Month: October 2023

Panopticon in Literature & Literary Theory

The Panopticon as a theoretical term, originally conceptualized by Jeremy Bentham, refers to a disciplinary and surveillance system characterized by a central observation point.

Etymology of Panopticon

The term “Panopticon” is derived from the Greek words “pan” (meaning “all”) and “optikos” (meaning “visible” or “seen”).

Coined by English philosopher and social theorist Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century, it originally referred to a prison design characterized by a central watchtower, enabling a single observer to potentially see all inmates without their knowledge of when or if they were under surveillance.

This architectural concept has, since, evolved into a powerful metaphor. It represents the idea of continuous and pervasive observation wherein individuals may alter their behavior due to the awareness of potential surveillance even in the absence of active monitoring.

Michel Foucault further popularized and theorized the Panopticon, emphasizing its significance in understanding disciplinary mechanisms in society.

Meanings of Panopticon
AspectMeaning
As a Symbol of SurveillanceIn literature and literary theory, the Panopticon often serves as a symbol of surveillance and the pervasive gaze of authority. It represents the idea that characters or societies may be under constant observation, leading to self-regulation and conformity.
As a Metaphor for Power and ControlThe concept of the Panopticon is frequently used as a metaphor for structures of power and control. Authors may employ it to critique institutions, governments, or societal norms that maintain dominance through surveillance and discipline.
In the Exploration of Individual vs. Collective FreedomLiterary works featuring the Panopticon often explore the tension between individual freedom and collective security. They examine how the fear of surveillance can impact characters’ choices and actions.
In Existential ThemesSome authors use the Panopticon as a backdrop to explore existential themes such as alienation, identity, and the loss of privacy. The constant scrutiny within the Panopticon can lead characters to question their sense of self and agency.
In Dystopian and Science Fiction SettingsThe Panopticon concept frequently appears in dystopian and science fiction literature. It highlights the potential consequences of extreme surveillance technologies and authoritarian regimes.
In Critique of Societal NormsLiterary theorists may analyze works featuring the Panopticon to critique societal norms and the ways in which conformity is enforced. This critique can extend to discussions of gender, sexuality, and individuality.
Psychological ImpactLiterature often delves into the psychological impact of living in a Panoptic society, exploring themes of paranoia, conformity, and the loss of personal autonomy.
Definition of Panopticon as a Theoretical Term

The Panopticon as a theoretical term, originally conceptualized by Jeremy Bentham, refers to a disciplinary and surveillance system characterized by a central observation point from which individuals within an institution or society can be continuously monitored without their knowledge.

It symbolizes the pervasive control and power exerted by those in authority, leading to self-regulation and conformity among the observed. In a broader theoretical context, the Panopticon represents the ways in which surveillance technologies and the fear of being watched impact behavior, social order, and power dynamics.

Panopticon: Theorists, Works and Arguments
Original Theorist:
  1. Jeremy Bentham: The concept of the Panopticon was originally conceived by Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century. He envisioned it as a model for a prison, characterized by a central watchtower from which all inmates could be observed without their knowledge.
Theorists:
  1. Michel Foucault: Foucault extensively analyzed the Panopticon in his work Discipline and Punish. He argued that the Panopticon represents a model of disciplinary power, where individuals modify their behavior due to the possibility of surveillance, resulting in self-regulation. This concept laid the foundation for his broader exploration of surveillance, power, and control in society.
Notable Works:
  1. Discipline and Punish by Michel Foucault: In this influential work, Foucault discusses the Panopticon as a paradigmatic example of modern disciplinary systems. He examines how the Panopticon‘s design and the principle of constant observation shape power structures and control mechanisms in institutions such as prisons.
Arguments in Literature and Literary Theory:
  1. Panopticon as a Symbol of Control: Literary theorists have used the Panopticon as a symbol to critique power structures and control mechanisms in various literary works. It represents the idea that characters or societies may be subjected to surveillance, leading to conformity and the loss of individual autonomy.
  2. Exploration of Surveillance Society: Literature often engages with the concept of the Panopticon to explore the consequences of living in a surveillance society. Authors raise questions about privacy, freedom, and the impact of constant observation on individuals’ psychological well-being.
  3. Metaphor for Social Norms: Some literary works employ the Panopticon as a metaphor for societal norms and expectations. Characters may feel pressured to conform to these norms, mirroring the disciplinary effects of the Panopticon‘s gaze.
  4. Psychological Themes: The Panopticon concept has been used to delve into psychological themes, including paranoia and the fear of being watched. Characters in literature may experience anxiety and self-monitoring, reflecting the psychological impact of surveillance.
  5. Dystopian Settings: Dystopian literature often incorporates the Panopticon to depict oppressive regimes and the erosion of personal freedoms. It serves as a powerful symbol of authoritarian control in fictional worlds.

These theorists, original concepts, works, and arguments illustrate the diverse ways in which the Panopticon concept has been integrated into literary theory and explored within the realm of literature, shedding light on its enduring relevance in discussions of power, surveillance, and societal norms.

Panopticon and Literary Theories
TheoryExplanation of Relevance
Postcolonial Literary TheoryThe Panopticon can be analyzed in postcolonial literature to examine the mechanisms of colonial control and surveillance. It highlights how colonial powers exercised dominance over colonized populations through surveillance and discipline, which is often reflected in the literature of the colonial period and postcolonial texts.
Feminist Literary TheoryIn feminist literary theory, the Panopticon is relevant when discussing the surveillance and control of women’s bodies and behaviors. It can be used to explore how patriarchal societies impose norms and expectations on women, leading to self-regulation and conformity.
Psychoanalytic Literary TheoryPsychoanalytic theory can be applied to analyze the psychological impact of living under constant surveillance, as depicted in literature. It explores the characters’ inner conflicts, anxieties, and the ways in which their psyches are shaped by the fear of being observed.
Dystopian and Science Fiction TheoriesThe Panopticon concept is prevalent in dystopian and science fiction literature, where it serves as a central element in depicting authoritarian regimes and their impact on individuals and society. It is relevant in discussions of dystopian and science fiction theories, exploring themes of control, resistance, and the consequences of technological surveillance.
Narrative TheoryNarrative theorists may analyze how the narrative techniques in a literary work mirror the Panopticon’s principles of observation and control. They explore how the narrative structure shapes the reader’s perception of surveillance and its effects on characters.
Cultural StudiesCultural studies intersect with the Panopticon concept by examining how literature reflects and influences cultural perceptions of surveillance, power, and discipline. It investigates how literary representations of the Panopticon contribute to societal attitudes and norms.
Critical TheoryCritical theorists may use the Panopticon as a critical lens to deconstruct power dynamics, control mechanisms, and ideological structures present in literary texts. It aids in uncovering hidden agendas and the ways in which literature reinforces or challenges societal norms.
Panopticon in Literary Criticism
  1. In The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka, the Panopticon concept applies as Gregor Samsa undergoes a transformation into an insect. Gregor becomes an isolated, alienated figure in his own home, where his family members constantly observe him. The family’s gaze serves as surveillance, and Gregor’s existence becomes one of self-imposed confinement in his room. This sense of being under scrutiny reflects the Panoptic principle, where the fear of being watched leads to self-regulation and conformity. Gregor’s transformation serves as a metaphor for the loss of individuality and autonomy in a society that values conformity over individuality.
  2. In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Tell-Tale Heart”, the psychological impact of surveillance and the guilt that arises from being constantly observed are explored. The unnamed narrator’s obsession with the old man’s vulture-like eye drives him to commit murder. As he narrates the story, the reader becomes the silent observer, much like the Panopticon’s watchtower. The narrator’s paranoia and anxiety about the ever-watchful eye of the old man’s eye mirror the psychological effects of living under surveillance. The story delves into the theme of guilt and the disintegration of the narrator’s sanity, highlighting how the fear of being observed can lead to self-destructive behavior.
  3. In Margaret Atwood’s dystopian novel The Handmaid’s Tale, the society of Gilead operates as a Panoptic state. The government’s control over women’s bodies and reproductive rights is enforced through a strict surveillance regime. The Handmaids, like Offred, are constantly observed and monitored by the Aunts and the Eyes. They are expected to conform to the regime’s rules and are subjected to punishment for any deviation. The fear of surveillance and the loss of personal autonomy are central themes in the novel, illustrating how the Panopticon’s principles of control and discipline apply in a gendered dystopia.
  4. Michel Foucault’s essay “Panopticism” provides a theoretical framework for understanding the Panopticon concept in various contexts, including literature. Foucault’s examination of how the Panopticon operates as a disciplinary mechanism in society informs the analysis of literary works that explore themes of power, control, and surveillance. Literary theorists draw from Foucault’s insights to analyze the dynamics of surveillance and discipline within fictional narratives, shedding light on how the Panopticon concept serves as a critical lens for critiquing societal norms and power structures.
Suggested Readings
    1. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books, 1995.
    2. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Dover Publications, 1996.
    3. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classic, 1950.
    4. Poe, Edgar Allan. “The Tell-Tale Heart.” The Complete Tales and Poems of Edgar Allan Poe, edited by Arthur Hobson Quinn, Anchor Books, 1975.
    5. Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Anchor Books, 1998.
    6. Foucault, Michel. “Panopticism.” Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, translated by Alan Sheridan, Vintage Books, 1995, pp. 195-228.
    7. Borch, Christian. The Politics of Crowds: An Alternative History of Sociology. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
    8. Haggerty, Kevin D., and Richard V. Ericson. “The Surveillant Assemblage.” The British Journal of Sociology, vol. 51, no. 4, 2000, pp. 605-622.
    9. Lyon, David. Surveillance Studies: An Overview. Polity Press, 2007.
    10. Poster, Mark. The Mode of Information: Poststructuralism and Social Context. University of Chicago Press, 1990.

    Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

    Central to Oral Tradition Theory is the notion of variability and flexibility, wherein stories evolve and adapt within the constraints of the tradition, fostering creativity and adaptation.

    Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

    Oral Tradition Theory in literature, a fundamental framework in literary studies, investigates the intricate dynamics of cultural transmission through spoken language and storytelling.

    Rooted in the recognition of the paramount importance of orality in preliterate societies and its enduring influence in literate cultures, this theory probes the multifaceted aspects of narratives, myths, and knowledge passed down orally across generations.

    Central to Oral Tradition Theory in literature is the notion of variability and flexibility, wherein stories evolve and adapt within the constraints of the tradition, fostering creativity and adaptation.

    By delving into the mnemonic devices, communal memory, and performance contexts inherent in oral traditions, scholars unravel the profound impact of orality on the preservation and interpretation of cultural heritage in literary and cultural studies.

    Criticism Against Oral Tradition in Literature
    1. Lack of Authenticity: Critics argue that oral traditions may be susceptible to distortion and modification over time, leading to potential inaccuracies or changes in the original narratives.
    2. Fragmentation and Loss: Oral transmission can result in the fragmentation or partial loss of cultural knowledge and stories, hindering the preservation of complete narratives.
    3. Difficulty in Verification: Unlike written texts, which offer a tangible record, oral traditions may be challenging to verify or authenticate, making them susceptible to embellishment or manipulation.
    4. Exclusivity: Critics contend that oral traditions can be exclusive, as access to these narratives may be limited to specific communities or individuals, potentially excluding broader audiences.
    5. Vulnerability to Extinction: In the face of modernization and globalization, oral traditions are often at risk of fading away, as they may struggle to adapt to changing cultural contexts.
    6. Influence of External Factors: External influences, such as colonialism and cultural assimilation, can impact oral traditions negatively, leading to the loss of indigenous knowledge and languages.
    7. Dependence on Memory: Oral traditions heavily rely on memory, which can be fallible, and this reliance may result in variations or inconsistencies in the retelling of narratives.
    8. Lack of Standardization: The absence of standardized forms of oral traditions can make it challenging to study and compare narratives across different cultures or regions.
    9. Marginalization of Written Literature: Some argue that the emphasis on oral traditions may marginalize the value of written literature and disregard the richness of literary texts.
    10. Difficulty in Documentation: Documenting oral traditions can be complex, as the nuances of performance, intonation, and non-verbal elements may not be fully captured in written transcripts.
    Examples of Oral Tradition Theory in Literature
    1. The Epic of Gilgamesh:
      • This ancient Mesopotamian epic, one of the earliest known works of literature, embodies the principles of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Passed down orally for generations, it showcases the variability and adaptability of narratives within an oral tradition. The epic’s formulaic composition, repetition of phrases, and mnemonic devices aid in its memorization and transmission.
    2. The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer:
      • The works of Homer, particularly “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey,” exemplify Oral Tradition Theory. These epic poems were originally transmitted orally before being transcribed in written form. The formulaic nature of these narratives, featuring recurring epithets and phrases, reflects the hallmarks of oral tradition, where storytellers rely on memory and performance.
    3. Beowulf:
      • The Old English epic poem “Beowulf” is another prime example of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Composed orally and later transcribed, it demonstrates the flexibility and adaptability of oral narratives. The use of formulaic language, alliteration, and the emphasis on communal memory within the text align with oral tradition principles.
    4. The Mahabharata:
      • “The Mahabharata,” an Indian epic, is an extensive oral tradition that encompasses a rich tapestry of stories, legends, and philosophical discourse. It illustrates the role of communal memory in preserving cultural and historical knowledge. Within its narrative, mnemonic devices and performance contexts play significant roles in its transmission.
    Keywords in Oral Tradition Theory in Literature
    1. Oral Tradition: The transmission of cultural knowledge, stories, and literature through spoken language and memorization rather than written texts.
    2. Variability: The inherent flexibility and adaptability within oral traditions, allowing for variations in narratives across different retellings.
    3. Formulaic Composition: The use of recurring patterns, stock phrases, and formulas in the creation of oral narratives, aiding in their memorization and transmission.
    4. Communal Memory: The collective cultural memory within a community or culture, where stories, knowledge, and traditions are shared and preserved orally.
    5. Mnemonic Devices: Techniques such as rhyme, rhythm, and repetition used to aid memory and facilitate the oral transmission of complex narratives.
    6. Performance Context: The specific settings and occasions in which oral traditions are performed, often featuring skilled storytellers or performers.
    7. Dynamic Nature: The adaptability and evolution of oral traditions over time in response to changing cultural, social, and historical circumstances.
    8. Oral-Literate Interface: The study of the interaction and influence between oral and written forms of communication within a culture.
    9. Contextual Interpretation: The understanding and interpretation of oral narratives based on the context in which they are performed, with listeners actively engaged in the meaning-making process.
    10. Cultural Preservation: The role of oral traditions in preserving a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and identity across generations through spoken narratives.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
    2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
    3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
    4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
    5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
    6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
    7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
    8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.

    Oral Tradition Theory

    As a theoretical construct, Oral Tradition Theory elucidates the dynamics of preserving and conveying cultural expressions through verbal communication.

    Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory

    Oral Tradition Theory, rooted in the etymology of “oral” and “tradition,” is a scholarly framework employed in the study of cultural transmission. The term “oral” derives from the Latin word “os,” signifying “mouth,” highlighting the central role of spoken language in this theory. “Tradition,” originating from the Latin “traditio,” refers to the act of handing down customs, beliefs, narratives, and knowledge from one generation to the next.

    As a theoretical construct, Oral Tradition Theory elucidates the dynamics of preserving and conveying cultural expressions through verbal communication across societies and epochs. It delves into the mechanics of memory, the adaptability of narratives, and the communal aspects of oral transmission, thus offering a comprehensive lens through which to explore the interplay between orality and cultural continuity in various human societies.

    Oral Tradition Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
    Origin:
    • Oral Tradition Theory has its roots in the early 20th century, primarily emerging as a response to the prevailing view that literature and culture were solely reliant on written texts. Scholars like Milman Parry and Albert Lord laid the groundwork for the theory by examining oral epic poetry, such as the works of Homer, and identifying patterns of oral composition.
    Theorists:
    • Milman Parry (1902-1935): Milman Parry is considered one of the founding figures of Oral Tradition Theory. He conducted extensive research on the oral composition of ancient epic poetry, particularly the Iliad and the Odyssey, highlighting the formulaic nature of these texts and the role of oral traditions in their creation.
    • Albert Lord (1912-1991): Building on Parry’s work, Albert Lord expanded and refined the theory. His book The Singer of Tales (1960) further elucidated the oral-formulaic nature of epic poetry and proposed the concept of “oral tradition” as a dynamic and flexible means of cultural transmission.
    • Walter J. Ong (1912-2003): Ong explored the characteristics of oral cultures in contrast to literate ones. His work, Orality and Literacy (1982), delved into how oral traditions shape thought, communication, and memory.
    Key Works:
    • Milman Parry’s The Making of Homeric Verse (1971): This posthumous publication encapsulates Parry’s research on the oral composition of Homeric epics and its implications for understanding the transmission of ancient literature.
    • Albert Lord’s The Singer of Tales (1960): Lord’s seminal work outlines the principles of Oral Tradition Theory and provides extensive examples from various cultures to support his arguments.
    • Walter J. Ong’s Orality and Literacy (1982): Ong’s book offers a comprehensive exploration of the characteristics of oral cultures, the transition to literate societies, and the impact of these shifts on human cognition and communication.
    Key Arguments:
    • Central to Oral Tradition Theory is the idea that oral cultures rely on spoken language, memory, and mnemonic devices for the transmission of knowledge, stories, and cultural traditions.
    • The theory posits that oral traditions are not fixed, but rather flexible and adaptable, allowing for variations and creativity within the retelling of narratives.
    • Scholars in this field argue that oral traditions have played a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage, fostering a sense of community, and transmitting knowledge across generations, challenging the notion that written texts are the sole repository of culture and knowledge.
    Principles of Oral Tradition Theory
    PrincipalExplanationExample
    Oral TransmissionEmphasizes spoken language as the primary mode of cultural transmission, distinct from written texts.Indigenous tribes passing down creation stories through oral storytelling.
    Variability and FlexibilityHighlights the adaptability of oral traditions, allowing for creative variations in the retelling of narratives.Different versions of a folk tale evolving across generations.
    Formulaic CompositionRecognizes the use of formulas, patterns, and stock phrases in oral narratives, aiding storytellers in structuring their tales.Epic poetry with recurring phrases in Homer’s works.
    Communal MemoryRelies on collective memory within a community or culture for preserving stories, knowledge, and cultural heritage.Legends and myths shared and remembered by an indigenous tribe.
    Mnemonic DevicesEmploys mnemonic techniques like rhyme, rhythm, and repetition to aid memory and facilitate the transmission of complex narratives.Traditional chants used to remember tribal histories.
    Cultural PreservationPlays a vital role in preserving a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and identity, passing them down through generations.Oral traditions preserving indigenous cultural practices.
    Performance ContextOften performed in specific contexts, featuring skilled storytellers or performers who enhance the impact of the oral transmission.Griots recounting tribal history through storytelling and music.
    Dynamic NatureAcknowledges the evolution of oral traditions over time, adapting to changes in cultural, social, and historical contexts.Folklore adapting to reflect contemporary societal concerns.
    Oral-Literate InterfaceExplores the interplay between oral and written communication forms, considering their influence on each other within a culture.Folk tales recorded in written form without losing their oral essence.
    Contextual InterpretationRelies on the performance context, with listeners actively engaging in the interpretation of oral narratives to derive meaning.Audience participation in interpreting local legends during ceremonies.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
    2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
    3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
    4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
    5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
    6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
    7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
    8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.
    9. Tedlock, Dennis. Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians. Bison Books, 1972.
    10. Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. Routledge, 1965.

    Ontological Criticism in Literature

    Detractors assert that ontological criticism in literature places an excessive emphasis on philosophy, sometimes at the expense of the literary aspects of a work.

    Introduction: Ontological Criticism in Literature

    Ontological criticism in literature, deeply rooted in existential philosophy, engages with profound questions concerning the essence of human existence and the pivotal choices individuals make within the context of literary narratives.

    This critical approach prioritizes the exploration of existential themes, such as the fundamental inquiries into the nature of being, the exercise of freedom, and the pursuit of authenticity.

    Moreover, it rigorously examines the authenticity of characters’ choices, often within the framework of societal norms, thereby illuminating their inner conflicts related to identity and the quest for meaning.

    Ontological criticism underscores the nuanced portrayal of the human experience, emphasizing emotions of alienation, isolation, and the relentless pursuit of significance. By adeptly applying a philosophical lens to literary analysis, this approach reveals profound philosophical implications within the narratives it scrutinizes, ultimately urging a critical reflection on the intricate tapestry of existence woven throughout literature.

    Criticism Against Ontological Criticism
    1. Overemphasis on Philosophy: Detractors assert that ontological criticism in literature places an excessive emphasis on philosophy, sometimes at the expense of the literary aspects of a work. This approach often prioritizes abstract philosophical concepts over the narrative, character development, and other literary elements.
    2. Simplification of Literature: Some contend that ontological criticism in literature tends to oversimplify the complexities of literary texts by reducing them to existential themes. This reductionist approach may overlook the rich layers of meaning and symbolism present in literature.
    3. Neglect of Cultural and Historical Context: Critics argue that ontological criticism in literature often neglects the cultural and historical context in which a literary work is situated. Focusing solely on existential themes can lead to a narrow interpretation that disregards the broader social, political, and cultural influences on the text.
    4. One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Ontological criticism in literature relies heavily on existential philosophy, which may not be suitable for all types of literature. Critics assert that this approach may not effectively analyze works from diverse genres and cultural backgrounds, as not all literature is concerned with existential questions.
    5. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some argue that ontological criticism in literature does not adequately consider the author’s intent when interpreting a text. Critics claim that this approach may impose philosophical interpretations on works that the author did not intend or may have had different thematic goals in mind.
    6. Potential for Overlooking Alternative Interpretations: Critics contend that ontological criticism in literature may limit the range of possible interpretations by focusing narrowly on existential themes. This could lead to the neglect of alternative interpretations that consider different literary and thematic dimensions.
    7. Lack of Practical Application: Detractors argue that ontological criticism in literature can be overly theoretical and may not offer practical insights or contribute significantly to understanding a literary work’s cultural or societal relevance.
    8. Difficulty in Accessibility: Some critics suggest that ontological criticism in literature’s heavy reliance on philosophical concepts and terminology can make it inaccessible to a broader readership and limit its applicability in educational settings.
    Examples of Ontological Criticism
    1. The Road by Cormac McCarthy (2006):
      • In this post-apocalyptic novel, a father and his young son traverse a desolate, ashen landscape stripped of humanity. Ontological criticism examines their harrowing journey as they confront the bleakness of existence while seeking survival. The father’s unwavering determination and the boy’s innocence in the face of a grim world become focal points for existential analysis.
    2. The Stranger by Harlan Coben (2015):
      • In this contemporary thriller, the protagonist, a detective named Adam Price, becomes embroiled in a complex mystery when he learns a disturbing secret about his wife. Ontological criticism analyzes Adam’s quest for truth, the unraveling of his identity as a husband and father, and the moral dilemmas he faces as he dives deeper into the enigma that challenges the very core of his existence.
    3. The Buried Giant by Kazuo Ishiguro (2015):
      • Set in a mythical, post-Arthurian Britain, this novel follows an elderly couple, Axl and Beatrice, who embark on a journey to visit their estranged son. Ontological criticism delves into the couple’s relationship, their hazy memories, and the collective amnesia that shrouds the land. The story becomes a canvas for exploring the nature of memory, identity, and the existential implications of a society that forgets its past.
    4. Lincoln in the Bardo by George Saunders (2017):
      • This experimental novel unfolds in a cemetery where the spirit of Abraham Lincoln’s deceased son, Willie, resides in the “bardo,” a transitional state between life and afterlife. Ontological criticism examines the spectral characters’ experiences in this liminal space, their existential crises, and how their existence challenges conventional perceptions of life, death, and the afterlife. The novel offers a unique perspective on the existential journey of these otherworldly beings.
    5. The Memory Police by Yoko Ogawa (2019):
      • In a dystopian society, a novelist and her editor grapple with the oppressive regime’s mandate to forget certain objects and concepts. Ontological criticism applies to this world of enforced oblivion, where characters confront the erosion of memory and identity. The novel raises profound questions about the nature of existence, individuality, and the power of memory in shaping one’s sense of self.
    Keywords in Ontological Criticism in Literature
    1. Existentialism: A philosophical movement that emphasizes the individual’s experience and freedom in an inherently meaningless or absurd world.
    2. Authenticity: The quality of being true to one’s own nature, values, and beliefs; often explored in literature through characters’ actions and choices.
    3. Absurdity: The concept that human existence lacks inherent meaning or purpose, often explored in literature to convey the sense of life’s futility.
    4. Freedom: The capacity for individuals to make choices independently of external influences, a central theme in existential literature.
    5. Identity: The distinctive characteristics and sense of self that define an individual; often examined in literature in relation to characters’ struggles with self-discovery.
    6. Alienation: A feeling of isolation or estrangement from oneself, others, or society, frequently explored in literature to depict characters’ disconnection from the world.
    7. Responsibility: The moral obligation of individuals to make choices and take actions in an existence devoid of predetermined meaning; a recurring theme in existentialist literature.
    8. Individualism: The emphasis on the uniqueness and autonomy of the individual, often examined in literature to portray characters who challenge societal norms.
    9. Communication: The process of conveying thoughts, ideas, and emotions, often examined in literature to highlight the limitations of language in expressing existential experiences.
    10. Nihilism: The belief that life lacks inherent value or meaning, often explored in literature to depict characters who grapple with nihilistic perspectives.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers, Hill and Wang, 2013.
    2. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage International, 1991.
    3. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
    4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
    5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
    6. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
    7. Saunders, George. Lincoln in the Bardo. Random House, 2017.
    8. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

    Ontological Criticism aka Ontological Critique

    Ontological criticism is based on the belief that literary works are not simply linguistic constructs, but are instead complex, dynamic entities that have their own being and existence.

    Introduction: Ontological Criticism

    Ontological criticism, also known as ontological literary criticism, is a type of literary theory that focuses on the question of being and existence as it pertains to literature.

    The term “ontological” is derived from the Greek word “ontos,” which means “being.” Ontological criticism attempts to understand how literature and language function as forms of being and existence in the world, rather than simply as representations or reflections of reality. It is concerned with how literature and language create, shape, and reveal different kinds of realities, and how they interact with the human experience of existence.

    Ontological criticism is based on the belief that literary works are not simply linguistic constructs, but are instead complex, dynamic entities that have their own being and existence. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the fundamental nature of literary works, including their ontology to fully appreciate their meaning and significance. It also emphasizes the importance of examining how literature and language create and reflect different aspects of reality, and how they relate to the human experience of existence.

    Ontological Criticism: Origin, Theorists, Work and Arguments
    Origin of Ontological Criticism:
    • Emerged in the mid-20th century as a branch of literary criticism.
    • Developed as a response to structuralism and formalism.
    • Rooted in philosophical ontology, which deals with the nature of being and existence.
    Prominent Theorists of Ontological Criticism:
    1. Martin Heidegger:
      • A German philosopher who greatly influenced ontological criticism.
      • His work on existentialism and ontology laid the foundation for this approach in literary criticism.
      • Notable works include Being and Time.
    2. Jean-Paul Sartre:
      • A French existentialist philosopher.
      • Applied existentialist ideas to literary analysis, emphasizing human existence and the choices individuals make.
      • Existentialism is a Humanism is one of his influential texts.
    3. Albert Camus:
      • An Algerian-French philosopher and writer.
      • Known for his exploration of the absurdity of human existence.
      • Works like The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus are central to ontological criticism.
    4. Friedrich Nietzsche:
      • A German philosopher who questioned traditional values and morality.
      • His ideas about the will to power and the eternal recurrence influenced existentialist thought.
      • Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil are key texts.
    5. Gabriel Marcel:
      • A French existentialist philosopher.
      • Explored the nature of human existence and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
      • Being and Having and The Mystery of Being are relevant to ontological criticism.
    Key Works in Ontological Criticism:
    1. Being and Time by Martin Heidegger:
      • Central to the development of ontological criticism.
      • Explores the concept of “Dasein” (human being) and its relation to being-in-the-world.
      • Influenced subsequent discussions of existence in literature.
    2. The Stranger by Albert Camus:
      • A novel that exemplifies the absurdity of human existence.
      • The protagonist, Meursault, embodies existential themes of indifference and detachment.
    3. No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre:
      • A play that delves into the existential concept of “hell is other people.”
      • Characters confront their actions and their impact on each other, emphasizing the idea of human responsibility.
    4. The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus:
      • A philosophical essay that explores the absurdity of life and the concept of the “absurd hero.”
      • Discusses the idea of living authentically in the face of a meaningless universe.
    5. Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche:
      • Nietzsche’s work challenges traditional values and morality.
      • The concept of the “Übermensch” (overman or superman) reflects existentialist themes of individualism and self-creation.
    Main Arguments in Ontological Criticism:
    1. Existentialism in Literature:
      • Ontological criticism emphasizes the exploration of existential themes in literature.
      • It examines how characters grapple with questions of existence, freedom, and choice.
    2. Authenticity and Inauthenticity:
      • Heavily influenced by Heidegger’s ideas, ontological criticism delves into the authenticity of characters and their choices.
      • It explores how characters either embrace their authentic selves or succumb to inauthenticity, often driven by societal norms.
    3. Human Experience and Alienation:
      • Ontological criticism analyzes how literature portrays the human experience, including feelings of alienation, isolation, and the search for meaning.
      • It delves into how characters confront the absurdity of existence.
    4. Freedom and Responsibility:
      • Building on Sartre’s philosophy, ontological criticism examines the concept of radical freedom.
      • It explores how characters’ choices and actions reveal their sense of responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.
    5. Language and Communication:
      • This approach also considers the limitations of language and communication in conveying existential experiences.
      • It looks at how language may fail to capture the depth of human existence.
    Principals of Ontological Criticism

    Ontological criticism provides a philosophical lens through which literary works are analyzed, emphasizing the fundamental questions of human existence and the choices individuals make in the face of an often uncertain and absurd world.

    PrincipalExplanationExample
    Existential ExplorationOntological criticism prioritizes the examination of existential themes in literature, including questions of existence, freedom, and choice.Analyzing how a character’s choices reflect their existential struggle.
    Authenticity and InauthenticityThe approach delves into the authenticity of characters and their choices, often influenced by societal norms. It assesses whether characters embrace their authentic selves or succumb to inauthenticity.Examining a character’s decision to conform to societal expectations versus staying true to themselves.
    Human Experience EmphasisOntological criticism focuses on how literature portrays the human experience, including feelings of alienation, isolation, and the search for meaning.Analyzing how a protagonist’s sense of isolation shapes their actions and worldview.
    Freedom and ResponsibilityBuilding on Sartre’s philosophy, it explores the concept of radical freedom in literary works. It examines how characters’ choices and actions reveal their sense of responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.Investigating a character’s moral choices when no external rules dictate their behavior.
    Language and Communication LimitsThis approach considers the limitations of language and communication in conveying existential experiences. It analyzes how language may fall short in capturing the depth of human existence.Exploring how the inadequacy of words in describing profound experiences can create tension in a story.
    Influence of Philosophical ThinkersOntological criticism draws heavily from the works of existentialist philosophers like Heidegger, Sartre, Camus, Nietzsche, and Marcel. It applies their philosophical insights to literary analysis.Identifying traces of existentialist philosophy in a novel’s themes and character development.
    Absurdity and Authentic LivingThe concept of absurdity in human existence is a key focus. It explores how characters confront the absurdity of life and the possibility of living authentically in a meaningless universe.Analyzing how a character grapples with the apparent meaninglessness of their actions.
    Individualism and Self-CreationOntological criticism examines the theme of individualism and self-creation, often associated with Nietzsche’s idea of the Übermensch (overman or superman).Evaluating how a character’s choices reflect their efforts to transcend societal norms and create their identity.
    Interpersonal RelationshipsThe importance of interpersonal relationships in shaping human existence is considered. It explores how characters’ interactions with others impact their choices and sense of self.Studying how a character’s relationships influence their decisions and self-discovery.
    Critical Reflection on Social NormsThis approach encourages a critical reflection on societal norms and values that may influence characters’ decisions. It assesses the tension between societal expectations and authentic living.Examining how societal pressure affects a character’s moral dilemmas and choices.
    Philosophical Lens in Literary AnalysisOntological criticism provides a philosophical lens through which literary works are analyzed. It seeks to uncover deeper philosophical meanings within literature.Interpreting a novel in light of existentialist philosophy to reveal underlying philosophical themes.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
    2. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
    3. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage, 1991.
    4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
    5. MacDonald, Paul S., editor. The Existentialist Reader: An Anthology of Key Texts. Routledge, 2000.
    6. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. Translated by Matthew Ward, Vintage International, 1989.
    7. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
    8. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 2003.

    Narrative Theory aka Literary Theory

    Narrative Theory is an analytical framework that explores the structural, thematic, and interpretative elements of storytelling within literary works.

    Introduction: Narrative Theory

    Narrative Theory is an analytical framework that explores the structural, thematic, and interpretative elements of storytelling within literary works.

    It delves into the ways narratives are constructed, the roles of characters and plot development, and how readers engage with and interpret stories. Narrative Theory seeks to uncover the underlying principles that govern the art of storytelling, shedding light on the intricacies of narrative discourse and its impact on the meaning and reception of literary texts.

    By examining the interplay between narrative elements, this critical approach enriches our understanding of how narratives function as powerful vehicles for conveying meaning, emotions, and cultural messages in literature.

    Principals of Narrative Theory
    PrincipalExplanationExample
    Narrative Structure– Examines the organization of stories, including beginnings, middles, and ends.
    – Analyzes narrative devices like plot, setting, and character development.    		In Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, the narrative structure follows the development of the romantic relationship between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy.
    Narrator and Point of View– Investigates the role of the narrator in shaping the narrative.
    – Considers the reliability and subjectivity of the narrator.    		In The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, the first-person narrator, Holden Caulfield, provides a subjective and unreliable perspective on his experiences.
    Character Development– Explores the growth, evolution, and complexity of characters within the narrative. – Considers how characters contribute to the thematic elements in the narrative theory of literature.In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, the character development of Scout Finch reflects her evolving understanding of racial injustice in her society.
    Plot Dynamics– Analyzes the sequence of events and their significance. – Considers the use of narrative techniques like foreshadowing and flashbacks in the narrative theory of literature.In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the plot dynamics revolve around Jay Gatsby’s pursuit of the American Dream and its tragic consequences.
    Reader Response– Acknowledges readers’ role in constructing meaning and interpretations.
    – Explores emotional and intellectual engagement with the narrative in the narrative theory of literature..    		In 1984 by George Orwell, reader response may vary, with some seeing it as a warning about totalitarianism while others view it as a commentary on surveillance.
    Intertextuality– Recognizes the interconnectedness of narratives with other texts and cultural references.
    – Examines how references enrich the narrative’s meaning.    		In The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot, intertextuality is evident through references to various myths, literary works, and historical events, enhancing the poem’s complexity.
    Genre and Conventions– Studies how narratives adhere to or subvert genre conventions.
    – Considers genre’s impact on narrative choices and reader engagement in the narrative theory of literature.    		In Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, the novel blends elements of gothic fiction and science fiction, challenging genre conventions and exploring ethical dilemmas.
    Meta-Narratives– Explores narratives addressing overarching cultural or societal themes and beliefs.
    – Analyzes how meta-narratives reflect and challenge cultural norms in the narrative theory of literature.    		In Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, the novel serves as a meta-narrative critiquing consumerism and conformity in a dystopian society.
    Criticism Against Narrative Theory in Literature
    1. Overemphasis on Structure: Critics argue that narrative theory places excessive emphasis on the formal structure of a story, potentially neglecting deeper thematic and cultural nuances.
    2. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some scholars contend that narrative theory often sidelines the author’s original intent and creative choices, focusing more on structural analysis.
    3. Limited Cultural Scope: Critics suggest that narrative theory can be culturally biased, with a tendency to prioritize Western literary traditions, overlooking the rich narratives of non-Western cultures.
    4. Reader-Centric Approach: Some argue that narrative theory’s emphasis on reader interpretation may overlook the author’s role in shaping the narrative and the intended message.
    5. Inadequate Consideration of Socio-Political Context: Critics assert that narrative theory may not sufficiently account for the socio-political context in which a narrative is situated, potentially missing important socio-cultural critiques.
    Examples of Narrative Theory in Literature (Critique)
    1. The Night Circus by Erin Morgenstern (2011):
      • Narrative Structure: The novel employs a non-linear narrative structure, jumping between different timelines and perspectives. This use of narrative theory in literature creates a sense of magic and mystery in the storytelling, aligning with theories of narrative structure.
    2. Where the Crawdads Sing by Delia Owens (2018):
      • Character Development: The novel explores the transformation of the protagonist, Kya Clark, from a young, isolated girl into a resilient and independent woman. This character evolution is a key aspect of narrative theory in literature concerning character development.
    3. The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides (2019):
      • Plot Dynamics: The novel uses intricate plot dynamics and unreliable narration to keep readers engaged in solving the mystery. These narrative techniques align with the principles of narrative theory in literature regarding plot construction.
    4. The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates (2019):
      • Meta-Narratives: Coates’ novel addresses themes of slavery, freedom, and memory within the broader context of African American history. It serves as a meta-narrative that reflects and challenges cultural norms, aligning with narrative theory in literature’s exploration of meta-narratives.

    These examples illustrate how narrative theory in literature is applied in recent literature to enhance storytelling, character development, and thematic exploration.

    Keywords in Narrative Theory
    1. Narrator: The person who tells the story.
    2. Point of View: The perspective from which the story is told.
    3. Plot: The events that make up the story.
    4. Characterization: The way a character is presented and developed in the story.
    5. Time: The order and duration of events in the story.
    6. Setting: The time and place in which the story takes place.
    7. Closure: The sense of completeness or resolution at the end of a story.
    8. Focalization: The way the narrator directs the reader’s attention to a particular character or aspect of the story.
    9. Frame narrative: A story within a story.
    10. Intertextuality: The relationship between a text and other texts, both literary and non-literary.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1961.
    2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
    3. Herman, David. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
    4. Phelan, James, and Peter J. Rabinowitz. Understanding Narrative. Ohio State University Press, 2012.
    5. Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

     “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”: Love

    Love is a common theme in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116” by Armitage and Shakespeare respectively.

    Introduction to  “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”

    Love is a common theme in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116” by Armitage and Shakespeare respectively. Sonnet 116 is a sequel of two other sonnets and culminates the definition of love Shakespeare started in his love sonnets. Love has been a theme of several poets before him such as John Donne and others of the metaphysical school, but Shakespeare surpassed all with metaphors and similes he uses for love specifically to demonstrate conjugal love. Sonnet 116 truly explains his idea of love that if it changes, it is not love but something else. This feeling has traveled from Shakespeare to modern writers but during this long journey, several things along with expressions, vocabulary, and realization of the facts have changed. Yet, love has stayed the same. “The Manhunt” by Simon Armitage also explores the same theme that Shakespeare has done and both have concluded the same. “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116” explores the deeper meanings of the permanence of conjugal love in different contexts.

    Love in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”

    Love is permanent and if it is not permanent, it is not love; rather it is just infatuation. Shakespeare is very much clear about it. There is nothing hidden in saying, “

    “Love is not love

    Which alters when it alteration finds,

    Or bends with the remover to remove:”

    (Sonnet 116, 2-4).

    He clearly states that it is not love but something else that changes or alters with time. It does not accept any impediment whether it is of time or society, or anything else. It is like a tempest that takes with it everything that comes its way and “The poem’s ideal is unwavering faith, and it purports to perform its own ideal” (Gregerson). This permanence of love is the same even in modern times. This permanence lies in conjugal life and not just in just simple marriage. However, this permanence is quite different in the modern poem “The Manhunt” although the couple in it is also married, the man has returned from war and his beloved, Laure, is searching for something from his body or better to say from his soul.  Although she touches everything and reaches from the top to the bottom saying “only then could I picture the scan” (Armitage 16) or “buried deep in his mind” (19) and then finally, she has reached the point that she knows “around which every nerve in his body had tightened and closed” (23-24), a point where she has reached his mind and knows what he is feeling about his injuries. This is the culmination of love that Shakespeare has started that there comes no “impediment” (Sonnet 116  2) and Simon has expressed it in modern terms in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”.

    Conjugal Love in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”

    The context of this conjugal love in both the poems is different in that the first is about the simple conjugal love where there is no impediment or at least the poet says there is no impediment and it does not change. During the time of Shakespeare, love was considered everything. In this Sonnet, he said, “It is the star to every wandering bark,/ Whose worth’s unknown” (7-8), and at the end reaches the point saying that it cannot change nor does it alter. He says, “Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,/ But bears it out even to the edge of doom”, while this modern love is hurt and broken like the love himself but it is all the same conjugal love where she has “traced the scarring back to its source” (The Manhunt 20) that went back to before “After the first phase” (1) of their married life. She shares the injuries he bore in the war and this is how she reaches his soul at the end – a sign of her undying love that is the same as of Shakespearean in the last of “Sonnet 116.” However, only the contexts are different. However, despite the difference in contexts, permanence in conjugal life is there in both poems.

    Conclusion

    Summarizing my point, both poets speak about the permanent nature of love that comes with married life in their poems, “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”. Both the poems have supported its permanence through their own way and medium but of course within their own different contexts, but their love is unchanging and unfaltering. It stays the same till the end. However, the difference is that the old love is like the old people – full of sincerity, loyalty, beautiful and smooth but the modern love has become rough and tough like a person who has witnessed the horrors of war and then his beloved discovers it as shown by Simon in his poem. The major point is also of the use of language that has witnessed several variations in reaching from Shakespeare to Simon Armitage and that is very much obvious in the expression of love through similar metaphors and similes.

    Works Cited  
    1. Armitage, Simon. “The Manhunt (Lauras Poem).” n.d. School Portal. <https://www.school-portal.co.uk/GroupHomepage.asp?GroupId=1000644>. Accessed 02 Dec. 2022.
    2. Gregerson, Linda. William Shakespeare Sonnet 116. 27 October 1999. The Atlantic. <http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/unbound/poetry/soundings/shakespeare.htm Accessed 02 Dec. 2022.
    3. Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works of William Shakespeare: With a Life of the Poet. Ed. George Long Duyckinck. Porter & Coates, 1869.
    Relevant Questions about Love in “The Manhunt” and “Sonnet 116”
    1. How does the portrayal of love in “The Manhunt” differ from that in “Sonnet 116”? What are the contrasting perspectives on love and its endurance in these two poems, and how do the poets use language and imagery to convey these differences?
    2. In “Sonnet 116,” Shakespeare speaks of love as an “ever-fixed mark” and “the star to every wandering bark.” How does this idea of love as a steadfast and guiding force compare to the portrayal of love in “The Manhunt,” where it is described as a “blind panic” and “the damaged, porcelain collar-bone”? What insights do these differing representations offer into the nature of love and its effects?
    3. Both poems touch on themes of love’s challenges and resilience. How do the poets explore the idea of love enduring despite obstacles and hardships? What specific examples and imagery do they employ to illustrate the strength of love in the face of adversity, and what messages about love’s power and significance emerge from these explorations?
    Read more on Short Essays below:

    Narrative Theory in Literature

    Narrative Theory, as a literary theory, examines storytelling structures and their significance in English studies.

    Introduction to Narrative Theory

    Narrative Theory, as a literary theory, examines storytelling structures and their significance in English studies. It analyzes plot, character development, point of view, and narrative discourse to understand how narratives shape reader experiences and meanings.

    By exploring narrative forms and techniques, Narrative Theory offers valuable insights into the profound impact of storytelling on culture, cognition, and human communication, making it a crucial tool for literary scholars and critics in English studies.

    Etymology and Meanings of Narrative Theory
    Etymology of Narrative Theory:
    • The term “narrative” derives from the Latin word narrativus, meaning “telling of a story” or “account.”
    • “Theory” comes from the Greek word theoria, denoting “contemplation” or “speculation.”
    Meanings of Narrative Theory:
    • Study of Storytelling: It investigates the structures and elements of storytelling in literary works and other forms of communication.
    • Narrative Elements: It analyzes plot, characters, point of view, and discourse to understand how narratives create meaning and engage readers.
    • Impact on Culture and Cognition: It explores the profound influence of storytelling on human culture, cognition, and communication processes.
    • Relevance in English Studies: It is an essential tool for literary scholars and critics, providing valuable insights into the interpretation and analysis of English literature and texts.
    Narrative Theory and Narratology
    Narrative TheoryNarratology
    Concerned with the study of narrativeA subfield of this theory
    Examines how stories are constructedFocuses on the structure and elements of narrative
    Explores storytelling and its nuancesAnalyzes plot, character, setting, and more
    Considers the broader aspects of narrativesOffers a narrower and more specialized perspective
    Emphasizes understanding the human experiencePart of narrative theory, complementing its scope
    Narrative Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
    Origin of Narrative Theory:
    • Ancient Roots: It is traced back to ancient cultures where storytelling was an integral part of oral traditions.
    • Modern Development: Its formal development and recognition as a field of study began in the 20th century, particularly within literary and film studies.
    Major Theorists in Narrative Theory:
    • Vladimir Propp: Known for his structural analysis of folktales, Propp identified recurring character functions and narrative patterns.
    • Roland Barthes: Introduced concepts like narrative codes and the distinction between story and discourse.
    • Tzvetan Todorov: Explored the concept of narrative equilibrium and the dynamics of narrative disruption and restoration.
    • Gerard Genette: Contributed to the analysis of narrative voice, focalization, and narrative time.
    • Mikhail Bakhtin: Emphasized dialogism and the polyphonic nature of narratives.
    Key Works in Narrative Theory:
    • Morphology of the Folktale by Vladimir Propp (1928): Propp’s work outlined a structural analysis of Russian folktales, identifying 31 functions that characters and events often fulfill in narratives.
    • S/Z by Roland Barthes (1970): In this work, Barthes deconstructed a short story by Balzac, emphasizing the multiplicity of meanings within a narrative.
    • The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre by Tzvetan Todorov (1970): Todorov explored the structure of fantastic narratives and the moment when the reader questions the supernatural.
    • Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method by Gerard Genette (1972): Genette provided a comprehensive framework for analyzing narrative structures and their elements.
    • The Dialogic Imagination by Mikhail Bakhtin (1981): Bakhtin’s work highlighted the dialogic nature of language and storytelling, emphasizing the interaction of multiple voices within narratives.
    Key Arguments in Narrative Theory:
    • Narrative Structure: It examines the organization and structure of stories, including their beginnings, middles, and ends.
    • Narrative Voice: It explores the role of narrators and focalization, considering who tells the story and from what perspective.
    • Narrative Time: Narrative theory analyzes how time is manipulated in narratives, including the use of flashbacks, foreshadowing, and temporal shifts.
    • Narrative Discourse: It focuses on the language and rhetoric of storytelling, considering how narrative techniques influence interpretation.
    • Character and Plot: It delves into the development of characters and plot dynamics, including character arcs and narrative conflict.
    • Reader Response: It acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning and engaging with narratives.
    • Intertextuality: It recognizes how narratives are interconnected with other texts and cultural references.
    • Meta-Narratives: Some narratives explore and challenge overarching cultural or societal narratives.
    Suggested Readings of Narrative Theory
    1. Barthes, Roland. S/Z. Translated by Richard Miller, Hill and Wang, 1974.
    2. Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Edited by Michael Holquist, Translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, University of Texas Press, 1981.
    3. Genette, Gerard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
    4. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. Translated by Laurence Scott, University of Texas Press, 1968.
    5. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre. Translated by Richard Howard, Cornell University Press, 1975.

    Myth Criticism in Literature

    Myth Criticism in literature is a multifaceted analytical approach that explores the intricate relationship between myths and literary works.

    Introduction Myth Criticism in Literature

    Myth Criticism in literature is a multifaceted analytical approach that explores the intricate relationship between myths and literary works. It involves the examination of how myths, often drawn from various cultural and religious traditions, are interwoven into narratives, characters, and symbols within literature. Myth Criticism provides a lens through which scholars and readers can unearth the layers of meaning, archetypal motifs, and universal themes present in literary texts, enriching our understanding of the human experience and the enduring power of mythic storytelling.

    Myth Criticism in literature is also referred to by other names, including:

    1. Mythological Critique: This term underscores the critical analysis of myths and their presence in literary works.
    2. Mythical Analysis: This variant emphasizes the examination of myths within the context of literature.
    3. Mythic Literary Theory: This name highlights the theoretical frameworks used to interpret myths in literature.
    4. Myth and Literature Studies: This broader term encompasses the interdisciplinary exploration of myths within the realm of literature and its various genres.

    These alternative names are used interchangeably to describe the scholarly investigation of the role of myths in literature and their impact on narrative, symbolism, and cultural significance.

    Criticism Against Myth Criticism in Literature
    CriticismExplanation
    1. ReductionismSome scholars argue that myth criticism in literature is reductionist in its interpretation of literary works, reducing complex narratives to archetypal patterns and symbols, potentially oversimplifying the richness of the text.
    2. Cultural BiasCritics contend that myth criticism in literature may favor certain cultural mythologies over others, leading to cultural bias and the neglect of less-known or marginalized mythological traditions.
    3. Neglect of Authorial IntentIt is argued that myth criticism in literature often neglects the author’s original intent and artistic creativity by emphasizing universal archetypes and mythic elements, potentially overlooking the unique and personal aspects of a literary work.
    4. Lack of Empirical EvidenceSome critics assert that myth criticism in literature relies heavily on interpretation and lacks empirical evidence, making it susceptible to subjective and speculative analyses.
    5. Overemphasis on SymbolismCritics suggest that myth criticism in literature tends to place excessive emphasis on symbolism and archetypal patterns, potentially overshadowing other important aspects of literature, such as historical context and social commentary.
    6. Ignoring Diverse InterpretationsSome argue that myth criticism in literature may limit the range of interpretations by focusing primarily on mythic elements, potentially ignoring diverse and alternative readings of literary texts.
    Examples of Myth Criticism in Literature
    WorkCriticism in Literature
    Circe by Madeline Miller (2018)Myth Criticism in Literature:
    Reimagines the story of Circe, a character from Greek mythology, exploring her perspective and character development.
    Delves into the psychological and emotional aspects of Circe’s character, offering a reinterpretation of her role in mythology.
    The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller (2011)Myth Criticism in Literature:
    Explores the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus, characters from Greek mythology, delving into their deep bond.
    Examines the emotional and interpersonal aspects of these mythic characters, shedding light on their complex relationship beyond the epic.
    Anansi Boys by Neil Gaiman (2005)Myth Criticism in Literature:
    Incorporates African and Caribbean folklore and mythology, particularly the character of Anansi, the spider god.
    Modernizes and weaves these mythic elements into a contemporary narrative, exploring the impact of these mythological beings on the human world.
    Circe by H.D. (1919)Myth Criticism in Literature:
    Presents a modernist reinterpretation of the mythological character Circe from Greek mythology.
    Engages in Myth Criticism by using Circe as a symbol to explore themes of transformation, power, and gender dynamics, offering a new perspective on the ancient myth.
    The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus (1942)Myth Criticism in Literature:
    Reflects on the existential absurdity of human existence, drawing on the myth of Sisyphus.
    Employs Myth Criticism to analyze the myth of Sisyphus as a metaphor for the human condition, exploring themes of meaninglessness and the struggle for significance in life.
    Keywords in Myth Criticism in Literature
    1. Archetypes: Universal symbols or patterns that are present in the collective unconscious, and which appear in literature and other forms of cultural expression.
    2. Hero’s Journey: A narrative structure identified by Joseph Campbell, in which a hero embarks on a quest or adventure, overcomes obstacles, and returns home transformed.
    3. Monomyth: A term coined by Joseph Campbell to describe the common themes and motifs found in myths and legends from around the world.
    4. Mythical Themes: Universal themes and motifs that appear in myths and legends, such as the hero’s journey, the creation myth, and the battle between good and evil.
    5. Mythology: The study of myths and legends, and the cultural significance of these stories.
    6. Collective Unconscious: A concept developed by Carl Jung, which refers to the shared reservoir of knowledge and experience that is inherited by all human beings.
    7. Symbolism: The use of symbols and metaphors to represent deeper meanings and ideas.
    8. Cultural Significance: The importance of a literary work within the context of its culture, society, and historical period.
    9. Comparative Mythology: The study of the similarities and differences between myths and legends from different cultures and time periods.
    10. Allegory: A literary device in which characters, events, and settings are used to represent abstract ideas and moral or political messages.
    Suggested Readings
    1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
    2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
    3. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Dell Publishing, 1968.
    4. Leeming, David Adams. Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero. Oxford University Press, 2018.
    5. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Princeton University Press, 1973.
    6. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folk Tale. University of Texas Press, 1968.
    7. Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Dover Publications, 2003.
    8. Segal, Robert A. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.
    9. Von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Shambhala, 1996.
    10. Wood, Juliette. The Heroine’s Journey: Woman’s Quest for Wholeness. Rider, 1990.

    Myth Criticism / Myth Theory

    Myth criticism has ancient roots in the study of myths within cultures, particularly in the fields of anthropology, folklore, and religious studies.

    Introduction to Myth Criticism

    Myth criticism, rooted in the ancient Greek term “mythos,” which signifies stories or narratives with symbolic and often sacred significance, is a scholarly discipline dedicated to the analysis and interpretation of these enduring tales across various cultures and epochs.

    It seeks to uncover the profound cultural, psychological, and archetypal dimensions embedded within myths, shedding light on the ways in which these narratives shape human understanding and beliefs.

    Myth criticism’s etymology underscores its focus on the exploration of narratives that transcend their temporal and cultural origins, offering insights into the universal themes and enduring symbolism that continue to resonate within the human experience.

    Myth Criticism: Origin, Major Theorists, Works and Arguments
    Origin of Myth Criticism
    • Ancient Roots: Myth criticism has ancient roots in the study of myths within cultures, particularly in the fields of anthropology, folklore, and religious studies.
    • Modern Scholarly Discipline: It evolved into a modern scholarly discipline within the realms of literary studies, cultural studies, and comparative mythology.
    Major Theorists in Myth Criticism
    • Carl Jung: Jung’s work on archetypes and the collective unconscious has greatly influenced myth criticism, emphasizing the psychological aspects of myth.
    • Joseph Campbell: Campbell’s theory of the monomyth or the hero‘s journey has been influential in understanding the common structure of myths across cultures.
    • Mircea Eliade: Eliade’s studies on the sacred and profane, as well as his exploration of myth’s role in religious experience, are foundational in myth criticism.
    Key Works in Myth Criticism
    • The Hero with a Thousand Faces by Joseph Campbell: This seminal work explores the archetype of the hero in various myths and cultures.
    • The Masks of God series by Joseph Campbell: This series delves into the mythologies of different world cultures, emphasizing their interconnectedness.
    • The Sacred and the Profane by Mircea Eliade: Eliade’s book discusses the role of myth in shaping religious experiences and the concept of sacred space and time.
    • The Power of Myth by Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers: This influential book and accompanying interviews explore the significance of myth in contemporary society.
    Major Arguments in Myth Criticism
    • Universality of Myths: Myth criticism argues that certain mythic themes and symbols are universal, reflecting shared human experiences and archetypes.
    • Psychological Significance: It emphasizes the psychological significance of myths, suggesting that they serve as mirrors to the human psyche and its collective unconscious.
    • Cultural and Religious Function: Myth criticism posits that myths play essential roles in shaping cultural identity, religious beliefs, and societal values.
    • Interconnectedness of Myths: Scholars in this field argue that myths from different cultures often share underlying structures and themes, illustrating the interrelatedness of human storytelling.
    Principles of Myth Criticism

    The principles of myth criticism involve analyzing literary works based on their underlying myths and archetypes. Here are some of the key principles of myth criticism:

    PrincipleExplanationExample
    1. Archetypal AnalysisMyth criticism utilizes archetypal analysis to identify recurring symbols and themes across different cultures and epochs.For instance, when myth critics analyze the archetype of the “hero” in myths from various cultures, such as King Arthur in Arthurian legends and Hercules in Greek mythology, they reveal a common pattern of heroism that transcends time and place.
    2. Cultural SignificanceMyths are examined for their cultural significance, reflecting the values, beliefs, and identity of a society.An illustrative example is the creation myth of the Cherokee Nation, which explains the origin of their people. This myth reflects the cultural heritage and ancestral connection of the Cherokee people, embodying their collective identity.
    3. Psychological ExplorationMyth criticism explores the psychological dimensions of myths, revealing insights into the human psyche and collective unconscious.A case in point is Carl Jung’s analysis of the “Mother” archetype in myths like Demeter and Persephone. Jung’s exploration showcases how myths can unveil universal human experiences and emotions, offering profound insights into the human psyche.
    4. Comparative ApproachMyths from different cultures are compared to uncover shared narratives and cross-cultural influences.An example of this principle involves comparing the flood myths of the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh and the biblical story of Noah’s Ark. Through this comparison, scholars highlight common themes of divine punishment and renewal found across diverse cultures and traditions.
    5. Function in SocietyMyth criticism considers the societal functions of myths, including their role in shaping religious beliefs, moral values, and social cohesion.An exemplary instance is the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, which serves as a moral and philosophical guide for Hindu society. This epic imparts essential teachings on duty, righteousness, and the consequences of actions, playing a pivotal role in shaping cultural and moral values.
    6. Allegorical InterpretationMyths may be interpreted allegorically to convey deeper philosophical or moral lessons.An illustration of this principle can be found in Plato’s allegorical interpretation of the Cave Myth in “The Republic.” In this context, the Cave Myth symbolizes the journey from ignorance to enlightenment, serving as a powerful allegory for the pursuit of knowledge and enlightenment.
    Suggested Readings about Myth Criticism
    1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
    2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
    3. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Dell Publishing, 1968.
    4. Leeming, David Adams. Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero. Oxford University Press, 2018.
    5. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Princeton University Press, 1973.
    6. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folk Tale. University of Texas Press, 1968.
    7. Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Dover Publications, 2003.
    8. Segal, Robert A. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.
    9. Von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Shambhala, 1996.
    10. Wood, Juliette. The Heroine’s Journey: Woman’s Quest for Wholeness. Rider, 1990.