English literature continues to contribute to a deeper understanding of the diverse experiences and perspectives of Muslims in a global context.

Mention of Islam in English Literature

Islam in English Literature: Early Medieval Works:

• “The Song of Roland”:
  • Mention of Islam: This epic poem from the 11th century portrays Islam as a primary adversary, reflecting the context of the Crusades and the Christian-Muslim conflict.
  • Feature: The work serves as a prime example of the adversarial depiction of Islam in early medieval literature, emphasizing the religious and cultural tension.
• Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales”:
  • Mention of Islam: Within this 14th-century collection of stories, Chaucer’s Physician character references Avicenna (Ibn Sina), an influential Islamic scholar, acknowledging the transmission of Islamic knowledge to the West.
  • Feature: Chaucer’s work marks a transition toward a more cosmopolitan perspective on Islam, acknowledging its intellectual contributions and fostering a broader view of Islamic culture in late medieval England.

Islam in English Literature: Other Early and Late Medieval Works:

• William Shakespeare’s “Othello”:
  • Mention of Islam: “Othello,” written in the early 17th century, features a Muslim character, Othello, who is a Moor, and the play explores themes of race, religion, and otherness.
  • Feature: Shakespeare’s portrayal of Othello offers a complex and multifaceted representation of a Muslim character, delving into themes of identity, prejudice, and the human condition.
• John Mandeville’s “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville”:
  • Mention of Islam: This 14th-century travel narrative contains descriptions of Islamic lands and customs, providing insights into European perceptions of Islam and the East during the late medieval period.
  • Feature: Mandeville’s work reflects the curiosity about the Islamic world and its influence on European medieval travel literature.
• Geoffrey of Monmouth’s “History of the Kings of Britain”:
  • Mention of Islam: In this early 12th-century pseudo-history, there are references to Saracen knights and interactions with the Islamic world, illustrating the medieval European fascination with Islamic culture and stories.
  • Feature: The work demonstrates the influence of Islamic themes and narratives on medieval European literature, particularly in the context of the Arthurian legends.

These works, including those by Shakespeare and other writers, highlight diverse interactions with Islam in English literature, showcasing evolving perspectives from adversarial portrayals in early medieval literature to a more nuanced and cosmopolitan view in the late medieval and early modern periods.

Islam in English Literature: Impact of Islam

Era	Feature	Details
Early Encounters	Arabic Influence on Language	Arabic words, scientific terms, and literary motifs, like “alcohol,” “alchemy,” and “Alhambra,” have integrated into the English language, enhancing vocabulary and thought.
	Translation of Islamic Texts	The translation of Islamic philosophical, scientific, and literary works, notably during the Islamic Golden Age, contributed to the dissemination of knowledge and ideas to the West.
Influence on Medieval Literature	Arthurian Legends and Islamic Stories	Medieval European authors, inspired by Arabic literature, incorporated elements of Islamic tales, including chivalrous and romantic narratives, into the Arthurian legends.
	Islamic Settings and Characters	Works like “Sir Gawain and the Green Knight” feature allusions to Islamic lands and characters, reflecting the medieval European fascination with the Islamic world.
Influence on Renaissance Literature	Orientalism and Exoticism	The Renaissance era witnessed a fascination with the Orient, influenced by Arabic literature, leading to the creation of works like “The Arabian Nights” and “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville.”
	Shakespeare’s “Othello”	Shakespeare’s “Othello” introduces a Muslim protagonist, Othello, and explores themes of race, religion, and identity, contributing to a nuanced portrayal of Islamic characters in English literature.
Modern and Contemporary Literature	Post-Colonial Literature	Post-colonial writers, such as Salman Rushdie and Hanif Kureishi, engage with themes of identity, migration, and the intricate interaction between Western and Islamic cultures.
	Multicultural Narratives	Authors like Mohsin Hamid and Leila Aboulela delve into the experiences of Muslims in a globalized world, addressing issues of identity, cultural displacement, and Western perceptions of Islam.
	Cross-Cultural Dialogues	The works of both Muslim and non-Muslim writers contribute to cross-cultural dialogues, facilitating a more nuanced and diverse representation of Islamic culture and perspectives in English literature.

Islam in English Literature: Impact of English Literature on Islam

Islam in English Literature: Early English Translations:

• Translation of Islamic Texts: English scholars and translators have worked on rendering Islamic texts, such as the Quran and classical Islamic literature, into the English language. These translations have made Islamic knowledge more accessible to English-speaking audiences.
• Promotion of Islamic Literature: English literature has introduced and promoted classical Islamic works, including the “Arabian Nights,” “Rumi’s Poetry,” and the writings of Islamic philosophers, fostering a deeper understanding of Islamic culture.

Islam in English Literature: Representation of Islam and Muslims:

• Incorporation of Islamic Themes: English literature has often incorporated themes related to Islam, Muslim characters, and settings in various works, contributing to a broader portrayal of Islamic culture and history.
• Challenging Stereotypes: English authors have taken steps to challenge stereotypes and misconceptions about Islam and Muslims, working towards a more accurate and empathetic representation.

Islam in English Literature: Interfaith and Cross-Cultural Dialogues:

• Exploration of Interfaith Relations: English literature has explored themes of interfaith relations, providing insights into the coexistence and interactions between Islamic and Western cultures.
• Facilitating Cross-Cultural Understanding: Works by both Muslim and non-Muslim authors encourage cross-cultural understanding and dialogue, fostering mutual respect and appreciation.

Islam in English Literature: Contemporary Literature:

• Post-Colonial and Diaspora Literature: Modern English literature, including works by authors like Zadie Smith, often addresses the experiences of Muslim communities in a Western context, reflecting the complex integration of Islam into contemporary Western society.
• Engagement with Muslim Identity: Contemporary literature delves into the complexities of Muslim identity, exploring issues related to assimilation, cultural diversity, and the challenges faced by Muslims living in English-speaking countries.

The impact of English literature on Islam encompasses translation efforts, representation of Islamic themes and characters, and its role in promoting cross-cultural understanding and dialogue. This interaction between literature and Islamic culture continues to influence both domains, enriching the exchange of ideas and perspectives.

Islam in English Literature: Islamic Themes

1. Faith and Spirituality:

• Many works explore the spiritual aspects of Islam, including faith, prayer, and the search for meaning, offering insights into the experiences of Muslim characters and communities.

2. Identity and Belonging:

• Themes of identity, cultural heritage, and the sense of belonging are common, reflecting the experiences of individuals navigating the intersections of different cultures and identities.

3. Migration and Diaspora:

• Literature often delves into the experiences of Muslim immigrants and the challenges they face when adapting to a new cultural and social environment.

4. Cross-Cultural Encounters:

• Works frequently feature interactions between Muslim and non-Muslim characters, exploring the dynamics and conflicts that arise in multicultural settings.

5. Colonialism and Post-Colonialism:

• Some literature addresses the historical and contemporary consequences of colonialism and imperialism in Muslim-majority countries, reflecting the struggles for independence and sovereignty.

6. Social and Political Issues:

• Authors tackle pressing social and political concerns, including authoritarian regimes, oppression, human rights, and social justice, often from a Muslim perspective.

7. Family and Relationships:

• Family dynamics, personal relationships, and generational conflicts are recurring themes, emphasizing the complexity of familial ties in the context of Muslim communities.

8. History and Heritage:

• Many works draw upon the rich history and cultural heritage of Muslim-majority countries, incorporating historical narratives and legends into their stories.

9. War and Conflict:

• Literature often reflects the impact of war, conflict, and political instability on individuals and communities, highlighting the need for peace and reconciliation.

10. Personal Transformation:

• Stories of personal growth, transformation, and self-discovery are common, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of individuals in the face of challenges.

Islam in English Literature: Islamic Character in English Literature

Work Title and Author	Era	Islamic Character	Character Details
“Othello” by William Shakespeare	Elizabethan (1603)	Othello	Othello, a Moor and a Muslim, serves as the central character, exploring themes of race and identity.
“The Arabian Nights” (Adaptations)	Victorian (18th-19th centuries)	Various Islamic Characters	This collection of Middle Eastern folktales features numerous Islamic characters and settings.
“The Caliph of Bagdad” by James Justinian Morier	Early 19th Century	Various Islamic Characters	This novel set in the Islamic world features several Islamic characters.
“Hadji Murat” by Leo Tolstoy (Published Posthumously)	Victorian (Published in 1912)	Hadji Murat	The story revolves around Hadji Murat, a Muslim chieftain in the Caucasus region.
“The Corsair” by Lord Byron	Romantic (1814)	Seyd	Lord Byron’s poem features Seyd, a character associated with Islamic pirates.
“The Renegade” by George W. M. Reynolds	Victorian (1838)	Ali Hadji	Ali Hadji is a Moorish renegade and a significant character in this Victorian-era novel.
The Arabian Nights Entertainments by Andrew Lang (Translator and Adapter)	Victorian (1898)	Various Islamic Characters	Andrew Lang’s collection introduced tales from “The Arabian Nights” to English-speaking audiences.
Saladin by Sir Walter Scott	Romantic (1825)	Saladin	Saladin, a historical Muslim figure from the time of the Crusades, is a key character in the novel.
Marmion by Sir Walter Scott	Romantic (1808)	Zohrac	Zohrac is an Islamic character who briefly appears in this narrative poem.
Omar Khayyam by Edward FitzGerald	Victorian (1859)	Omar Khayyam	Edward FitzGerald’s translation of Omar Khayyam’s work reflects engagement with Islamic poetry and philosophy.

Suggested Readings about Islam in English Literature

Novels and Literary Works:

1. Ahmed, Leila. A Border Passage: From Cairo to America—A Woman’s Journey. Penguin, 2000.
2. Ali, Monica. Brick Lane. Doubleday, 2003.
3. Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. Harvest Books, 2008.
4. Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. Riverhead Books, 2003.
5. Hosseini, Khaled. A Thousand Splendid Suns. Riverhead Books, 2007.
6. Lahiri, Jhumpa. The Lowland. Alfred A. Knopf, 2013.
7. Nafisi, Azar. Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books. Random House, 2003.
8. Rushdie, Salman. Midnight’s Children. Knopf, 1981.
9. Shafak, Elif. The Bastard of Istanbul. Viking, 2007.

Critical Works:

1. Abdel-Malek, Kamal. “Orientalism in Crisis.” Diogenes, vol. 44, no. 174, 1996, pp. 69-84.
2. Donohue, Joseph L., and John L. Esposito. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives. Oxford University Press, 2007.
3. Leaman, Oliver. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. Routledge, 1999.
4. Milani, Farzaneh. Words, Not Swords: Iranian Women Writers and the Freedom of Movement. Syracuse University Press, 2011.
5. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.

Read more on Literary Theory below:

• Simulation Theory in Literature
• Rhetorical Theory in Literature
• Mimetic Criticism in Literature
• Humor Theory in Literature

Introduction: English Literature by Muslims

English literature by Muslims encompasses a diverse body of work produced by writers who identify as Muslim and express their cultural and religious identities in the English language.

These literary works explore themes ranging from faith and spirituality to cultural identity, diaspora, and the complexities of living in a globalized world. Muslim authors, hailing from various regions, contribute to this literature, often reflecting the rich mosaic of Islamic traditions and global perspectives.

They may navigate linguistic hybridity, engaging with multiple languages and cultures in their writing. The literature serves as a platform for cultural exchange, promoting dialogue and mutual understanding while addressing universal themes and contemporary issues.

English Literature by Muslims: Notable Authors, Works, and Arguments/Themes

Writer and Origin	Notable Works	Themes and Arguments
Mohsin Hamid (Pakistani)	– The Reluctant Fundamentalist: Explores the experiences of Muslims in a globalized world, focusing on identity, migration, and the impact of Western influence on Muslim societies. – Exit West: Examines themes of migration and displacement in a world of conflict. – Moth Smoke: Addresses societal and moral dilemmas in modern Pakistan.	Identity, migration, the influence of the West on Muslim societies.
Leila Aboulela (Sudanese)	– The Translator: Deals with the intersection of faith and culture, exploring the immigrant experience and the complexities of identity among Muslims in the West.   – Minaret: Focuses on the life of a Muslim woman in the West and her spiritual journey.   – The Kindness of Enemies: Explores the impact of history and faith on the present.	Faith, culture, immigrant experience, Muslim identity in Western contexts.
Tariq Ali (Pakistani)	– Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree: Offers a historical perspective on the Muslim world during the time of the Ottoman Empire. – The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Analyzes the impact of fundamentalism and imperialism. – The Book of Saladin: Focuses on the life of Saladin and its relevance to modern times.	Imperialism, post-colonialism, historical analysis of the Muslim world.
Ahdaf Soueif (Egyptian)	– The Map of Love: Explores personal relationships and political upheaval, especially in the context of the Arab world. – In the Eye of the Sun: Reflects on the experiences of an Egyptian woman and her journey.   – Cairo: My City, Our Revolution: Chronicles the Egyptian revolution from a personal perspective.	Personal relationships, political upheaval, the Arab world’s context.
Hanif Kureishi (British-Pakistani)	– The Buddha of Suburbia: Addresses issues of identity and multiculturalism in a suburban setting. – My Beautiful Laundrette: Explores themes of race, sexuality, and cultural diversity. – The Black Album: Analyzes issues of identity and radicalism among young British Muslims.	Identity, multiculturalism, challenges faced by second-generation immigrants in the UK.
Randa Abdel-Fattah (Australian-Palestinian)	– Does My Head Look Big in This?: Discusses identity and prejudice faced by a Muslim-Australian teenager.   – Ten Things I Hate About Me: Explores themes of identity and cultural challenges for a Muslim teenager in Australia. – The Lines We Cross: Addresses issues of cultural and religious intolerance.	Identity, prejudice, the experiences of young Muslims in Australia.
Ayad Akhtar (Pakistani-American)	– Disgraced: Examines themes of identity, religion, and race in contemporary America. – American Dervish: Explores the challenges of assimilation and faith in a Muslim-American context. – The Invisible Hand: Focuses on themes of finance, power, and survival.	Identity, assimilation, the challenges of being Muslim in the West.

English Literature by Muslims: Representative Works

Work	Feature
The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid	This novel tells the story of Changez, a Pakistani man living in the United States who undergoes a transformation in the aftermath of 9/11. It explores themes of identity, cultural displacement, and the impact of Western perceptions of Muslims.
Brick Lane by Monica Ali	The novel follows the life of Nazneen, a Bangladeshi woman who immigrates to the UK. It examines themes of identity, tradition, and the clash of cultures in a multicultural society.
The Map of Love by Ahdaf Soueif	Soueif’s novel intertwines a contemporary love story with historical narratives, offering a complex portrayal of Egypt’s history. It explores themes of love, politics, and the search for identity in the context of Egyptian society.
In the Country of Men by Hisham Matar	Matar’s novel is set in Libya during the Qaddafi regime. It delves into themes of oppression, family, and the difficulties of living under a totalitarian government.
The Architect’s Apprentice by Elif Shafak	Shafak’s work is a historical novel that takes place in the Ottoman Empire. It combines history, architecture, and personal narratives to explore themes of cultural exchange and artistic innovation.
The Invisible Hand by Ayad Akhtar	This play by Akhtar explores the intersection of finance, power, and personal values. It offers a critical perspective on Wall Street and global capitalism, highlighting the complexities of being Muslim in the West.
The Wandering Falcon by Jamil Ahmad	Ahmad’s book is a collection of interlinked stories set in the tribal areas of Pakistan and Afghanistan. It offers an insight into the lives, customs, and challenges faced by indigenous people in the region.
Does My Head Look Big in This? by Randa Abdel-Fattah	This young adult novel deals with the experiences of an Australian-Muslim teenager who decides to wear the hijab full-time. It addresses themes of identity, prejudice, and the challenges faced by Muslim youth in Western society.
The Way Things Were by Aatish Taseer	Taseer’s novel explores the themes of history, identity, and cultural change in the context of India and its rich tapestry of traditions.
The Girl Who Wrote in Silk by Kelli Estes	While the author is not Muslim, the book revolves around the historical experiences of Chinese immigrants to the United States. It highlights themes of cultural preservation, discrimination, and the power of storytelling.

Themes in English Literature by Muslims

1. Identity and Belonging: Many works explore the challenges of defining one’s identity in a multicultural or diaspora context, the tension between cultural heritage and assimilation, and the search for a sense of belonging.
2. Cultural Clash and Integration: Authors often address the clash of cultures, values, and traditions when individuals or communities migrate to Western countries. They also explore the process of cultural integration and adaptation.
3. Religion and Faith: Themes related to Islam, faith, spirituality, and the practice of religion are prevalent. Authors examine the role of religion in personal identity, community life, and the broader society.
4. Migration and Displacement: Many works revolve around the experiences of migration, forced displacement, or the challenges faced by immigrants and refugees, exploring the psychological and social impact of these experiences.
5. Colonialism and Post-colonialism: Authors often delve into the historical and contemporary consequences of colonialism and imperialism in Muslim-majority countries, and the struggle for independence and sovereignty.
6. Globalization and Modernity: Contemporary Muslim authors frequently address the effects of globalization, modernity, and technology on Muslim societies, raising questions about tradition, culture, and identity.
7. Stereotypes and Prejudice: Literature by Muslim authors often challenges stereotypes and prejudices held against Muslims, aiming to humanize and provide a more accurate representation of Muslim individuals and communities.
8. Social and Political Issues: Works may address pressing social and political concerns, such as authoritarian regimes, oppression, human rights, and social justice, often from a Muslim perspective.
9. Family and Relationships: Family dynamics, personal relationships, and generational conflicts are recurring themes. They explore the complexity of familial ties, love, and the interplay of tradition and modernity.
10. History and Heritage: Many authors draw upon the rich history and cultural heritage of Muslim-majority countries, incorporating historical narratives and legends into their works.
11. War and Conflict: Literature often reflects the impact of war, conflict, and political instability on individuals and communities, emphasizing the need for peace and reconciliation.
12. Personal Transformation: Stories of personal growth, transformation, and self-discovery are common themes, highlighting the resilience and adaptability of individuals in the face of challenges.

Suggested Readings

1. Aboulela, Leila. The Translator. 2006.
2. Abdel-Fattah, Randa. Does My Head Look Big in This?. 2005.
3. Akhtar, Ayad. Disgraced. 2012.
4. Ali, Monica. Brick Lane. 2003.
5. Ali, Tariq. Shadows of the Pomegranate Tree. 1992.
6. Ali, Tariq. The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity. 2002.
7. Ali, Tariq. The Book of Saladin. 1998.
8. Estes, Kelli. The Girl Who Wrote in Silk. 2015.
9. Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. 2007.
10. Hamid, Mohsin. Moth Smoke. 2000.
11. Hamid, Mohsin. Exit West. 2017.
12. Matar, Hisham. In the Country of Men. 2006.
13. Shafak, Elif. The Architect’s Apprentice. 2014.
14. Soueif, Ahdaf. The Map of Love. 1999.

Introduction: Islam and English Literature

The relationship between Islam and English literature is a complex and multifaceted one that reflects the rich diversity of narratives and cultural intersections within the global literary landscape.

Throughout the centuries, Islamic themes, characters, and narratives have found their place in English literature, often shaped by the cultural exchanges and encounters between the Islamic world and the English-speaking West.

This literary dialogue has not only given rise to works that explore Islamic cultures, beliefs, and identities but has also generated a critical examination of Orientalism and the representation of Islam in Western literature.

From the Elizabethan era, where Shakespeare’s “Othello” introduced a Moorish, Muslim protagonist, to contemporary novels by authors like Mohsin Hamid and Khaled Hosseini, who delve into the complexities of identity, migration, and the global Muslim experience, the relationship between Islam and English literature continues to evolve, offering readers a broader understanding of the ever-evolving interplay between these two cultural worlds.

Islam and English Literation: Islam as Religion in English

Negative Portrayals in Early Modern English Literature	Diverse Portrayals in English Literature
– Portraying Muslims as “the Other”: Many works of Early Modern English Literature portrayed Muslims as “the Other,” emphasizing their differences from Western Christians and portraying them as barbaric, uncivilized, and inferior.	– As a religion of diversity: Islam has a rich and diverse history, and many works of English literature explore the themes of cultural exchange, diversity, and the influence of Islam on various cultures around the world.
– Associating Islam with violence: In the Early Modern era, Islam was often associated with violence, particularly in the context of military conflicts between Western powers and Muslim states. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as bloodthirsty and fanatical.	– As a religion of mysticism: Islamic mysticism, or Sufism, has inspired many works of English literature, which explore themes of spiritual transcendence, divine love, and the search for inner truth.
– Using Islam as a symbol of religious conflict: The religious tensions between Islam and Christianity were a major theme in the Early Modern period, and this conflict was often used as a symbol of larger political and cultural struggles. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as enemies of Christianity and the Western world.	– As a religion of conflict: Given the historical and political context of Islam, many works of English literature also portray Islam as a religion of conflict, with themes of war, violence, and religious intolerance.
– Portraying Islam as a false religion: In the Early Modern period, many Christian writers saw Islam as a false religion that threatened the true faith. This led to negative portrayals of Islam in literature, with Muslims depicted as misguided and deceived.	– As a religion of misunderstanding: Islam is often presented in English literature as a religion that is misunderstood by Western cultures, with themes of cultural clash, ignorance, and prejudice. This can be seen in works that explore the experiences of Muslim characters who are marginalized or discriminated against due to their religion.

Islam and English Literature: Presentation of Islam Figures in English Literature

Positive Presentations:

1. Saladin in The Talisman by Sir Walter Scott: Saladin is portrayed as a noble and chivalrous leader in this historical novel, set during the Crusades. He is depicted as a worthy opponent to the Christian knights and is shown to possess qualities of honor, compassion, and wisdom.
2. Rumi in The Essential Rumi by Rumi (translated by Coleman Barks): Rumi, the 13th-century Persian poet and Sufi mystic, is celebrated in this collection of his poems. His work is presented as a source of spiritual inspiration and a celebration of divine love.
3. Aladdin in The Arabian Nights: Aladdin is a beloved figure in this collection of Middle Eastern tales, where he is depicted as a clever and resourceful hero who overcomes adversity with wit and courage.
4. Bilal ibn Rabah in The Autobiography of Malcolm X by Malcolm X and Alex Haley: Bilal is presented as a model of faith and perseverance in this memoir, which tells the story of Malcolm X’s conversion to Islam. Bilal was an Ethiopian slave who became one of the Prophet Muhammad’s companions and was known for his beautiful voice in reciting the call to prayer.

Negative Presentations:

1. Iago in “Othello” by William Shakespeare: Iago is a villainous character in this tragedy who uses the fear of the “Turks” (an early modern term for Muslims) to manipulate Othello and stoke his jealousy. He uses negative stereotypes of Muslims to paint Othello as a dangerous outsider.
2. Salim al-Hakim in “The Siege of Krishnapur” by J.G. Farrell: Salim is a fanatical Muslim warrior in this novel, set during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. He is portrayed as a brutal and merciless opponent to the British forces, and his actions are used to justify the colonial violence of the British.
3. Fu Manchu in the “Fu Manchu” series by Sax Rohmer: Although not explicitly identified as a Muslim, Fu Manchu is often interpreted as a racist caricature of an Asian villain. He is portrayed as a ruthless and cunning mastermind who seeks to overthrow Western civilization.
4. Zuleika Dobson in “Zuleika Dobson” by Max Beerbohm: Zuleika is an exoticized and fetishized Muslim woman in this novel, set at Oxford University. She is presented as a seductive and mysterious object of desire for the male characters, perpetuating negative stereotypes of Muslim women as exotic and sexually available.

These examples illustrate the varied and sometimes complex portrayals of Islamic figures in English literature, highlighting both positive and negative depictions influenced by the cultural and historical contexts of their respective works.

Islam and English Literature: Presentation of Islamic Characters in English Literature

The presentation of Islamic characters in English literature can vary widely depending on the time period, author, and cultural context in which the work is written. Islamic characters can be depicted in a multitude of ways, reflecting both positive and negative stereotypes as well as complex, nuanced portrayals. Here are some common ways in which Islamic characters have been presented in English literature:

1. Stereotypes:
   • Villains/Terrorists: In some contemporary literature, especially after the events of 9/11, Islamic characters have been depicted as villains or terrorists. These portrayals can reinforce negative stereotypes and contribute to Islamophobia.
   • Orientalism: Historically, Western literature often portrayed Islamic characters as exotic or “other.” This approach reduced them to superficial stereotypes, emphasizing their difference rather than their common humanity.
2. Positive Representations:
   • Noble Heroes: Islamic characters have also been portrayed as noble and heroic figures, often embodying traits such as bravery, honor, and wisdom. For example, the character of Saladin in Sir Walter Scott’s “The Talisman” is a positive representation of an Islamic character.
   • Diversity: In more contemporary literature, authors have attempted to present a diverse and multifaceted view of Islamic characters. They highlight the complexity and individuality of Muslim individuals, moving away from one-dimensional stereotypes.
3. Complex and Multifaceted:
   • Some authors strive to create characters with depth, complexity, and a mix of both positive and negative qualities. These characters challenge simplistic views of Islam and Muslims.
4. Religious and Cultural Exploration:
   • Some works of English literature delve into Islamic characters and their faith, customs, and culture in a respectful and educational manner. These works aim to promote understanding and bridge cultural gaps.
5. Historical Context:
   • In historical novels, Islamic characters may be depicted in the context of significant historical events, such as the Crusades, providing insight into the interactions between different cultures.
6. Muslim Authors’ Perspectives:
   • Literature written by Muslim authors offers an authentic portrayal of Islamic characters. These works often provide insights into the lives, beliefs, and struggles of Muslims, allowing readers to gain a better understanding of the Islamic world.
7. Colonial and Post-Colonial Literature:
   • Literature from the colonial and post-colonial eras often explores the complex relationships between Western powers and Islamic societies. Characters may be depicted as victims of colonialism or as individuals struggling against oppressive colonial forces.

It’s essential to recognize that the portrayal of Islamic characters in English literature has evolved over time, and contemporary literature is generally more sensitive to issues of diversity, representation, and cultural understanding. However, negative stereotypes and biases still persist in some works, and it’s important for readers to approach these portrayals critically and engage in discussions about representation and cultural sensitivity.

Suggested Readings

1. Irwin, Robert. The Arabian Nights: A Companion. Penguin Books, 2004.
2. Chambers, Claire, editor. The Cambridge Companion to British Muslim Literature. Cambridge University Press, 2020.
3. Ahmed, Rehana. Writing British Muslims: Religion, Class and Multiculturalism. Manchester University Press, 2015.
4. Vitkus, Daniel J., editor. Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England: Selim, Selim, Suleyman and Mustapha. Columbia University Press, 2000.
5. Morey, Peter, and Amina Yaqin, editors. Framing Muslims: Stereotyping and Representation after 9/11. Harvard University Press, 2011.