Day: October 23, 2023

Etymology of Moral Dilemmas

The concept of moral dilemmas has deep philosophical roots, with its etymology tracing back to ancient Greek philosophy. The term “dilemma” is derived from the Greek words “di-“ meaning “two” and “lemma” meaning “premises” or “propositions.”

In essence, a moral dilemma refers to a situation in which an individual is confronted with two or more conflicting moral principles, making it challenging to make a morally justifiable decision.

This ethical concept has been extensively explored in moral philosophy and literature, emphasizing the complexity of human ethical reasoning. Moral dilemmas often arise when individuals must weigh conflicting values, duties, or principles and make difficult choices that may lead to morally undesirable outcomes, thereby illustrating the intricate nature of ethical decision-making.

The exploration of moral dilemmas is a central theme in ethical discourse, as it highlights the intricate interplay between competing moral imperatives and the challenges individuals face when attempting to navigate ethically complex situations.

Meanings of Moral Dilemmas

Aspect	Meaning
Conflicting Moral Principles	Moral dilemmas occur when individuals are faced with a situation where they must choose between two or more moral principles, values, or duties, and all available options appear to be ethically significant.
Ethical Conundrums	These are situations characterized by the ethical complexity and difficulty of making a morally justifiable decision. Moral dilemmas challenge individuals to navigate competing moral considerations.
Tension Between Right and Right	Moral dilemmas are often described as scenarios where there is a tension between “right” and “right,” as opposed to situations where one choice is clearly right and the other is wrong. In such cases, individuals must determine the lesser of two ethical evils or the greater of two ethical goods.
Conflict of Moral Obligations	Moral dilemmas arise when individuals find themselves torn between their moral obligations, where fulfilling one duty or responsibility may come at the expense of another, leading to a moral quandary.
Moral Uncertainty	These dilemmas reflect the presence of moral uncertainty, where individuals are unsure which choice aligns best with their ethical values or the broader moral framework, resulting in a state of moral indecision.
Complex Ethical Decision-Making	Moral dilemmas highlight the complexity of ethical decision-making and the nuanced nature of human moral reasoning, often involving the consideration of consequences, intentions, and moral duties.
Illustration of Ethical Philosophy	Moral dilemmas serve as a fertile ground for exploring and debating ethical theories, such as consequentialism, deontology, virtue ethics, and utilitarianism, as they challenge the application of these theories to real-life moral conflicts.

Definition of Moral Dilemmas as a Theoretical Term

Moral dilemmas, as a theoretical term in ethics, refer to complex situations in which individuals encounter conflicting moral principles, values, or duties, making it challenging to determine the morally right course of action.

These dilemmas underscore the intricate nature of ethical decision-making, where individuals must navigate competing moral considerations and weigh the consequences, intentions, and ethical obligations associated with each available choice.

Moral dilemmas are a central theme in moral philosophy, illustrating the ethical complexities and moral uncertainties inherent in real-life moral conflicts.

Moral Dilemmas: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists	Works	Arguments
Immanuel Kant	Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)	Kant’s deontological ethics, expressed through the concept of the “categorical imperative,” emphasizes the importance of moral duty and principles. Kant’s argument centers on the idea that individuals should act according to moral rules that could be universally applied. Moral dilemmas, in Kantian ethics, may occur when one is torn between duties, requiring a rational and principled approach to resolve conflicting obligations.
John Stuart Mill	Utilitarianism (1861)	Mill’s utilitarian ethics focuses on maximizing overall happiness. Mill argues that moral dilemmas can be resolved by determining which action would result in the greatest overall happiness. However, in complex scenarios, calculating the greatest happiness can be challenging, leading to dilemmas about which actions maximize overall well-being.
Joseph Fletcher	Situation Ethics (1966)	Fletcher’s situation ethics proposes that moral decisions should be based on love and compassion rather than rigid moral rules. He argues that individuals should evaluate each situation individually and choose the most loving and compassionate course of action. Moral dilemmas may arise when individuals must determine the most loving response in complex and conflicting situations.
W.D. Ross	The Right and the Good (1930)	Ross introduced the concept of “prima facie duties,” suggesting that individuals have multiple duties that may conflict in certain situations. When faced with moral dilemmas, individuals should consider their prima facie duties and determine which one takes precedence in a given context. Ross’s approach allows for the recognition of the complexity of moral obligations in challenging ethical situations.
Philippa Foot	Natural Goodness (2001)	Philippa Foot contributed to the discussion of moral dilemmas by emphasizing the importance of moral virtues. She argued that virtues, such as honesty and courage, play a crucial role in resolving moral dilemmas. Foot’s virtue ethics provides a nuanced perspective on moral decision-making in complex situations.

Moral Dilemmas and Literary Theories

1. Ethical Criticism: Ethical criticism, a branch of literary theory, focuses on the ethical dimensions of literary works. Moral dilemmas are central to this approach, as they allow critics to analyze how authors explore and portray ethical conflicts, decisions, and consequences in their narratives.
2. Character Development: Moral dilemmas are a common tool for character development in literature. Characters facing complex moral choices provide insight into their values, beliefs, and inner conflicts. Literary theories that delve into character analysis, such as psychological and psychoanalytic theories, often examine the role of moral dilemmas in shaping characters.
3. Existentialism: Existentialist literary theory is concerned with themes of individual freedom, choice, and the human experience. Moral dilemma, which often involve choices and their consequences, aligns closely with existentialist philosophy. Existentialist authors, such as Jean-Paul Sartre, frequently use moral dilemmas to explore themes of existential choice and responsibility.
4. Feminist Criticism: Feminist literary theory examines the portrayal of gender roles and societal expectations in literature. Moral dilemma related to gender issues, such as the moral choices women face in a patriarchal society, is of particular interest to feminist critics. These dilemmas shed light on the ethical challenges posed by gender inequalities.
5. Postcolonial Literature: Postcolonial literary theory explores the legacies of colonialism and the moral dilemma that arise in the context of cultural clashes and power dynamics. Authors often depict characters facing moral choices related to identity, allegiance, and cultural preservation.
6. Tragedy and Tragic Theory: Moral dilemmas are a hallmark of tragic literature and align with theories of tragedy. Tragic characters often grapple with impossible moral choices, leading to their downfall. Aristotle’s concept of catharsis and the role of moral dilemmas in tragedy are key areas of analysis.
7. Narrative Ethics: Narrative ethics, a theoretical approach, examines the ethical aspects of storytelling and the responsibilities of authors in presenting moral dilemmas. This perspective delves into the ethical implications of narrative choices and their impact on readers.

Moral dilemma, as a recurring element in literature, serves as a lens through which literary theorists explore the complex interplay of ethics, character development, and societal issues in literary works. Their presence enriches the depth and ethical engagement of literary analysis.

Moral Dilemmas in Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides (2019)	In The Silent Patient, the moral dilemma revolves around the boundaries of professional ethics and personal responsibility. The protagonist, a psychotherapist, grapples with ethical questions when treating a mute patient who has committed a violent crime. The novel raises questions about therapist-patient confidentiality and the moral obligations of mental health professionals when faced with potentially dangerous patients.
Such a Fun Age by Kiley Reid (2019)	In Such a Fun Age, the moral dilemma centers on issues of race, privilege, and ethical behavior. The story follows a young African American babysitter who is accused of kidnapping the child she cares for. The novel explores the ethical complexities of allyship, social justice, and performative activism, offering a thought-provoking examination of contemporary racial and ethical dilemmas.
American Dirt by Jeanine Cummins (2020)	American Dirt presents moral dilemma related to immigration and the moral responsibilities of individuals and societies. The novel follows the journey of a mother and son escaping violence in Mexico to seek safety in the United States. The book prompts readers to consider their ethical obligations towards refugees and the moral dilemmas posed by border policies and immigration issues.
The Vanishing Half by Brit Bennett (2020)	In The Vanishing Half, the moral dilemma revolves around questions of identity, racial passing, and the consequences of choices. The novel follows the divergent paths of two African American sisters, one of whom chooses to pass as white. The story raises moral questions about authenticity, personal choices, and the impact of those choices on one’s own identity and the lives of others.

Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W. D. Ross, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2017.
2. Beauchamp, Tom L., and James F. Childress. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. Oxford University Press, 2019.
3. Camus, Albert. The Fall. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage, 1991.
4. Dostoevsky, Fyodor. Crime and Punishment. Translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, Vintage, 1993.
5. Gilligan, Carol. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Harvard University Press, 1993.
6. Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Translated by Mary Gregor, Cambridge University Press, 2012.
7. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. University of Notre Dame Press, 2007.
8. Mill, John Stuart. Utilitarianism. Edited by George Sher, Hackett Publishing Company, 2002.
9. Rawls, John. A Theory of Justice. Harvard University Press, 2005.
10. Shafer-Landau, Russ. The Ethical Life: Fundamental Readings in Ethics and Moral Problems. Oxford University Press, 2021.

Etymology of Misrepresentation

The term “misrepresentation” has its origins in Latin, primarily rooted in the word “mis-representare.” The Latin prefix “mis-“ conveys the idea of something being incorrect, mistaken, or faulty, while “representare” means “to present” or “to portray.”

The combination of these elements in “mis-representare” signifies the act of presenting something incorrectly or inaccurately. Over time, this Latin term evolved into the modern English word “misrepresentation,” which refers to the act of conveying false or misleading information, distorting facts, or misportraying something with the intent to deceive, whether in communication, documentation, or any form of representation.

In legal, ethical, and communicative contexts, misrepresentation is a critical concept, as it underscores the ethical and legal implications of conveying inaccurate information intentionally or negligently.

Meanings of Misrepresentation

Aspect	Meaning
Legal Context	In legal contexts, misrepresentations refer to the act of providing false or misleading information with the intent to deceive, typically in contracts, agreements, or legal proceedings.
Ethical Consideration	Misrepresentations entail ethical considerations, as it involves conveying inaccurate or deceptive information, which can lead to harm, unfairness, or a breach of trust.
Communication and Deception	In the realm of communication, misrepresentations encompass deceptive practices, where information is intentionally altered or manipulated to mislead or create a false impression.
Marketing and Advertising	Misrepresentations in marketing and advertising pertains to the use of misleading claims, false advertising, or exaggerations to promote products or services, potentially leading consumers to make uninformed decisions.
Media and Journalism	In media and journalism, misrepresentation involves presenting information in a biased or distorted manner, which can influence public opinion or perception.
Art and Literature	Misrepresentation may occur in art and literature when artists or authors intentionally depict something inaccurately, challenging conventional perceptions or making a statement.
Psychology and Perception	In psychology, misrepresentation can relate to cognitive biases or perceptual errors, where individuals misperceive or misrepresent reality due to various cognitive factors.
Historical and Cultural Perspective	Misrepresentations in history and culture may involve the selective or biased portrayal of events, figures, or cultures, altering how they are perceived or understood.
Social and Political Manipulation	In social and political contexts, misrepresentations include manipulating information to advance personal or ideological interests, often leading to misinformation and public manipulation.

Definition of Misrepresentation as a Theoretical Term

Misrepresentation, as a theoretical term, refers to the deliberate or unintentional act of conveying false or inaccurate information with the aim of misleading or deceiving others.

It encompasses a broad spectrum of contexts, from legal and ethical considerations to communication, marketing, and media.

This concept is integral in discussions of ethics, information integrity, and the impact of deceptive practices in various domains.

Misrepresentation: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists	Notable Work	Arguments
Erving Goffman	The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life	Goffman explored the idea of self-presentation and impression management, highlighting how individuals engage in impression management to shape how they are perceived by others. He discussed the role of misrepresentations in constructing social identities.
Immanuel Kant	Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals	Kant emphasized the moral aspect of misrepresentations, arguing that it is ethically wrong to engage in falsehood or deception. He introduced the concept of the categorical imperative, which asserts that one should act only according to maxims that could be universal laws.
Karl Marx	Capital	Marx discussed economic misrepresentation and exploitation in the context of capitalism. He argued that in capitalist systems, there is often a misrepresentation of the true value of labor and commodities, leading to economic inequities.
Edward Bernays	Propaganda	Bernays, considered the father of modern public relations, explored the use of misrepresentation and propaganda in shaping public opinion and behavior. He argued that through strategic misrepresentation, public perceptions and actions could be influenced.
Noam Chomsky	Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (with Edward S. Herman)	Chomsky and Herman’s work examined how media can engage in misrepresentation by shaping public discourse and selectively presenting information to serve the interests of powerful elites.
Richard T. LaPiere	Attitudes vs. Actions	LaPiere’s research focused on the misrepresentation of attitudes and behaviors. He found that people’s expressed attitudes towards certain groups did not align with their actual behaviors, highlighting the discrepancy between self-presentation and true beliefs.

Misrepresentation  and Literary Theories

Misrepresentation plays a significant role in literary theories and is relevant in various ways to the analysis and interpretation of literary works. Here are some ways in which misrepresentation is pertinent to literary theories:

1. Narrative Theory: Misrepresentation often occurs within the narratives of literary works. Narrators, characters, or authors may present events, facts, or emotions in a distorted or deceptive manner, leading to unreliable narratives. This challenges readers to critically evaluate the trustworthiness of the narrative and consider the implications of unreliable storytelling.
2. Postmodernism: Postmodern literary theory frequently explores the blurring of boundaries between reality and fiction. Misrepresentation is a central theme in postmodern literature, where authors deliberately play with reality and fiction, making it challenging for readers to discern truth from falsehood. This ambiguity encourages readers to question the nature of representation and its limits.
3. Feminist Theory: In feminist literary theory, misrepresentation is examined concerning the portrayal of gender roles, stereotypes, and the silencing of women’s voices. Feminist critics analyze how female characters and experiences are often misrepresented in literature, leading to discussions on gender bias, misrepresentation, and the need for accurate and empowering portrayals of women.
4. Reader-Response Theory: Misrepresentation can be seen through the lens of reader-response theory, where readers actively engage with the text. Readers may perceive misrepresentation when their interpretation of characters, events, or themes differs from the author’s intended representation. This highlights the subjectivity of interpretation and the role of readers in constructing meaning.
5. Cultural Studies: In cultural studies, misrepresentation is pertinent to discussions of cultural diversity and representation. Literary works can either challenge or perpetuate stereotypes, misrepresenting cultures or marginalized groups. Cultural theorists explore how literature can contribute to the misrepresentation or accurate portrayal of various cultural identities.
6. Postcolonial Theory: Misrepresentation is a key focus in postcolonial literary theory, where the legacy of colonialism and imperialism has often led to the misrepresentation of colonized cultures and people. Postcolonial critics examine how literature can be a site for challenging colonial misrepresentations and giving voice to marginalized populations.
7. Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic literary theory delves into the inner workings of characters’ minds and emotions. It can reveal instances of self-misrepresentation, where characters may deceive themselves about their true desires, fears, or motivations. This self-misrepresentation adds depth to character analysis.

In literature, misrepresentation serves as a rich and complex theme that allows for in-depth explorations of narrative reliability, truth, identity, and cultural dynamics. It is a recurring element that challenges readers, theorists, and critics to engage with the complex relationship between representation and reality.

Misrepresentation  in Literary Criticism

Title	Critique
The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt (2013)	Critique: While The Goldfinch primarily explores themes of art, identity, and the moral complexities of life, misrepresentation is subtly present. The protagonist, Theo, misrepresents his true emotions and experiences to protect himself from judgment and consequences. This self-misrepresentation reveals the internal conflict and psychological turmoil that misrepresentation can cause in individuals. The novel also portrays the misrepresentation of art, raising questions about authenticity and value.
The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead (2016)	Critique: The Underground Railroad is a powerful critique of misrepresentations in the context of American history and slavery. It addresses the misrepresentation of enslaved individuals as property, rather than as human beings with agency and dignity. The novel challenges the misrepresentations of history by reimagining the Underground Railroad as a physical network, shedding light on the hidden stories of enslaved people. It highlights the consequences of a historical narrative that misrepresents the experiences of marginalized groups.
There There by Tommy Orange (2018)	Critique: There There critically explores the misrepresentation of Native American experiences and identities. The novel emphasizes the harmful impact of stereotypes and historical misrepresentations of Native Americans. By presenting a diverse cast of characters with unique voices and perspectives, it challenges the monolithic misrepresentation of Native identities. Orange’s work is a powerful critique of the misrepresentation and erasure of indigenous cultures.
Normal People by Sally Rooney (2018)	Critique: Normal People delves into the misrepresentation of emotions and communication in intimate relationships. The characters, Connell and Marianne, often misrepresent their true feelings to each other, leading to misunderstandings and miscommunications. The novel reflects how personal misrepresentations within relationships can impact the dynamics of love and connection, offering a critique of the challenges in honest self-representation.

Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 2011.
2. Boorstin, Daniel J. The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. Vintage, 1992.
3. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
4. Foucault, Michel. Language, Counter-Memory, Practice: Selected Essays and Interviews. Cornell University Press, 1977.
5. Iten, C. Aesthetic Revelation: Reading Ancient and Medieval Texts after Hans Urs von Balthasar. University of Notre Dame Press, 2018.
6. Pears, David F. Motivated Irrationality. Oxford University Press, 1987.
7. Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. Routledge, 2002.
8. Samoyault, Tiphaine. Roland Barthes: Une biographie. Seuil, 2007.
9. Sontag, Susan. On Photography. Picador, 1977.

Etymology of Minimalism

The term “minimalism” derives from the word “minimal” and its Latin root “minimus,” which means “least” or “smallest.”

In an artistic and aesthetic context, minimalism emerged as a prominent movement in the mid-20th century, particularly in visual arts and design. It is characterized by simplicity, sparseness, and a deliberate reduction of elements to their essential or fundamental forms. Minimalist art and design aim to strip away excess, focusing on purity and the elimination of unnecessary ornamentation.

The term “minimalism” was first applied to art in the 1960s and soon extended its influence to other creative fields, including architecture, literature, music, and lifestyle, where the emphasis on simplicity and the essentials continues to hold sway as a significant cultural and artistic movement.

Meanings of Minimalism

Aspect	Meaning
Narrative Economy	Minimalism in literature emphasizes brevity and conciseness in storytelling. It seeks to convey narratives with a minimum of words, often focusing on essential details while omitting superfluous descriptions and elaborations. This approach values brevity as a means of highlighting the core elements of a story.
Sparse Descriptions	Minimalist literature often employs sparse descriptions, relying on readers to actively engage their imagination and fill in the gaps. This style encourages readers to participate in the creation of the story’s visual and emotional landscape.
Character Depth Through Subtext	Minimalist writers may depict complex characters through subtext and subtle cues rather than extensive exposition. Readers are expected to infer character traits, motivations, and emotions from characters’ actions, dialogues, and interactions.
Everyday Realism	Minimalist literature often portrays everyday life and ordinary situations. It seeks to capture the mundane and the commonplace, emphasizing the beauty and significance that can be found in the ordinary.
Emotional Restraint	Minimalist writers frequently employ emotional restraint, allowing readers to discern characters’ emotions through understated and subtle means. This approach contrasts with explicit emotional expression, inviting readers to engage with the text on a deeper level.
Dialogue-Centric	Dialogue plays a pivotal role in minimalist literature. Conversations between characters are used not only to convey information but also to reveal personalities, conflicts, and the dynamics of relationships.
Symbolism and Metaphor	While minimalist literature often appears straightforward, it can incorporate symbolism and metaphor, challenging readers to uncover deeper layers of meaning beneath the surface simplicity.
Anti-Excess and Anti-Ornamentation	Minimalist literature rejects ornate language and excessive embellishments. It favors straightforward prose and eschews unnecessary adornments, emphasizing the power of simplicity.
Reader Participation	Minimalist literature invites readers to actively engage with the text by leaving spaces for interpretation and personal reflection. Readers are encouraged to fill in the narrative gaps and explore the nuances of the story.
Postmodern Minimalism	In a postmodern literary context, minimalism may challenge traditional narrative structures, disrupt linear timelines, and experiment with narrative fragments. It reflects the postmodern ethos of questioning and deconstructing established norms.

Definition of Minimalism as a Theoretical Term

Minimalism, as a theoretical term in various disciplines, refers to a deliberate and purposeful reduction of elements, complexity, or embellishments to achieve simplicity and essentiality. It emphasizes a streamlined and focused approach, often removing non-essential or extraneous components to distill concepts or designs to their core essence. Minimalism aims to convey meaning, function, or aesthetics through clarity, economy, and an emphasis on the fundamental elements, promoting a sense of purity and restraint in creative and scholarly endeavors.

Minimalism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorist, Field, and Key Works	Argument
Donald Judd (Art)	Donald Judd played a pivotal role in defining minimalist art in the 1960s. He argued for the creation of art that stripped away unnecessary elements, focusing on the physicality of objects and the interaction between the viewer and the artwork. Judd’s minimalism rejected traditional aesthetics and emphasized the direct experience of the artwork.
Samuel Beckett (Literature and Theater)	Beckett’s theatrical and literary works are often associated with minimalist aesthetics. He believed in the power of silence, repetition, and the reduction of characters and settings to their essential elements to convey the human condition’s absurdity and existentialism.
Mies van der Rohe (Architecture)	Ludwig Mies van der Rohe is a prominent figure in minimalist architecture. He famously coined the phrase “less is more.” His architecture advocated for simplicity, clean lines, and a focus on the essential functions of a building, rejecting unnecessary ornamentation.
John Cage (Music)	John Cage’s contributions to minimalist music challenged traditional notions of composition. He introduced the concept of silence as music, inviting listeners to focus on ambient sounds and the passage of time. Cage’s works embraced randomness and simplicity, redefining the boundaries of music.
Dieter Rams (Product Design)	Dieter Rams, a renowned industrial designer, advocated for minimalist product design. His “10 Principles of Good Design” emphasized clarity, simplicity, and the elimination of non-essential features in product design. His work has had a lasting influence on modern product design.
Anne Truitt (Visual Arts)	Anne Truitt’s minimalist artworks focused on the interplay of color, form, and surface. Her sculptures, often monolithic and rectangular, aimed to evoke emotional and sensory experiences through simplicity and abstraction.
Robert Irwin (Visual Arts)	Robert Irwin’s minimalist art blurs the boundaries between art and environment. He explores perception and the viewer’s interaction with space and light, advocating for an immersive and experiential approach to art.

Exponents of Minimalism in Literature

Ernest Hemingway:

• Key Works: “The Old Man and the Sea,” “Hills Like White Elephants.”
• Argument: Hemingway’s minimalism is characterized by his “Iceberg Theory,” where he presents only the tip of the narrative iceberg, leaving much unsaid. His writing focuses on sparse prose and minimal description, allowing readers to infer deeper meaning and emotions.

Raymond Carver:

• Key Works: “What We Talk About When We Talk About Love,” “Cathedral.”
• Argument: Carver is known for his short stories that capture the lives of ordinary people in simple, everyday situations. He believed in the power of omission, leaving readers to grapple with the unspoken and the unsaid, allowing them to connect with the human condition.

Amy Hempel:

• Key Works: “Reasons to Live,” “The Collected Stories.”
• Argument: Hempel’s stories are extremely concise and focus on brief, fragmented moments. She explores themes of loss, longing, and the human experience through minimalistic, precise prose, often using the power of implication to convey deep emotions.

Lydia Davis:

• Key Works: “Varieties of Disturbance,” “The Collected Stories of Lydia Davis.”
• Argument: Davis is known for her extremely short stories and micro-fiction. She experiments with language, syntax, and structure to create concise yet thought-provoking narratives. Her minimalism challenges conventional storytelling and invites readers to contemplate language’s possibilities.

Cormac McCarthy:

• Key Works: “The Road,” and “No Country for Old Men.”
• Argument: McCarthy’s minimalism is marked by stark, spare prose and a focus on essential details. His works often explore themes of violence, morality, and the human condition in post-apocalyptic landscapes. The simplicity of his writing amplifies the intensity of his narratives.

Don DeLillo:

• Key Works: “White Noise,” and “Underworld.”
• Argument: DeLillo’s minimalism combines everyday language with intellectual depth. He explores the impact of technology, consumerism, and media on contemporary society while using minimalistic prose to create a sense of detachment and alienation.

Joan Didion:

• Key Works: “Slouching Towards Bethlehem,” “The Year of Magical Thinking.”
• Argument: Didion’s minimalism is characterized by her introspective and reflective essays. She uses concise, precise language to explore personal experiences, cultural observations, and the fragility of human existence.

These authors employ minimalism in their literature to varying degrees, using concise language, sparse description, and the power of omission to create works that challenge readers to engage actively in interpreting and finding meaning in the text.

Minimalism and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
New Criticism	Emphasizes close analysis of form and language, aligning with minimalist literature’s focus on stripped-down style.
Reader-Response Theory	Examines how readers construct meaning, relevant as minimalist texts often leave gaps for readers to interpret.
Postmodernism	Challenges traditional narrative conventions, making it relevant as minimalist literature often subverts expectations and experiments with form.
Deconstruction	Involves examining textual contradictions, which aligns with minimalist literature’s use of omission and hidden complexities.
Minimalist Aesthetics	Shares principles of simplicity and clarity, applicable to the analysis of minimalist texts and their deliberate word and structure choices.
Post-structuralism	Questions the author’s centrality, relevant as minimalist authors often step back, allowing readers to co-create meaning.
Narratology	Focuses on narrative elements, relevant because minimalist literature often plays with traditional narrative structures in unconventional ways.

Suggested Readings

1. Danchev, Alex. On Art and War and Terror. Edinburgh University Press, 2009.
2. De Botton, Alain. The Architecture of Happiness. Penguin Books, 2007.
3. Fried, Michael. Art and Objecthood: Essays and Reviews. University of Chicago Press, 1998.
4. Judd, Donald. Donald Judd: Complete Writings 1959-1975. The Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 2005.
5. Lippard, Lucy R. Six Years: The Dematerialization of the Art Object from 1966 to 1972. University of California Press, 1997.
6. McLeod, Mary. Diet and the Disease of Civilization. Paradigm Publishers, 2012.
7. Morris, Robert. Continuous Project Altered Daily: The Writings of Robert Morris. MIT Press, 1994.
8. Schapiro, Meyer. The Language of Forms: Lectures on Insular Manuscript Art. Pierpont Morgan Library, 2005.

Etymology of Materiality

The term “materiality” originates from the Latin word “materia,” which refers to matter or substance.

In an academic context, “materiality” is employed to denote the significance or relevance of material, tangible, or substantial factors in various fields, including law, accounting, philosophy, and cultural studies.

It underscores the importance of physical, concrete, or objective aspects when assessing the impact, validity, or existence of phenomena, particularly in contexts where material evidence or substance plays a vital role in determining outcomes or judgments.

Meanings of Materiality

Aspect	Meaning
Financial Accounting	In financial accounting, materiality refers to the significance of financial information or transactions. It is a crucial concept in determining what financial information needs to be disclosed or reported, as immaterial items may be omitted.
Legal Context	In the legal context, materiality pertains to the relevance and significance of evidence or facts in a legal case. Material evidence is essential to proving or disproving a case’s key elements.
Philosophy and Metaphysics	In philosophy, materiality relates to the nature of physical substance and the question of whether reality is primarily composed of material objects. It is central to metaphysical discussions about the nature of existence.
Cultural Studies	In cultural studies, materiality refers to the study of material culture, which includes objects, artifacts, and physical aspects of culture. It explores how material objects shape and reflect cultural practices and identities.
Environmental Sciences	Materiality in environmental sciences focuses on the physical properties and composition of environmental elements, such as soil, water, and air. It plays a role in understanding environmental processes and impacts.
Audit and Assurance	In auditing, materiality is the threshold used to assess the significance of misstatements in financial statements. Auditors use materiality to determine the extent of their audit procedures.
Art and Aesthetics	Materiality in art and aesthetics considers the physical characteristics of artworks, emphasizing how the choice of materials and their properties can impact the meaning and experience of art.
Information Theory	In information theory, materiality is related to the idea that the physical carrier of information (e.g., paper, digital storage) can influence the transmission and reception of messages.
Existentialism	In existentialist philosophy, materiality is connected to the notion of human existence and the idea that individuals are fundamentally rooted in their physical bodies and the material world.
Construction and Architecture	In construction and architecture, materiality pertains to the selection of building materials and their role in shaping the design, aesthetics, and structural integrity of buildings.

Definition of Materiality as a Theoretical Term

Materiality, as a theoretical term, denotes the significance or relevance of material, tangible, or substantial factors in various academic and practical contexts. It emphasizes the importance of tangible elements in determining outcomes, whether in accounting, law, or philosophy, where materiality is essential in assessing the nature of existence. Materiality is integral to understanding how physical attributes influence meaning, impact, and decision-making within diverse disciplines and inquiries.

Materiality: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Work	Argument
Bruno Latour	Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory	Latour’s actor-network theory emphasizes the agency of both human and non-human actors, highlighting the materiality of objects in shaping social processes. He argues that material objects play a crucial role in the formation of networks and associations.
Donna Haraway	A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century	Haraway challenges traditional distinctions between humans and machines, highlighting the material agency of cyborgs as hybrid entities. She explores how the fusion of human and machine elements blurs boundaries and redefines identity.
Jane Bennett	Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things	Bennett’s work delves into the vitality of non-human entities and their material agency. She argues that material objects possess a form of agency that impacts human actions and ecological relationships.
Tim Ingold	Making: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art and Architecture	Ingold’s perspective emphasizes the active role of materials in human practices. He argues that materials, rather than being passive, actively engage with humans in the processes of making and shaping culture.
Michel Serres	The Five Senses: A Philosophy of Mingled Bodies	Serres explores the interconnectedness of human bodies and material objects. He argues that our senses are fundamentally intertwined with materiality, influencing our perception and understanding of the world.
Jane Harrison	Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion	Harrison’s study of ancient Greek religion underscores the material aspects of religious practices, rituals, and artifacts. She argues that materiality plays a central role in religious expression and experience.

These theorists and their works contribute to the understanding of materiality as a complex and multifaceted concept that transcends disciplinary boundaries. Their arguments highlight the active agency of material objects, challenging traditional human-centered perspectives and shedding light on the dynamic relationship between humans and the material world.

Materiality and Literary Theories

1. New Materialism:
   • New Materialism challenges traditional literary theories by emphasizing the active role of non-human entities in shaping narratives. It explores how material objects and matter contribute to the creation of meaning in literature.
2. Ecocriticism:
   • Ecocriticism focuses on the materiality of nature and the environment in literary texts. It explores how landscapes, ecosystems, and natural elements are portrayed and how they influence human experiences and narratives.
3. Material Culture Studies:
   • Material culture studies examine the material objects and artifacts depicted in literature. These studies explore how objects and their materiality reveal cultural practices, social hierarchies, and individual identities.
4. Postcolonialism:
   • Postcolonial literature often incorporates the materiality of colonial and post-colonial spaces. It explores how colonial material culture, such as architecture and objects, influences the narratives of power, resistance, and identity.
5. Marxist Literary Theory:
   • Materiality is a key concept in Marxist literary theory. It examines how economic and material conditions impact character development, social class, and the representation of social structures in literature.
6. Narrative Theory:
   • Narrative theory considers how the materiality of texts, including their physical format, presentation, and medium (e.g., printed books, digital texts), affects the reading experience and interpretation of narratives.
7. Aesthetic Theory:
   • Aesthetic theory explores how the materiality of art objects, including the choice of materials and their physical properties, influences the aesthetic and emotional impact of literary works.
8. Media Studies:
   • In the age of digital media, materiality is relevant to media studies as it addresses how the medium through which a text is transmitted, such as print, digital, or audio, affects the audience’s engagement and understanding.
9. Narratology:
   • Narratology examines the material aspects of narrative production, including the physical components of printed texts and how they influence narrative structures and reader responses.
10. Historical and Cultural Context:

• Materiality is essential in understanding the historical and cultural contexts of literary works, including the portrayal of everyday life, objects, and technologies from a specific time period.

Materiality enriches literary analysis by offering insights into how the physical world, objects, and technologies contribute to the creation of meaning and the interpretation of texts. It encourages a deeper exploration of the complex relationship between material culture and literary narratives.

Materiality in Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes	Materiality is evident in the physical objects that shape Don Quixote’s delusional adventures. The transformation of everyday objects, such as windmills, into menacing giants underscores the protagonist’s perception of reality. The novel explores the blurring of material and imaginative worlds, challenging the boundaries of perception.
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	Materiality is central to the novel’s exploration of whaling and the material culture of the 19th-century maritime world. The physicality of the whaling industry, harpoons, and the hunt for Moby-Dick reflects the characters’ obsessions and the dangerous, unforgiving nature of their pursuits.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Materiality is depicted through the opulent parties and material excesses of the Roaring Twenties. The novel highlights how material objects, such as Gatsby’s extravagant mansion and lavish parties, symbolize the pursuit of wealth and the American Dream. These objects shape the characters’ desires, ambitions, and ultimately their disillusionment.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy	Materiality is prominent in the post-apocalyptic setting where physical objects, such as canned food, clothing, and a shopping cart, become essential for the survival of the father and son. The scarcity of material resources influences their decisions, relationships, and the overarching theme of hope and despair.

These novels illustrate how materiality can be a powerful literary tool, influencing character motivations, narrative development, and reader engagement. Material objects and their properties often serve as symbols that convey deeper meanings, reflecting the characters’ desires, fears, and the material world in which they exist.

Suggested Readings

1. Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Duke University Press, 2010.
2. Brown, Bill. A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
3. Daston, Lorraine, and Peter Galison. Objectivity. Zone Books, 2007.
4. Ingold, Tim. Making: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art, and Architecture. Routledge, 2013.
5. Latour, Bruno. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford University Press, 2005.
6. Mauss, Marcel. The Gift: The Form and Reason for Exchange in Archaic Societies. W. W. Norton & Company, 1990.
7. Serres, Michel. The Five Senses: A Philosophy of Mingled Bodies. Bloomsbury Academic, 2008.
8. Tilley, Christopher, and Webb Keane. Handbook of Material Culture. SAGE Publications, 2009.
9. Turkle, Sherry. Evocative Objects: Things We Think With. MIT Press, 2007.
10. Yelavich, Susan, and Barbara Adams. Design as Future-Making. Bloomsbury Academic, 2014.

Etymology of Material Agency

The term “material agency” derives from the field of social and cultural theory and is rooted in the broader concept of “agency.” The word “agency” itself is derived from the Latin “agens,” which means “to act” or “to do.” In the context of material agency, the term signifies the capacity of material objects and artifacts to influence, shape, or mediate human actions and social interactions.

This concept challenges the conventional understanding of agency as solely residing within human individuals and highlights the active role that material culture, technology, and objects play in shaping human behavior, cultural practices, and societal structures.

Material agency underscores the dynamic and interactive relationship between people and the material world, emphasizing the mutual influence and co-shaping of both agents, ultimately impacting the way we understand culture, society, and the role of objects in our lives.

Meanings of Material Agency

Aspect	Meanings
Influence of Material Objects	Material agency refers to the significant impact that physical items, tools, and artifacts have on human behavior and decision-making. These objects can shape and mediate social practices and individual actions.
Active Role of Material Culture	It emphasizes that material culture, including technology, architecture, and objects, actively participates in shaping cultural norms, values, and practices, often beyond their initial design or intended purpose.
Mediating Human Interactions	Material agency underscores how objects and technology mediate and facilitate human interactions. They can serve as intermediaries that enable or constrain social relationships and communication.
Co-Shaping of Society	This concept recognizes that both humans and material objects co-shape one another and contribute to the formation of social structures and cultural practices. It challenges the notion of agency as solely a human attribute.
Impact on Identity and Meaning	Material agency extends to how objects can influence and contribute to the formation of individual and collective identities, as well as the meanings attributed to various aspects of culture and society.
Historical and Cultural Significance	The concept is essential in understanding the historical and cultural significance of objects and their role in shaping different societies and time periods.
Reinterpretation of Agency	Material agency reinterprets the traditional understanding of agency, emphasizing that it is not exclusive to human beings but involves a dynamic interplay between people and the material world.

Definition of Material Agency as a Theoretical Term

Material agency, as a theoretical term, refers to the capacity of physical objects, artifacts, and material culture to actively shape and influence human behavior, cultural practices, and social structures.

It emphasizes the dynamic interplay between humans and the material world, recognizing that objects can mediate, enable, or constrain social interactions and communication.

Material agency challenges the conventional notion of agency as solely residing within individuals and underscores the co-shaping of society by both human and non-human agents.

Material Agency: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Key Points about Material Agency
Bruno Latour	In his book Reassembling the Social, Latour explores the concept of actor-network theory, which emphasizes the agency of both human and non-human actors in shaping social processes.	Key Points: Latour argues that non-human entities, such as technology and material objects, are active agents in the construction of social realities and play a crucial role in the formation of networks and associations.
Donna Haraway	Haraway’s essay Cyborg Manifesto challenges traditional notions of individual agency and explores the idea of hybrid entities that blur the boundaries between human and non-human elements.	Key Points: Haraway argues that the cyborg, as a symbol of material agency, represents the fusion of human and machine, challenging conventional categories and offering new perspectives on identity and agency.
Michel Callon	Callon’s work in the field of science and technology studies, particularly his studies on performativity, explores how material objects and technologies actively shape and perform roles in social contexts.	Key Points: Callon’s research demonstrates that material objects, through their performativity, influence and co-construct social relationships and structures.
Actor-Network Theory (ANT)	Works: Actor-Network Theory, developed by Bruno Latour and Michel Callon, provides a framework for understanding the agency of both human and non-human actors in various social, scientific, and technological contexts.	Key Points: ANT posits that the agency of material objects is integral to the formation of networks and associations, challenging the idea of a clear distinction between subjects and objects.

Material Agency and Literary Theories

1. New Materialism:
   • New Materialism is a contemporary theoretical approach that emphasizes the active role of non-human entities, including material objects, in the construction of meaning in literature. It focuses on how objects and materiality impact the narrative and the characters’ experiences.
2. Ecocriticism:
   • In the field of ecocriticism, the agency of the natural environment and material aspects of nature are explored in literature. This includes how landscapes, ecosystems, and the environment influence characters and narrative themes.
3. Postcolonialism:
   • Postcolonial literature often explores how material culture and objects are intertwined with narratives of colonization and resistance. The agency of material objects is significant in conveying the effects of colonialism on indigenous cultures.
4. Cultural Studies:
   • Material culture is a key concept in cultural studies, where the analysis of everyday objects, consumer culture, and technology is relevant to understanding the cultural and social contexts in which literature is produced and consumed.
5. Marxist Criticism:
   • In Marxist literary theory, the role of economic and material factors in shaping characters and narrative is explored. Material objects, such as possessions and social class, can have a significant impact on character agency and plot development.
6. Feminist Theory:
   • Feminist literary theory often considers how material objects, such as clothing, domestic items, or technology, reflect and influence gender roles and identity in literature.
7. Modernism and Postmodernism:
   • In modernist and postmodernist literature, the manipulation of materiality and objects often plays a central role in challenging traditional narrative structures and exploring themes of alienation and consumerism.
8. Reader-Response Theory:
   • The reader’s interaction with the material text, including the physical book or digital interface, can shape the reading experience. Material aspects influence how readers engage with and interpret the text.

Material agency provides a lens through which to analyze the significance of objects, technology, and material culture in literature, enhancing our understanding of how they contribute to narrative development, character agency, and the creation of meaning within literary works.

Material Agency in Literary Criticism

Work	Material Agency Overview
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	It is exemplified through the character of Jay Gatsby and his extravagant parties. Gatsby’s lavish parties, characterized by opulence and excess, reflect the materialism of the Roaring Twenties. These events shape the desires and ambitions of the characters, such as Daisy Buchanan and Tom Buchanan, illustrating how material objects symbolize the pursuit of the American Dream and contribute to both aspiration and tragedy.
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley	Material agency is central to the character of Dr. Victor Frankenstein and his creation of the creature. Dr. Frankenstein’s act of crafting the creature from various body parts illustrates the power of human agency over material elements. The creature’s appearance and actions are deeply influenced by the materials used to construct him, highlighting the ethical and moral implications of material agency.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy	Material agency is prominent in the post-apocalyptic world where the characters, particularly the father and son, struggle for survival. Scarcity of material resources, such as food and clothing, significantly shapes the characters’ actions and decisions. Their journey illustrates how the absence and presence of material resources influence their relationships and their determination to endure in a harsh environment.
The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde	Here it is portrayed through the portrait of Dorian Gray and its connection to Dorian’s immoral actions. The portrait, rather than Dorian himself, bears the consequences of his corrupt behavior. This material representation serves as a mirror reflecting the state of Dorian’s soul, emphasizing the tension between material and spiritual aspects of one’s identity.

These novels illustrate how it, represented through specific characters and events, plays a crucial role in shaping the desires, actions, and the overarching narratives. Material objects serve as powerful symbols of aspiration, morality, and survival, adding complexity to the exploration of human nature and societal contexts.

Suggested Readings

1. Bennett, Jane. Vibrant Matter: A Political Ecology of Things. Duke University Press, 2010.
2. Brown, Bill. A Sense of Things: The Object Matter of American Literature. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
3. Haraway, Donna. Staying with the Trouble: Making Kin in the Chthulucene. Duke University Press, 2016.
4. Ingold, Tim. Making: Anthropology, Archaeology, Art and Architecture. Routledge, 2013.
5. Latour, Bruno. Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford University Press, 2005.
6. Miller, Daniel. Stuff. Polity Press, 2010.
7. Serres, Michel. The Five Senses: A Philosophy of Mingled Bodies. Bloomsbury Academic, 2008.
8. Thacker, Eugene. In the Dust of This Planet: Horror of Philosophy Vol. 1. Zero Books, 2011.
9. Turkle, Sherry. Evocative Objects: Things We Think With. MIT Press, 2007.

Etymology of Literalize

The term “literalize” originates from the broader linguistic concept of “literal,” denoting adherence to the explicit or primary meaning of a word or expression. The suffix “-ize” is derived from the Greek “-izo,” which is used to form verbs denoting the act or process of making something.

Therefore, “literalize” refers to the action of rendering something in a literal or straightforward manner. In an academic context, the term is often employed when discussing textual interpretation or artistic representation.

When individuals literalize a concept or metaphor, they are concretely expressing or embodying its primary, non-metaphorical meaning. This linguistic process is fundamental in textual analysis, particularly when elucidating the distinctions between literal and metaphorical language within written or spoken discourse.

Meanings of Literalize

Aspect	Meaning
Adherence to Explicit Meaning:	“Literalize” refers to the act of adhering strictly to the explicit or primary meaning of a word, phrase, or concept.
Rendering in a Straightforward Manner:	The term denotes the process of rendering something in a straightforward or direct manner, without metaphorical or symbolic interpretation.
Concrete Expression:	In literary or artistic contexts, “literalize” involves concretely expressing or embodying a concept, often removing layers of abstraction or metaphor.
Textual Interpretation:	Used in discussions of textual analysis, the term describes the action of interpreting a text by emphasizing its literal meaning rather than exploring metaphorical or figurative dimensions.
Distinguishing Literal from Metaphorical:	“Literalize” is relevant when discussing the distinctions between literal and metaphorical language, particularly in the context of understanding and interpreting written or spoken discourse.

Definition of Literalize as a Theoretical Term

The theoretical term “literalize” encompasses the deliberate adherence to the explicit or primary meaning of language, eschewing metaphorical or symbolic interpretations.

In a broader context, it signifies the act of concretely expressing or embodying abstract concepts, particularly within literary or artistic discourse, often involving the removal of layers of abstraction or metaphor.

As a theoretical tool, “literalize” is pertinent in discussions of textual interpretation, emphasizing the exploration of a text’s direct and unambiguous meaning over nuanced or figurative dimensions.

Literalize: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Work	Argument
Hans-Georg Gadamer	Truth and Method	Gadamer’s hermeneutical approach involves a dynamic interplay between the interpreter and the text, exploring how understanding unfolds. While not explicitly using the term “literalize,” his ideas contribute to discussions on interpretation and the role of literal meaning.
Paul Ricoeur	The Rule of Metaphor	Ricoeur delves into the complexities of metaphor and interpretation. While not directly addressing “literalize,” his exploration of metaphorical and literal language contributes to the broader discourse on linguistic interpretation.
Jacques Derrida	Of Grammatology	Derrida’s deconstructive approach challenges binary distinctions between literal and metaphorical language, questioning the stability of meaning. Discussions related to how language resists fixed interpretation are relevant in the broader context of literalization.

This table summarizes the key works and arguments of Hans-Georg Gadamer, Paul Ricoeur, and Jacques Derrida in the context of discussions related to literal interpretation, hermeneutics, and linguistic analysis. If you have any specific requests for modifications or additional information, feel free to let me know!

Literalize and Literary Theories

1. Hermeneutics:
   • Relevance: Within hermeneutical approaches, the concept of literalize is pertinent. Scholars may explore how interpreting a text literally, or the emphasis on literal meaning, influences the understanding of the text’s deeper layers.
2. Deconstruction:
   • Relevance: In deconstructive literary theories, which challenge binary distinctions and fixed meanings, discussions related to literalize may involve questioning the stability of literal interpretations and exploring how language resists fixed meanings.
3. Semiotics:
   • Relevance: Literalize is significant in semiotic analyses where the focus is on signs and their literal meanings. This includes how symbols, words, and linguistic elements are interpreted in their direct and explicit sense.
4. Structuralism:
   • Relevance: Within structuralist literary theories, discussions on literalize may touch upon the structural aspects of language and how adhering strictly to literal meanings contributes to the overall structure and interpretation of a literary work.
5. Reader-Response Theory:
   • Relevance: The concept of literalize can be explored in reader-response theories where the literal interpretation of a text by the reader plays a crucial role in shaping the meaning of the work.
6. Poststructuralism:
   • Relevance: Poststructuralist literary theories, influenced by Derrida’s ideas, may engage with literalize in the context of challenging fixed interpretations and exploring the play of language in literary texts.

Literalize in Literary Criticism

1. Novel 1: To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
   • Critique: Literalizing elements in this novel involves closely examining the literal events and dialogues within the racially charged setting. Critics might explore how the literal interpretation of the characters’ actions and statements contributes to the broader themes of racism and justice.
2. Poem 1: “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
   • Critique: Literalize can be applied to the haunting imagery and symbolism in this poem. Critics may delve into the literal interpretation of the raven and its interactions with the narrator, exploring how this contributes to the poem’s melancholic atmosphere.
3. Novel 2: 1984 by George Orwell
   • Critique: In the dystopian world of 1984, literalize involves a meticulous examination of the literal actions of the oppressive government and the protagonist’s struggles. Critics might explore how the literal interpretation of surveillance and control adds to the novel’s portrayal of totalitarianism.
4. Poem 2: “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost
   • Critique: Literalizing elements in this poem involves focusing on the literal choices presented in the diverging paths. Critics may explore how the literal interpretation of the speaker’s decision to take a particular path contributes to the poem’s reflections on life choices.

In these works, literalize is applied to various aspects such as character actions, settings, and choices. Critics employing this approach may aim to uncover the nuanced layers of meaning that emerge when elements are interpreted in their direct and explicit sense, enhancing the audience’s understanding of the literary works.

Suggested Readings

1. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
2. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.
3. Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language. Routledge, 2003.
4. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Columbia University Press, 2011.
5. Searle, John R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969.
6. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 2015.