Day: October 25, 2023

Etymology of Ethnocentrism

The term “ethnocentrism” finds its roots in two Greek words: “ethnos,” meaning “nation” or “people,” and “kentron,” meaning “center.”

Ethnocentrism, as a concept in social and cultural theory, reflects the tendency of individuals or groups to evaluate and interpret other cultures or societies from the vantage point of their own.

This evaluation often results in a biased or prejudiced perspective where one’s own cultural norms, values, and practices are considered superior or central, while those of other cultures are marginalized or perceived as deviations from the norm.

Ethnocentrism has been a subject of critical examination in anthropology, sociology, and related fields, as it can lead to misunderstandings, stereotypes, and conflicts between different cultural groups.

Meanings of Ethnocentrism

Aspect	Meanings
Cultural Superiority	Ethnocentrism involves the belief that one’s own culture, customs, and values are superior to others, often leading to a biased view of other cultures as inferior or “other.”
Judgment and Evaluation	It refers to the practice of assessing other cultures based on the standards and norms of one’s own culture, which can lead to misinterpretations, prejudice, and negative judgments.
In-Group Bias	Ethnocentrism fosters a strong sense of loyalty and favoritism toward one’s own cultural or ethnic group, potentially resulting in discrimination or exclusion of those from different backgrounds.
Cultural Relativism Contrast	It stands in contrast to cultural relativism, which emphasizes understanding and evaluating other cultures within their own cultural context, rather than using one’s own as the benchmark.
Inter-group Tensions	Ethnocentrism can fuel inter-group tensions, conflicts, and ethnocentric biases, contributing to social and cultural divisions.

Definition of Ethnocentrism as a Theoretical Term

Ethnocentrism, as a theoretical concept in sociology and cultural studies, refers to the practice of evaluating and interpreting other cultures or societies through the lens of one’s own cultural norms, values, and beliefs.

This often leads to a biased perception of one’s own culture as superior and others as inferior, resulting in judgments and prejudices. Ethnocentrism is a central concept in the examination of intercultural relations, as it highlights the potential for misunderstandings and conflicts arising from ethnocentric perspectives.

Ethnocentrism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

1. William Graham Sumner: Sumner, an early sociologist, discussed it as the tendency of individuals to evaluate other cultures through their own cultural values, often perceiving their own culture as superior.
2. Robert K. Merton: A prominent sociologist, Merton explored it in the context of deviance and social norms. He introduced the concept of “manifest and latent functions,” which suggests that ethnocentrism can have both positive and negative consequences in society.

Key Works:

1. William Graham Sumner’s essay “Folkways” (1906): Sumner’s work delves into the concept and its influence on social behavior and judgments.
2. Robert K. Merton’s book “Social Theory and Social Structure” (1949): In this book, Merton explores the manifest and latent functions of ethnocentrism, shedding light on the various ways it can impact social systems.

Arguments:

1. It involves the evaluation of other cultures through one’s own cultural values, often resulting in a perception of one’s own culture as superior.
2. Ethnocentrism can lead to prejudiced judgments and the propagation of negative stereotypes about other cultures, fostering intergroup tensions and conflicts.
3. Robert K. Merton’s concept of manifest and latent functions highlights that while it can reinforce cultural identity and solidarity within a group, it can also lead to negative consequences, such as discrimination and social divisions.

These theorists and their works have significantly contributed to the understanding as a key sociological concept and its impact on social interactions and cultural understanding.

Ethnocentrism and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Ethnocentrism is highly relevant in postcolonial literary theory, where it plays a central role in the exploration of the dominance of one culture or ethnicity over another. This theory examines the consequences of ethnocentrism in colonial contexts, including the imposition of the colonizer’s values and judgments on the colonized, resulting in cultural clashes and identity crises.
Feminist Literary Theory	In feminist literary theory, ethnocentrism is scrutinized in the context of how patriarchal norms and values have historically been imposed on women. This theory delves into the ethnocentric biases present in literature that have marginalized and misrepresented women and their voices, highlighting the intersection of ethnocentrism with gender biases.
Cultural Studies	Cultural studies, which explore the interplay of culture, society, and literature, often focus on ethnocentrism concerning the representation of various cultural groups within literature. This theory critiques how literary works can perpetuate stereotypes and misrepresentations rooted in ethnocentric viewpoints.
Reader-Response Theory	Ethnocentrism’s impact on the interpretation of literary texts is considered in reader-response theory. This theory examines how readers’ own cultural backgrounds and biases can shape their understanding of a text. Ethnocentric perspectives may lead readers to misinterpret or misunderstand the intended themes and messages in literature.
Poststructuralism	Poststructuralist literary theories, such as deconstruction, investigate the presence of latent biases and hierarchies in texts. Ethnocentrism can be a form of bias found in literature, and poststructuralism aims to uncover and challenge these biases, encouraging readers to question dominant cultural narratives.
Literary Realism	Ethnocentrism can be depicted in literary realism, which aims to portray the world as it is. Realist literature often reflects the biases and ethnocentrism of a particular time and place. Within the framework of literary realism, ethnocentrism can be a subject of critique and analysis.
Multiculturalism	Literature aligned with multiculturalism explores the negative impacts of ethnocentrism on diverse communities. Multicultural literature aims to represent the voices and experiences of different cultural and ethnic groups and challenges ethnocentric viewpoints.

Ethnocentrism in Literary Criticism

1. Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad: In Heart of Darkness, ethnocentrism is prominently explored through the lens of European colonialism in Africa. The novel portrays the colonizers’ ethnocentric perspective, where they consider African cultures as primitive and inferior. The work delves into the dehumanizing effects of ethnocentrism, raising questions about the moral and cultural arrogance of the colonizers.
2. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe: Achebe’s novel, Things Fall Apart, offers a counter-narrative to European ethnocentrism. It provides a perspective from the Igbo community in Nigeria, which experiences the destructive impact of European colonization and ethnocentric judgments. The novel critiques the ethnocentrism of the colonizers and their lack of understanding of the Igbo culture.
3. The Help by Kathryn Stockett: In The Help, the novel explores ethnocentrism in the context of race relations in the American South during the civil rights era. The story highlights the ethnocentric attitudes of white characters who perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices about African American maids. It also portrays the African American maids’ resistance to such ethnocentrism and their fight for recognition and justice.
4. Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini: The Kite Runner delves into ethnocentrism within the context of the relationship between Afghanistan and the United States. It portrays the ethnocentric viewpoints held by some Afghan characters regarding American culture, contrasting them with the protagonist’s perspective as an Afghan immigrant in the United States. The novel raises questions about the impact of ethnocentrism on cultural identity and belonging.

Suggested Readings

1. Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a World of Strangers. W.W. Norton & Company, 2006.
2. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
3. Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. The New Press, 1996.
4. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.
5. Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. Zed Books, 1999.
6. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Conquest of America: The Question of the Other. Translated by Richard Howard, Harper & Row, 1984.
7. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Beacon Press, 1994.

Read more on Theoretical Terms below:

• Temporal Fluidity in Literature & Theory
• Aporia/Aporetic in Literature & Literary Theory
• Narrative Economy in Literature & Literary Theory
• Temporal Relativity in Literature & Theory
• False Consciousness in Literature & Literary Theory

Etymology of Context

The etymology of the term “context” can be traced back to the Latin language, where it derives from the word “contextus,” a combination of “con,” meaning “together,” and “texere,” meaning “to weave” or “to interlace.”

This etymological origin reflects the fundamental concept underlying “context” as the interwoven circumstances, elements, or conditions that surround and give meaning to a particular situation or text.

With time, the term has evolved to encompass a wide range of disciplines, from linguistics to philosophy, sociology, and literature, where it plays a crucial role in understanding how meaning is constructed and interpreted within a framework of related elements and factors.

Meanings of Context

Aspect	Meanings
Textual	In literature and linguistics, it surrounds words, aiding interpretation.
Social	Pertains to societal and cultural circumstances, impacting significance.
Historical	Understanding historical events, periods, and norms for interpretation.
Environmental	Includes surroundings and conditions, affecting comprehension.
Discursive	In language studies, it’s the broader conversation shaping meaning.
Interpersonal	In communication, it involves relational aspects and prior exchanges.
Computational	In computer science, it guides specific processes with data.
Legal	Legal environment impacts interpretation and application.
Cultural	Customs, beliefs, and practices influence understanding.
Psychological	Mental and emotional states offer insight into actions.
Artistic	In aesthetics, it encompasses artist’s intentions and environments.
Educational	In education, it relates to learning environment and curriculum.
Business	In commerce, it considers economic factors and market conditions.
Political	Political events and ideologies affect government actions.
Scientific	In science, it involves experimental conditions and research paradigms.
Religious	Religious beliefs and rituals are crucial for interpretation.
Geographical	Location and climate shape activities and lifestyle.
Technological	Technology influences the use and impact of innovations.
Ethical	Ethics provide a framework for decision-making and judgment.
Global	Worldwide perspective involves international relations and global challenges.
Personal Context	Individual experiences, beliefs, and perspectives shape interpretation.
Economic Context	Market dynamics, trade policies, and financial systems impact business and living standards.

Definition of Context as a Theoretical Term

Context, as a theoretical term, refers to the surrounding conditions and factors that influence the interpretation and meaning of a specific subject, event, or text. It encompasses a multidimensional framework, including historical, social, cultural, and situational elements, that shape the significance and implications of the subject in question. In theoretical discourse, context serves as the lens through which the interplay of various elements is examined to gain a deeper understanding of the subject’s broader implications and nuanced interpretations.

Context: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

1. Roland Barthes: In The Death of the Author, Barthes challenges the notion that an author’s intent and personal context are central to the interpretation of a text, emphasizing the importance of the reader’s context and the text itself in shaping meaning.
2. Michel Foucault: Foucault’s work, The Order of Things, explores the history of ideas and discourse analysis, highlighting the role of cultural and historical contexts in shaping the production and reception of knowledge, including literary knowledge.
3. Edward Said: In Orientalism, Said critically examines the representation of the East in Western literature and scholarship, revealing how colonial and imperialist contexts have influenced literary depictions.
4. Homi K. Bhabha: Bhabha’s book, The Location of Culture, delves into the impact of postcolonial contexts on literary and cultural production, particularly through the concept of hybridity.

Works:

1. The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes: This influential essay challenges the traditional view of authorial intent and underscores the importance of the reader’s context in interpreting literary works.
2. The Order of Things by Michel Foucault: Foucault’s exploration of the history of knowledge and classification systems demonstrates how the cultural and historical contexts of different epochs have shaped language, literature, and thought.
3. Orientalism by Edward Said: Said’s book critically examines the representation of the East in Western literature and scholarship, revealing how colonial and imperialist contexts have influenced literary depictions.
4. The Location of Culture by Homi K. Bhabha: Bhabha’s work delves into the impact of postcolonial contexts on literary and cultural production, particularly through the concept of hybridity.

Arguments:

1. Death of the Author: This argument asserts that the author’s personal context and intent should not be the sole determinant of a text’s meaning; instead, the reader’s context plays a significant role in interpretation.
2. Cultural Context and Representation: This argument emphasizes that the cultural and historical contexts in which a literary work is produced and received influence the representations and themes within the text.
3. Postcolonial Context: The argument stresses the impact of colonial histories and cultural contexts on literary works, leading to the reevaluation of dominant narratives and the recognition of marginalized voices.
4. Hybridity and Context: This argument posits that the blending of multiple cultural and contextual influences, as seen in postcolonial and diasporic literature, generates unique literary forms and perspectives.

These revised entries provide a clearer presentation of the theorists, their works, and the key arguments within the context of literary theory.

Context and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance of Context
Historical Context	Historical criticism, including New Historicism, emphasizes the importance of understanding the historical context in which a work of literature was produced. This approach seeks to illuminate how the cultural, social, and political circumstances of a particular era influence the text’s themes, characters, and interpretations. However, it has been critiqued for occasionally oversimplifying complex historical contexts.
Cultural Context	Cultural studies and postcolonial theory examine how cultural contexts shape literary production and reception. These theories investigate how cultural norms, values, and traditions impact the creation of narratives and the representation of characters. At the same time, they critique the imposition of dominant cultural contexts on marginalized or colonized voices.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory places a significant focus on the reader’s context. It posits that readers bring their own experiences and interpretations to a text, which can vary widely. This approach celebrates the diversity of perspectives but has been critiqued for potentially neglecting the author’s intent.
Deconstruction	Deconstruction challenges the stability of meaning in texts and embraces a multiplicity of interpretations. It critiques the notion that a definitive context can provide a single, authoritative meaning. Instead, it highlights the ever-shifting and uncertain nature of meaning in literature.
Feminist Theory	Feminist literary theory often critiques the patriarchal contexts in which many literary works were produced. It seeks to unveil and challenge the gender-based power dynamics that shape the narratives, characters, and contexts of texts.
Marxist Theory	Marxist literary criticism explores economic and class contexts within literature. It focuses on how the socioeconomic conditions of the time influence the portrayal of class struggles, inequalities, and power dynamics in literary works.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into the psychological contexts of characters and authors. It examines how unconscious desires, fears, and motivations can be reflected in the text. This approach critiques the way context is often hidden or obscured in the psyche.
Postmodernism	Postmodernism challenges traditional ideas of context by questioning the stability of meaning and the grand narratives that have historically framed literary interpretation. Postmodern works often engage in intertextuality, blurring the boundaries of context and challenging established norms.

Context in Literary Criticism

1. by Harper Lee: Critique: The novel’s deep exploration of racial injustice in the American South during the 1930s hinges on its historical and cultural context. Lee effectively uses the context of the Great Depression and the pervasive racism of the time to depict the challenges faced by African Americans. However, some critics argue that the novel’s portrayal of these issues can be overly simplistic, especially from a contemporary perspective.
2. by George Orwell: Critique: Orwell’s dystopian classic relies heavily on the socio-political context of the mid-20th century to critique totalitarianism and surveillance states. The novel is a powerful commentary on the context of its time, but some argue that it may not be as relevant to a context marked by digital surveillance and new forms of authoritarianism.
3. by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Critique: Set in the Roaring Twenties, the novel critiques the hedonistic excesses and moral bankruptcy of the Jazz Age. Its portrayal of the opulent lifestyle of the wealthy elite is intricately tied to the context of the Prohibition era. However, some critics contend that the context may limit its relevance to contemporary readers.
4. by Toni Morrison: Critique: Morrison’s novel is deeply rooted in the historical and cultural context of slavery in the United States. It vividly portrays the horrors and traumas of the past. While this context is integral to the narrative, some critics argue that the novel can be challenging to read without a comprehensive understanding of this history.

These critiques illustrate the intricate relationship between literature and its contextual underpinnings. While context enriches the themes and messages of these novels, it can also pose challenges when readers approach these works from different temporal and cultural perspectives.Top of Form

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M.H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1971.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
3. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1982.
4. Greenblatt, Stephen. Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
5. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Adaptation. Routledge, 2006.
6. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
7. Said, Edward. Orientalism. Vintage, 1979.
8. Wimsatt, W.K. and Monroe Beardsley. The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry. University Press of Kentucky, 2010.
9. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Harcourt, Brace, 1949.
10. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1985.

Read more on Theoretical Terms below:

• Ethnocentrism in Literature & Literary Theory
• Hegemonic Masculinity in Literature & Theory
• Multiculturalism in Literature & Literary Theory
• Narrative Universals in Literature & Literary Theory
• Sexualization in Literature & Literary Theory