Day: March 17, 2024

Introduction: “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

This poignant short story “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston was published in 1926 within the single issue of the influential Harlem Renaissance literary magazine Fire!!. Known for its rich depiction of Southern African American life and Hurston’s distinctive use of dialect, the story explores themes of gender inequality, resilience, and the complex power dynamics within a troubled marriage. Delia, the hardworking washerwoman protagonist, endures years of abuse at the hands of her cruel and unfaithful husband, Sykes. The story unfolds with a vivid, almost folkloric quality, delving into the symbolism of snakes, the relentless grind of labor, and Delia’s ultimate act of defiance in the face of oppression.

Main Events in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. Delia is verbally abused by her husband, Sykes. He scares her with a bullwhip, mocks her fear of snakes, and forces her to sort the white folks’ laundry in her house.
2. Delia stands up to Sykes. She refuses to be intimidated and talks about how he doesn’t contribute to the home but lives off of her hard work from washing clothes.
3. Sykes leaves and brings home a mistress. He flaunts his new relationship with Bertha.
4. Sykes continues to disrespect their home. He disregards Delia’s objections to keeping laundry in the house and undermines her values.
5. Local townspeople gossip about Sykes. They criticize his treatment of Delia and open relationship with Bertha, expressing sympathy for Delia.
6. Sykes brings home a rattlesnake. He deliberately tries to terrorize Delia by keeping it in a box by the kitchen.
7. Delia expresses her hatred of Sykes. She stands up for herself, saying her love has turned to hate, and she’ll no longer tolerate his abuse.
8. Sykes brags about his new mistress. He continually degrades Delia’s appearance and tells her he can’t wait to get rid of her.
9. Delia confronts the snake. She bravely lights her way into the bedroom to sort laundry and is horrified to find the snake now loose in the hamper.
10. Delia flees the house and hides. She escapes to the hayloft in terror, eventually gathering her strength and resolve.
11. Sykes returns and demolishes the snake’s box. Delia hears this from her hiding place.
12. Delia witnesses Sykes being bitten by the snake. She hears the struggle, the horrific screams, and watches him desperately trying to escape the bedroom.
13. Sykes calls for Delia’s help. He pleads desperately, knowing only she might be able to save him.
14. Delia refuses to help. She knows it is too late and that helping him would go against everything she now believes.
15. Sykes dies from the snakebite. Delia waits, knowing he is dying a slow, agonizing death, and feels only relief.

Literary Devices in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. Allusion: References to external ideas or texts to add meaning.

• Biblical Allusions: Sykes mistreating Delia and his eventual punishment evoke the story of Adam and Eve and the concept of reaping what you sow. “Whut’s de mattah, ol’ satan, you aint kickin’ up yo’ racket?” (Hurston).

2. Dialect: The use of regional, non-standard English to represent the authentic speech patterns of the characters.

• Southern African American Dialect: “Ah hates you tuh de same degree dat Ah useter love yuh.” (Hurston).

3. Foreshadowing: Hints of events to come, creating suspense.

• Sykes bringing a rattlesnake home: “He set it down carefully beside the wash-tub and stepped back respectfully but not hastily” (Hurston). This foreshadows his eventual demise.

4. Hyperbole: Intentional exaggeration for emphasis:

• Delia’s workload: “Sweat, sweat, sweat! Work and sweat, cry and sweat, pray and sweat!” (Hurston).

5. Imagery: Vivid language appealing to the senses:

• The Chinaberry tree: “A great tree that threw off cool, pungent odors…Delia used to sit there…a long time after Sykes had gone” (Hurston). Represents Delia’s peace and hope.

6. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality:

• Sykes’ Death: Sykes intended to use the snake to torment and kill Delia. Instead, he is the one who dies in a horribly ironic twist.

7. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas near each other for emphasis:

• Delia and Sykes: Delia is hardworking and virtuous, while Sykes is lazy and immoral. Their differences are highlighted throughout the story.

8. Metaphor: A direct comparison between unlike things:

• Sykes’ comparison to the snake: “He is a snake in the grass” is an implied metaphor throughout the story, associating him with evil and treachery.

9. Motif: A recurring element that reinforces a theme:

• Sweat: Symbolizes Delia’s labor, suffering, and strength.

10. Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth.

• Delia witnessing Sykes’ death: She is horrified by his suffering, yet feels both a “glorious independence” and the fear it brings (Hurston).

11. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things:

• Of the house: “Her house…had crouched down to shelter the space” (Hurston).

12. Repetition: Repeating words or phrases for emphasis:

• “Sweat, sweat, sweat!”: Drives home the magnitude of Delia’s hardship.

13. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as”:

• Delia’s fear: “[Her voice] small like a frightened child’s” (Hurston).

14. Symbolism: Objects or actions representing ideas or concepts:

• The snake: Represents evil, corruption, and ultimately Sykes himself.

15. Understatement: Deliberately underplaying the significance of something for effect.

• Delia’s relief at Sykes’ death: “…she sobbed and subbed until she had no more tears left to fall” (Hurston). Though understated, her response implies deep relief after years of abuse.

Characterization in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Major Characters

• Delia Jones:
  • Hardworking and Resilient: Her primary characteristic is her tireless work ethic as a washerwoman, even in oppressive Florida heat. “She squatted in the kitchen floor beside the great pile of clothes…Sweat, sweat, sweat!” (Hurston).
  • Religious: Initially, Delia is deeply religious, seeking solace in prayer and church. “[She] raced down the road to the church” (Hurston). This faith is later challenged by Sykes’ cruelty.
  • Transformation: While starting as timid and fearful, Delia gains strength against Sykes’ abuse. In the climax, she refuses to help him, leading indirectly to his death, “[She] could scarcely reach the Chinaberry tree, where she waited in the growing heat while inside she knew the cold river was creeping up and up to extinguish that eye which must know by now that she knew” (Hurston).
• Sykes Jones:
  • Cruel and Abusive: Sykes’ sadistic behavior defines him. He frightens Delia with the snake, flaunts his mistress Bertha, beats her, and tries to kill her. He represents toxic masculinity.
  • Lazy and Entitled: He refuses to work, living off Delia’s labor. This sense of entitlement fuels his belief he can treat her in any way.
  • Symbolic Death: His death by his own snake isn’t just ironic; it symbolizes how the evil he inflicted was his own undoing.

Minor Characters

• Bertha: Sykes’ mistress. She’s mostly symbolic, representing his brazen disregard for Delia and the community’s acceptance of his infidelity. Her physical size reinforces her power over Sykes in their relationship.
• The Village Men: They sit on Joe Clarke’s porch gossiping. They’re not active in the plot, but serve several roles:
  • Highlighting Gender Dynamics: Their comments about Delia and Sykes showcase the ingrained sexism of the community.
  • Establishing Community: They give a sense of a small-town where everyone knows each other’s business.
  • External Judgement: Their disapproval of Sykes creates a sense of social justice, even if they don’t directly intervene on Delia’s behalf.

Character Analysis Note

Zora Neale Hurston avoids painting fully “good” or “bad” characters. Delia is strong, yet her initial fear is understandable. Sykes, monstrous as he is, evokes pity on some level for being trapped in his own cycle of cruelty

Major Themes in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Theme	Explanation	Textual References
The Destructiveness of Abuse	The story explores domestic violence’s physical and psychological toll on victims.	* Sykes’ physical cruelty: “Sykes knocked her down and dragged her over to the stove” (Hurston). * Delia’s psychological torment: “Sweat rolling down her face and neck. Sweat soaking her clothes…she kept throwing scared glances at the snake…” (Hurston).
The Struggle for Independence	Delia’s journey is about breaking free from oppression and claiming agency over her life.	* Work as a double-edged sword: “Work and sweat, cry and sweat, pray and sweat!” (Hurston). Labor is her burden, but also empowers her. * Refusal to save Sykes: “…she lay there…till she thought she felt his last drawn breath” (Hurston). Demonstrates her newfound strength.
Good vs. Evil	The story presents a clash between morality and wickedness, but with nuanced outcomes.	* Delia’s goodness vs. Sykes’ cruelty: Their contrasting characters are established throughout. * Biblical allusions: Sykes as the snake and his death evoke ideas of sin and retribution.
Gender Roles and Societal Expectations	The story exposes gendered power dynamics and the community’s complicated attitudes regarding them.	* Delia’s work: Washes clothes (traditionally women’s labor), yet supports them financially. * Men of the village: Gossip but don’t actively intervene, even though they dislike Sykes. * Bertha: Represents social acceptance of male infidelity.

Writing Style in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Vivid Dialect Reflects Roots (Ref: Dialogue throughout the story)
  • Hurston utilizes Southern African American dialect to showcase the characters’ heritage and add authenticity to the setting.
  • Examples: “Ah hates you tuh de same degree dat Ah useter love yuh.” (Hurston).
• Striking Imagery Paints a Picture (Ref: Descriptions throughout the story)
  • Hurston’s evocative descriptions bring the physical world and characters’ emotions to life.
  • Example: “The sweat beaded on her temples and ran down her face in streaks…Her arms were slick and wet…” (Hurston).
• Symbolism Unveils Deeper Meanings (Ref: Snake, Washerwoman)
  • Symbolic elements add layers of meaning to the story’s themes.
  • The snake represents evil and Sykes’ destructive nature (Ref: “He set it down carefully beside the wash-tub…” (Hurston)).
  • Delia, the washerwoman, embodies strength and resilience (Ref: “Sweat, sweat, sweat! Work and sweat…” (Hurston)).
• Shifting Perspectives Offer Insight (Ref: Narrative shifts)
  • The story transitions between Delia and Sykes’ perspectives, providing a well-rounded understanding of their motivations.
• Powerful Language Creates Impact (Ref: Overall Tone)
  • Hurston’s masterful use of language and imagery creates a powerful and moving story.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theory	Explanation	Textual References
Feminist Criticism	Examines power structures and representation of women, often challenging the status quo.	* Delia’s struggle against abuse: Sykes’ violence highlights domestic violence as a systemic issue (Hurston). * Gendered labor: Delia’s washing work supports them financially, subverting traditional gender roles (Hurston). * Triumph over evil: Delia’s survival and Sykes’ death could be seen as a symbolic victory against patriarchal oppression (Hurston).
African American Literary Criticism	Focuses on works by Black authors, highlighting their experiences and cultural perspectives.	* Dialect and community: Authentic portrayal of Southern Black speech patterns and the dynamics within a rural Black community (Hurston). * Black female voice: Elevates Delia’s story of resilience and resistance as unique to her Black female experience (Hurston).
Marxist Criticism	Analyzes literature through a class-conscious lens, looking at economic exploitation and power imbalances.	* Labor exploitation: Delia’s hard work profits Sykes, reflecting a class divide and how capitalism intersects with domestic exploitation (Hurston). * Lack of worker solidarity: Though the village men disapprove of Sykes, they don’t take concrete action to help Delia. This points to the limitations of community compassion when social structures are unequal (Hurston).
New Historicism	Considers the historical context of a text and its relationship to social and political forces of the time.	* Post-slavery gender dynamics: While Delia gains some agency, the story was written in the 1920s, still within a world shaped by Reconstruction’s failures and Jim Crow’s rise (Hurston). * Emergence of the Harlem Renaissance: Hurston was part of this literary movement celebrating Black culture. “Sweat” offers a parallel, rural, and less idealized view of Black life (Hurston).

Questions about “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

• How does Hurston use symbolism to portray the theme of oppression in “Sweat”?
• Thesis: Through the use of symbolic imagery such as the snake and the white clothes, Zora Neale Hurston conveys the theme of oppression and the struggle for liberation in “Sweat.”
• In what ways does “Sweat” reflect the historical experiences of African Americans in the rural South during the early 20th century?
• Thesis: Zora Neale Hurston’s “Sweat” provides a window into the social and economic realities of African Americans living in the rural South during the early 20th century, highlighting the effects of racial and gender oppression on their lives.
• How does the portrayal of gender roles in “Sweat” reflect the broader societal expectations placed on women during this time period?
• Thesis: Zora Neale Hurston’s “Sweat” depicts the struggles faced by women who were expected to conform to traditional gender roles and highlights the ways in which patriarchal oppression impacted their lives.
• What is the significance of the setting in “Sweat” and how does it contribute to the themes of the story?
• Thesis: Through the portrayal of the rural Southern setting in “Sweat,” Zora Neale Hurston conveys the cultural and historical context of the story, highlighting the challenges faced by African Americans living in this region during this time period.

Short Question-Answer “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Question 1: How does the setting of “Sweat” contribute to its exploration of key themes?
• Answer: The rural Florida setting underscores themes of isolation and vulnerability. Delia’s entrapment within an abusive relationship is amplified by the lack of external support systems. The oppressive heat mirrors the suffocating atmosphere of her marriage. The community’s passive judgment reinforces the limited options available to women in her situation.
• Question 2: What is the most significant symbol in “Sweat” and how does it function?
• Answer: The snake is the most potent symbol. It embodies both Sykes’ malicious nature and the pervasive evil of domestic abuse. Its presence foreshadows his demise and serves as a reminder of the insidious ways violence can infiltrate the most intimate spaces.
• Question 3: In what ways does Delia exercise agency within the story?
• Answer: Despite the abuse she endures, Delia demonstrates agency through her industriousness and financial independence. Her transformation is marked by a growing defiance of Sykes, culminating in the morally complex decision to withhold aid. This act, while chilling, signifies an assertion of self-preservation in a desperate situation.
• Question 4: What are the literary functions of Hurston’s use of dialect in “Sweat”?
• Answer: Zora Neale Hurston’s use of dialect serves multiple purposes. It provides authenticity and depth to the characters, grounding them in their regional and cultural identity. Additionally, during the Harlem Renaissance, it was a form of literary preservation, celebrating the richness and nuance of Black vernacular.

Literary Works Similar to “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Fiction:

• “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: This short story explores themes of female confinement within patriarchal structures and the psychological unraveling that can result.
• The Color Purple by Alice Walker: This novel delves into themes of domestic abuse, the resilience of the human spirit, and the transformative power of female bonds within the context of Black Southern life.
• Short Stories by Flannery O’Connor: O’Connor’s works share Hurston’s Southern Gothic sensibility, often featuring flawed characters facing moral dilemmas, with elements of violence and unexpected twists.

Non-Fiction:

• Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston: Hurston’s acclaimed novel explores themes of identity, love, and female agency within the Black experience, providing a counterpoint to the domestic oppression depicted in “Sweat”.
• Dust Tracks on a Road by Zora Neale Hurston: This autobiography offers insights into Hurston’s personal experiences, cultural influences, and perspectives, which shaped her storytelling style and thematic focus.

Poetry:

• Works by Langston Hughes: A leading voice of the Harlem Renaissance, Hughes’ poetry celebrates Black vernacular and explores a range of experiences reflecting Black life in America, often expressing themes of struggle, resilience, and cultural pride.

Suggested Readings: “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Scholarly Articles

• Bell, Bernard W. “Folk Art and the Harlem Renaissance.” The Massachusetts Review, vol. 31, no. 1/2, 1990, pp. 295–309. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/25090100. Explores Hurston’s use of folklore and its connection to broader artistic and cultural movements.
• Meisenhelder, Susan. “The Whole Picture in Hurston’s ‘Sweat’.” American Literature, vol. 52, no. 4, Duke University Press, 1980, pp. 613–19. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2925498.
  • Provides in-depth analysis of the story’s narrative structure, symbolism, and thematic complexity.
• Willis, Susan. “Eruptions of Funk: Historicizing Zora Neale Hurston.” Black American Literature Forum, vol. 16, no. 1, 1982, pp. 34–41. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3041623.
  • Situates Hurston’s work, including “Sweat,” within the broader context of African American literary history and critical debates.

Anthology with Critical Introduction

• Gates, Henry Louis Jr., and Nellie Y. McKay, editors. “Sweat.” The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. 3rd ed., W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 2014, pp 1497-1505.
  • Contains the text of the story alongside insightful critical commentary by leading scholars.

Additional Resources

• Lester, Neal A. “Images of the Folk in Zora Neale Hurston’s ‘Sweat’.” Teaching American Literature: A Journal of Theory and Practice, vol. 3, no 2, 2010.
  • Examines Hurston’s portrayal of community and Southern Black culture within the story.
• Voices from the Gaps: Zora Neale Hurston. University of Minnesota. voices.cla.umn.edu/vg/Bios/entries/hurston_zora_neale.html.
  • Provides biographical information, critical essays, and access to primary source materials related to Hurston’s life and work.

Introduction: “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

“Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling initially appeared in 1894 within his renowned collection, The Jungle Book. The short story centers on Rikki-tikki-tavi, a courageous mongoose who fearlessly protects a human family residing in India, and their garden, from the sinister cobras Nag and Nagaina. Kipling’s writing is notable for its rich depictions of the Indian landscape, the use of anthropomorphism to imbue animal characters with human-like qualities, and the timeless theme of good versus evil. These elements contribute to the enduring appeal of “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi.

Main Events in “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

1. Rikki-tikki’s Arrival: A summer flood washes Rikki-tikki, a young mongoose, from his burrow (“…a high summer flood washed him out of the burrow where he lived with his father and mother…”). A British family residing in the Segowlee cantonment in India discovers him, takes him in, and nurses him back to health.
2. Encounter with Nag: Rikki-tikki meets Nag, a large and intimidating cobra, in the garden (“…from the thick grass at the foot of the bush there came a low hiss—a horrid cold sound that made Rikki-tikki jump back two clear feet.”). Nag presents himself as a powerful figure, marked by Brahma.
3. Protecting Teddy: Rikki-tikki bravely defends Teddy, the family’s son, from Karait, a deadly dust-brown snakeling (“Just as Teddy was stooping, something wriggled a little in the dust, and a tiny voice said: ‘Be careful. I am Death!’ It was Karait…”).
4. Nagaina’s Plot: Rikki-tikki eavesdrops on Nag and Nagaina’s evil scheme to eliminate the human family and claim the garden (“When the house is emptied of people…he will have to go away, and then the garden will be our own again.”).
5. The Bathroom Battle: Nag slithers into the bathroom, intending to kill Teddy’s father. Rikki-tikki engages Nag in a ferocious fight, ultimately gripping Nag’s head and refusing to let go despite being battered about (“…as his teeth met, Rikki braced his back against the bulge of the red earthenware to hold down the head.”). The father ends Nag’s life with his shotgun.
6. Nagaina’s Eggs: Guided by Darzee the tailorbird, Rikki-tikki locates Nagaina’s hidden clutch of eggs and destroys nearly all of them to prevent the birth of new cobras (“There, in the warm litter above the melons, very cunningly hidden, he found twenty-five eggs…”).
7. The Final Confrontation: Seeking revenge, Nagaina enters the house and threatens Teddy and his parents. Rikki-tikki bravely confronts her, using the last egg to lure her away (“Nagaina spun clear round, forgetting everything for the sake of the one egg. Rikki-tikki saw Teddy’s father shoot out a big hand, catch Teddy by the shoulder, and drag him across the little table…”).
8. Underground Battle: Rikki-tikki chases Nagaina into her rat-hole lair, and a desperate battle ensues in the darkness (“…he went down with her—and very few mongooses, however wise and old they may be, care to follow a cobra into its hole.”). He emerges covered in dirt, signifying his victory over Nagaina.
9. Hero of the Garden: Rikki-tikki is hailed as a hero and protector. He becomes an integral part of the family and ensures the safety of the garden from future snake threats.

Literary Devices in “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

1. Allegory: The story functions as an allegory for good versus evil, with Rikki-tikki representing courage and righteousness, while Nag and Nagaina embody wickedness and treachery.
2. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds creates emphasis and rhythm:
   • “Rikki-tikk-tikki-tikki-tchk!” (Rikki-tikki’s war cry)
   • “Darzee, the Tailorbird” (repetition of the ‘D’ sound)
3. Anthropomorphism: Animals are given human-like qualities and motivations:
   • Nag and Nagaina conspire to kill the human family.
   • Darzee and his wife mourn the loss of their fledgling.
4. Foreshadowing: Hints of upcoming events create suspense:
   • Chuchundra the muskrat warns, “Nag is everywhere, Rikki-tikki.”
5. Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis:
   • Rikki-tikki’s tail fluffs up “till it looked like a bottle brush.”
6. Imagery: Vivid language appeals to the senses:
   • “A big man picked him up between his finger and thumb and said he was not dead but half choked.”
7. Metaphor: Comparisons without using “like” or “as”:
   • Rikki-tikki’s eyes are described as “pink” and “like hot coals.”
8. Onomatopoeia: Words that imitate sounds:
   • “H’sh!” (Chuchundra’s nervous sound)
9. Oxymoron: Combination of contradictory terms for effect:
   • “…the wicked snake’s eyes that never change their expression…”
10. Pathetic Fallacy: Attribution of human emotions to nature:
    • “…the sorrowful voices in the thorn-bush.” (Darzee and his wife mourn)
11. Personification: Giving non-human things human characteristics:
    • “The moon was shining, and the frogs were croaking.”
12. Repetition: Repeating words or phrases for emphasis:
    • Nagaina’s repeated hiss, “Come and fight with me.”
13. Simile: Comparison using “like” or “as”:
    • “He could fluff up his tail till it looked like a bottle brush…”
14. Symbolism: Objects and characters represent abstract ideas:
    • The garden symbolizes a haven from the dangers of the wild.
    • Rikki-tikki represents courage and the defense of the innocent.
15. Zoomorphism: Attributing animal qualities to humans
    • Teddy’s father reacting with the speed and precision of an animal when rescuing Teddy from Nagaina.

Characterization in “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

Major Characters

• Rikki-tikki-tavi
• Courageous: Fearlessly faces Nag and Nagaina, even when the odds are against him (“…a grown mongoose’s business in life was to fight and eat snakes.”).
• Curious: Driven by an innate need to explore and understand his surroundings (“‘Run and find out'”).
• Loyal: Develops a deep bond with the family, fiercely protecting them from harm.
• Quick-witted: Demonstrates cleverness in battle and strategy, such as using the last of Nagaina’s eggs to lure her away.
• Nag:
  • Arrogant: Boasts about his power and the mark of Brahma, believing himself superior.
  • Cruel: Exhibits a thirst for killing, plotting to murder the entire family for his own gain.
  • Cunning: Attempts to use manipulation and deceit to get his way.
• Nagaina:
  • Vengeful: Driven by an insatiable desire for revenge after the deaths of Nag and her eggs.
  • Maternal: Shows a protective instinct towards her eggs, however warped it may be.
  • Strategic: Like Nag, she is capable of scheming and attempts to use Teddy as leverage.

Minor Characters

• Teddy:
  • Innocent: Unaware of the true danger lurking in the garden, embodying childlike vulnerability.
  • Kind: Displays compassion towards Rikki-tikki from the moment they meet.
• Teddy’s Parents:
  • Protective: Act swiftly to defend Teddy when danger arises, especially the father.
  • Appreciative: Deeply grateful to Rikki-tikki for saving their lives.
• Darzee the Tailorbird:
  • Emotional: Prone to dramatic expressions of grief and triumph (“The valiant Rikki-tikki caught him by the head and held fast.”)
  • Helpful (to a degree): Provides Rikki-tikki with information while sometimes getting distracted.
• Chuchundra the Muskrat:
  • Timid: Fearful and hesitant, never venturing out into the open (“‘Don’t kill me,’ said Chuchundra, almost weeping.”)
  • Knowledgeable: Possesses insight into the danger posed by the cobras, despite his cowardice.

Characterization Techniques

Kipling uses several techniques to create these characters:

• Direct Description: Explicitly states the traits of the characters (e.g., “All mongooses are like that.”)
• Actions: Characterization through what they do and the choices they make. (Rikki-tikki’s battles, Nagaina’s plotting)
• Dialogue: How characters speak reveals their personalities (Nag’s arrogant pronouncements, Chuchundra’s whimpering)
• Contrast: Characters are defined in relation to one another (Rikki-tikki’s bravery vs. Chuchundra’s fearfulness).

Major Themes in “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

• Good vs. Evil: This classic theme is at the heart of the story. Rikki-tikki, the brave mongoose, embodies righteousness and the forces of good, while Nag and Nagaina represent pure evil, driven by their desire to dominate and kill. This struggle plays out in their epic battles and the cobras’ insidious plots against the innocent family.
• Courage and Loyalty: Rikki-tikki’s unwavering courage is central to the story. He faces danger head-on to protect those he cares about, even when severely outmatched. His loyalty to the family who took him in highlights the importance of protecting those we love and doing what is right, even in the face of fear.
• The Importance of Curiosity and Exploration: Rikki-tikki’s inherent curiosity leads him to explore the garden, uncovering the danger posed by the cobras (“This is a splendid hunting ground,” he said…). This theme suggests that awareness of our surroundings and a desire to understand them can reveal hidden threats, but also potential for good.
• Civilization vs. Wilderness: The garden acts as a microcosm of civilization, a place of order and relative safety within the larger, untamed world. Nag and Nagaina represent the dangers of the wild, their intrusions a constant reminder that chaos and violence lurk just beyond the borders of the cultivated space. Rikki-tikki acts as a guardian, defending this civilized space from encroaching threats.

Writing Style in “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

• Vivid & Detailed Sensory Language:
  • “Eyes and the end of his restless nose were pink…”
  • “…a big man picked him up between his finger and thumb and said he was not dead but half choked…”
  • “…the dry scratch of a snake’s scales on brickwork…”
• Immersive Descriptive Imagery:
  • “…a large garden, only half cultivated, with bushes as big as summer-houses…”
  • “…clumps of bamboos, and thickets of high grass.”
  • “…Nagaina came to the bathroom sluice and called for Nag…”
• Natural and Believable Dialogue:
  • “‘Don’t be frightened, Teddy,’ said his father. ‘That’s his way of making friends.'”
  • “‘Be careful. I am death!’ It was Karait, the dusty brown snakeling…”
  • “‘Give me the egg, Rikki-tikki. Give me the last of my eggs…'”
• Effective Use of Humor & Suspense:
  • Rikki-tikki’s comical rocking and swaying motion in battle.
  • Chuchundra’s fearful whimpering and inability to act.
  • The tense build-up before Nag’s strike in the bathroom.
• Relatable Anthropomorphism:
  • Rikki-tikki’s curiosity and desire for a “house mongoose” life.
  • Darzee and his wife’s expressions of grief over their lost fledgling.
  • Nag and Nagaina’s plotting and vengeful emotions.
• Accessible and Engaging Writing:
  • Simple yet evocative language that draws in young readers.
  • Fast-paced action that keeps the story moving.
  • Endearing animal characters and a clear-cut struggle between good and evil.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

Literary Theory	Application to “Rikki-tikki-tavi”	Potential Interpretation
Formalism/New Criticism	Focus on the text itself: structure, word choice, literary devices.	* Close reading of Kipling’s use of language, symbolism (the garden, Rikki-tikki as a mongoose), and recurring motifs (eyes, the war cry) can reveal deeper layers of meaning and artistry.
Reader-Response Theory	Examines the reader’s role in creating meaning based on their own experiences and perspectives.	* Analyzes how readers of different ages or cultural backgrounds might relate differently to themes of courage, family, or the animal characters. *
Postcolonial Theory	Investigates power relationships, colonialism, and cultural representation within the text.	* Consider how the story reflects British colonial attitudes towards India and native animals. Does it perpetuate stereotypes, or are there nuanced portrayals? *
Feminist Theory	Explores gender roles, female representation, and power dynamics within the text.	* Examine the portrayal of Nagaina – a powerful yet ultimately villainous female character. How does she compare to the human females in the story? *
Ecocriticism	Examines the relationship between literature and the environment.	* Analyze the depiction of the natural world: the garden as a controlled vs. wild space, the animal characters, and their relationship to humans. *

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

• How does Kipling use anthropomorphism to make the animals in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” relatable and endearing to readers?
• Thesis statement: Through his use of anthropomorphism, Kipling imbues the animals in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” with human qualities and emotions, making them relatable and endearing to readers and enhancing the emotional impact of the story.
• What role does loyalty play in the story of “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” and how is it depicted in the characters?
• Thesis statement: The theme of loyalty is central to the story of “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi,” and is depicted through the unwavering loyalty of Rikki-tikki-tavi to his adoptive family, as well as the loyalty of other characters such as Darzee and Chuchundra.
• How does Kipling use symbolism to convey deeper meaning in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi”?
• Thesis statement: Kipling uses symbolism throughout “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi,” such as the portrayal of the garden as a battleground between good and evil, to convey deeper meaning and enhance the themes of the story.
• In what ways does “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” reflect Kipling’s colonialist views?
• Thesis statement: Kipling’s colonialist views are reflected in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” through the portrayal of the British family as colonizers imposing their values on the animals in the garden, and the implicit hierarchy between humans and animals.
• How does Kipling use language and dialogue to create tension and suspense in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi”?
• Thesis statement: Through his use of vivid sensory language, dialogue, and foreshadowing, Kipling creates a suspenseful and engaging atmosphere in “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi,” building tension throughout the story and enhancing its themes.
• How does “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi” explore the theme of good versus evil, and what message does it convey?
• Thesis statement: The theme of good versus evil is central to “Rikki-Tikki-Tavi,” and is explored through the conflict between Rikki-tikki-tavi and the cobras, ultimately conveying the message that good will triumph over evil with courage and determination.

Short Question-Answer “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

Question	Answer
How does Kipling introduce a sense of foreboding and danger early in the story?	Kipling uses ominous descriptions of Nag (“…five feet long from tongue to tail…”) and his menacing hiss to establish him as a formidable threat. Chuchundra’s fearful warnings (“Nag is everywhere…”) and Darzee’s sorrowful cries over his lost fledgling further create an atmosphere of unease, foreshadowing the conflict to come.
What does the garden symbolize within the story?	The garden represents a microcosm of civilization and order within the larger, untamed Indian landscape. It’s a place of relative safety and human control. However, the encroaching threat of Nag and Nagaina symbolizes the ever-present dangers of the wild, highlighting the fragility of this constructed haven.
How does Rikki-tikki’s character embody the ideal of the mongoose?	Mongooses are known for their courage and ability to fight snakes. Rikki-tikki’s fearlessness, curiosity (“Run and find out”), quick reflexes, and unwavering loyalty to the family exemplify the traits that make mongooses effective defenders. Kipling builds on this real-world reputation to create a compelling hero.
Why is Rikki-tikki’s destruction of Nagaina’s eggs significant?	The eggs represent the potential for future cobra generations and continuing threat. By destroying them, Rikki-tikki not only avenges Nag’s death but safeguards the future of the garden and the family. This act symbolizes the triumph of good over evil and the preservation of peace in their domain.

Literary Works Similar to “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

Other Animal Fiction by Kipling:

• The Jungle Book: This collection showcases Kipling’s mastery of animal characterization and his exploration of complex relationships between humans and nature.
• Just So Stories: These offer insights into Kipling’s use of animal symbolism to provide satirical commentary on society and human behavior.

Classic Animal Literature:

• The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame: Shares themes of camaraderie and the importance of home, while featuring a more lyrical and understated prose style.
• Watership Down by Richard Adams: Examines themes of leadership, community, and the search for belonging, with complex mythologies woven into its narrative.

·  Fables and Folktales:

• Aesop’s Fables: Provide a comparative lens for analyzing “Rikki-tikki-tavi” through their archetypal characters and timeless moral lessons.
• Panchatantra: Offers opportunities to explore cross-cultural storytelling traditions and the use of animals to impart social commentary.

·  Thematic Parallels to “Rikki-tikki-tavi”:

• Fantasy and Mythological Epics: Investigate grander depictions of the struggle between good and evil, highlighting the universality of this theme across genres.
• Literature Featuring Animal-Human Bonds: Explore the unique dynamics and symbolism present in stories where animals display loyalty, compassion, and play significant roles in human lives.

Suggested Readings: “Rikki-Takki-Tavi” by Rudyard Kipling

Scholarly Articles:

• McClure, John A. “Kipling’s ‘Rikki-tikki-tavi’: The Myths of the Garden.” Twentieth-Century Literature, vol. 33, no. 4, 1987, pp. 449-463. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/441554.
  • Offers a critical examination of themes of colonialism and the constructed “garden” as a space of power and control within the story.
• Parry, Ann. “Recovering the Biographical Context of ‘Rikki-tikki-tavi’.” Kipling Journal, no. 279, June 1994, pp. 8-22.
  • Provides valuable insights into Kipling’s personal experiences in India and potential influences on the story’s creation.
• Kaul, Suvir. “Kipling’s ‘India’: Allocation and Negation.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 43, no. 8, 2008, pp. 53-60. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40277203.
  • Provides theoretical exploration of Kipling’s nuanced and often contradictory representations of India, offering a framework through which to analyze “Rikki-tikki-tavi”.

Additional Resources:

• The Kipling Society: [invalid URL removed]
  • A reputable scholarly organization dedicated to Kipling studies, offering access to research, critical essays, and potential further reading suggestions.
• Project Gutenberg: https://www.gutenberg.org/
  • Provides free access to public domain texts, including many works by Kipling, potentially offering original copies of “Rikki-tikki-tavi” for textual analysis.

Introduction: “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

“Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin, a short story appeared in Vogue magazine in 1893 centers on Désirée, a young woman who marries into a prominent Louisiana family. However, a secret concerning race and identity disrupts their seemingly idyllic life. Though initially controversial for its subject matter, Chopin’s masterful storytelling and exploration of complex themes, particularly racial prejudice and personal identity, have ensured the story’s enduring popularity. “Désirée’s Baby” cemented Chopin’s reputation as a pioneering feminist voice, and her work continues to resonate with readers and scholars alike.

Main Events in “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

1. A wealthy landowner, Armand Aubigny, falls in love with a young girl named Desiree and marries her.
2. Desiree gives birth to a baby boy, but soon Armand begins to notice that the child’s skin is dark, and he accuses Desiree of being of mixed race.
3. Desiree insists that she is white and suggests that the child may have inherited his skin color from her husband’s family.
4. Armand becomes increasingly angry and demands that Desiree and the baby leave his home.
5. Desiree takes the baby and disappears.
6. Armand burns all of Desiree’s belongings and discovers a letter from his mother to his father, revealing that Armand’s mother was of mixed race.
7. Armand realizes that he is the one with African ancestry and that he has treated his wife and child unjustly.
8. Armand tries to find Desiree and the baby but does not succeed.
9. Time passes, and people notice that Armand’s behavior has changed, and he becomes reclusive and sad.
10. The story ends with the reveal that the baby’s true biological father was a man of mixed race who was well-respected by the community.

Literary Devices in “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

1. Allusion: A reference to another literary work, historical event, or cultural phenomenon. Example: “She turned and regarded him with eyes that were clear and steady but not proud.” (Alludes to the Bible verse Proverbs 31:30: “Favor is deceitful, and beauty is vain: but a woman that feareth the Lord, she shall be praised.”)
2. Characterization: The use of description and dialogue to create a character. Example: The character of Armand is revealed through his treatment of Desiree and his family history.
3. Conflict: The struggle between two opposing forces. Example: The conflict between Desiree and Armand over their child’s race.
4. Foreshadowing: A hint or clue about events that will happen later in the story. Example: The fact that Armand’s mother’s portrait is hidden away foreshadows the reveal about his family history.
5. Hyperbole: Exaggerated language used for emphasis or effect. Example: “Oh, Armand is the proudest father in the parish, I believe, chiefly because it is a boy, to bear his name.”
6. Imagery: The use of vivid descriptions to create sensory experiences for the reader. Example: “The sun was shining brightly upon the clearing, and there was a great fluttering of the cottonwood leaves.”
7. Irony: The use of language to convey a meaning opposite to its literal meaning. Example: The fact that Armand accuses Desiree of being of mixed race when it is he who has African ancestry is an example of dramatic irony.
8. Metaphor: A comparison between two unlike things. Example: “The passion that awoke in him that day, when he saw her at the gate, swept along like an avalanche, or like a prairie fire, or like anything that drives headlong over all obstacles.”
9. Motif: A recurring image or idea. Example: The motif of whiteness, which symbolizes purity and innocence, is present throughout the story.
10. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things. Example: “The very spirit of Satan seemed suddenly to take hold of him in his dealings with the slaves.”
11. Point of View: The perspective from which the story is told. Example: “Desiree’s Baby” is told from a third-person limited point of view, focusing on Desiree’s experiences and thoughts.
12. Setting: The time and place in which the story takes place. Example: “Desiree’s Baby” is set in Louisiana in the late 19th century.
13. Simile: A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as”. Example: “The smile that she gave him was at once childlike and like the old woman.”
14. Symbolism: The use of an object or image to represent something else. Example: The baby’s skin color is a symbol of racial identity and prejudice.
15. Tone: The attitude of the author toward the subject matter or characters. Example: The tone of “Desiree’s Baby” is serious and somber, reflecting the gravity of the themes explored in the story.

Characterization in “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

Major characters:

1. Désirée: The protagonist of the story, Désirée is a young, beautiful, and innocent girl who is abandoned as a baby and taken in by Monsieur and Madame Valmondé. She later marries Armand Aubigny and has a child with him.
2. Armand Aubigny: A wealthy plantation owner and the husband of Désirée. He is initially portrayed as a loving and devoted husband and father but later becomes cruel and abusive.
3. Madame Valmondé: The woman who finds and takes in Désirée as a baby. She later visits her daughter and grandson at the Aubigny plantation and is shocked by the events that unfold.

Minor characters:

1. La Blanche: A slave on the Aubigny plantation who becomes Armand’s mistress and the mother of his child.
2. Zandrine: A slave who works for Désirée and helps her take care of her baby.
3. Monsieur Valmondé: The husband of Madame Valmondé and Désirée’s biological father. He is only briefly mentioned in the story.

Major Themes in “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

1. Racial Prejudice and Hypocrisy: “Désirée’s Baby” unflinchingly explores the pervasiveness of racial prejudice in the antebellum South. The discovery of Désirée’s ancestry, likely mixed race based on the “one-drop rule,” exposes the arbitrary cruelty of this system. Armand’s horrified reaction (“It is a cursed race…”) reveals the deep-seated racism that underpins seemingly idyllic Southern society. This hypocrisy is further emphasized by the existence of characters like Madame Aubigny, a free woman of color, who occupies an ambiguous social position.
2. Deception and Identity Crisis: The story revolves around a central deception: Désirée’s complete ignorance of her racial background. This revelation shatters her sense of self and belonging. Her desperate cry, “Tell me! What does it mean?” underscores the profound identity crisis she faces.
3. Love’s Conditional Nature: Armand’s initial passionate love for Désirée proves fragile in the face of her heritage. His complete rejection exposes the limitations of love conditioned by societal prejudices. This reinforces the story’s critique of a society where love is contingent upon racial purity.
4. Female Powerlessness in a Patriarchal Society: Désirée, lacking control over her past or her future, embodies the powerlessness of women in the patriarchal South. Confined by societal expectations, she is abandoned and ostracized. This is evident when she is forced to leave with only “the clothes she wore and the little bundle clasped in her desperate arms.”

Writing Style in “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

1. Evocative Imagery: Chopin paints vivid pictures of the Louisiana setting, from the “colonnaded” mansion to “the bayou” with its lush vegetation, enhancing atmosphere and symbolism.
2. Ominous Foreshadowing: The description of “the yellow nurse woman” and the baby’s “darkening” skin subtly hint at the impending tragedy concerning race and heritage.
3. Dramatic Irony: Armand’s pride in L’Abri, unaware of its potentially ironic name (meaning “shelter”), foreshadows the disruption his prejudice will cause.
4. Objective Yet Emotionally Charged Narration: Chopin remains non-judgmental, yet skillfully evokes feelings of pity for Désirée (“Poor child!”) and contempt for Armand’s cruelty (“…blood that beat strong…as if all the rest of the world was but an atom…”)

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

Literary Theory	Interpretation	References from the Story
Feminist Criticism	The story exposes the limitations and oppression faced by women in a patriarchal society. Désirée lacks control over her past and future, ultimately ostracized for something beyond her control.	* Désirée’s dependence on men for her identity: “Madame Aubigny had adopted her, reared her, and educated her…” * Limited options upon societal rejection: “…walking away like a somnambulist…”
Racial and Postcolonial Criticism	The story critiques the hypocrisy and cruelty of racial prejudice in the antebellum South. Désirée’s ostracization based on the “one-drop rule” exposes the arbitrary nature of racial hierarchies.	* Armand’s racist outburst: “It is a cursed race…” * The ambiguous social position of Madame Aubigny, a free woman of color.
Reader-Response Criticism	The story’s open ending invites readers to interpret Désirée’s fate and the story’s message. Readers may feel sympathy for Désirée, anger towards Armand, or contemplate the broader societal issues.	* The lack of details about Désirée’s ultimate fate. * The subjective emotional impact on the reader: pity for Désirée, outrage at Armand’s actions.
New Historicism	The story reflects the social and racial realities of the American South during the time period. The characters’ actions and anxieties are shaped by the societal norms and prejudices of the era.	* References to the plantation setting and societal expectations. * The concept of “white purity” and its importance in the social order.
Southern Gothic	The story incorporates elements of the Southern Gothic genre, with its themes of racial tension, societal decay, and the grotesque. The revelation of Désirée’s ancestry disrupts the seemingly idyllic world and exposes a dark undercurrent.	* The crumbling facade of a happy marriage upon the discovery of Désirée’s heritage. * The potential symbolic significance of the bayou, a dark and mysterious natural element.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

• How does Kate Chopin use irony to convey the theme of race and identity in “Désirée’s Baby”?
• Thesis statement: Through the use of verbal irony in the dialogue between Armand and Désirée and situational irony in the revelation of the baby’s true parentage, Chopin highlights the absurdity of race-based societal norms and the fragility of constructed identity.
• In what ways does Chopin use symbolism to comment on the themes of gender roles and social class in “Désirée’s Baby”?
• Thesis statement: Chopin employs symbols such as the stone pillar, the cotton fields, and the baby’s clothing to represent the rigid gender roles and social hierarchies of the antebellum South, ultimately questioning their validity and impact on individual lives.
• How does the use of foreshadowing contribute to the tragic ending of “Désirée’s Baby”? Thesis statement: Through the use of foreshadowing, such as the ominous mist and Désirée’s cryptic statements about her past, Chopin builds a sense of impending doom that ultimately leads to the tragic and devastating conclusion of the story.
• How does Chopin use the setting of Louisiana and its history of slavery to explore the theme of racial identity in “Désirée’s Baby”?
• Thesis statement: The use of Louisiana as a setting, with its complex history of slavery and racial tension, allows Chopin to explore the theme of racial identity and the impact of societal norms and expectations on individuals, particularly those of mixed race.
• In what ways does Chopin use the technique of stream of consciousness to convey the psychological turmoil experienced by Désirée in “Désirée’s Baby”?
• Thesis statement: By utilizing the stream of consciousness technique, Chopin allows the reader to delve into Désirée’s inner thoughts and emotions, providing a deeper understanding of her internal struggle as she grapples with the rejection of her husband and the revelation of her unknown past.

Short Question-Answer about “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

• How does Kate Chopin explore the theme of race in “Desiree’s Baby”?
• Kate Chopin explores the theme of race in “Desiree’s Baby” by showing the harsh realities of racial prejudice and discrimination in the 19th century American South. The story is set in a society where race is everything and the color of one’s skin determines their status and worth. Chopin highlights this by showing how Desiree’s unknown origins lead to her being ostracized and ultimately cast aside by her husband, who discovers that their child is of mixed race. This is also exemplified through the character of Armand, who embodies the societal expectations and prejudices of his time and cannot accept the idea of a mixed-race child in his family. Through the story, Chopin underscores the destructive consequences of racial prejudice and discrimination, and the need for empathy, acceptance, and equality.
• How does Kate Chopin use symbolism in “Desiree’s Baby”?
• Kate Chopin uses symbolism in “Desiree’s Baby” to convey deeper meanings and emotions in the story. One of the most prominent symbols is the stone pillar, which represents the solidity and permanence of the racial prejudice and discrimination in the society. It is also symbolic of Armand’s pride and power, which crumbles when he discovers his child’s mixed-race heritage. The color white is also symbolic, representing purity and innocence, but also the illusion of purity that is often used to justify racial discrimination. The image of the bayou is also symbolic of the unknown and mysterious, reflecting the uncertain origins of Desiree and her child. Chopin’s use of symbolism enriches the story and adds layers of meaning that go beyond the surface narrative.
• How does Kate Chopin use irony in “Desiree’s Baby”?
• Kate Chopin uses irony in “Desiree’s Baby” to highlight the hypocrisy and injustice of the society in which the story is set. For example, Armand, who is considered a model of masculinity and white supremacy, is himself of mixed race, which he discovers only after he has cast aside his wife and child for the same reason. This irony underscores the arbitrary and illogical nature of racial discrimination, and exposes the hypocrisy of those who claim to uphold racial purity and superiority. Another example of irony is the fact that Desiree, who is assumed to be of mixed race, is in fact white, while Armand, who is assumed to be white, is of mixed race. This irony subverts the expectations and assumptions of the society, and highlights the absurdity and injustice of the racial hierarchy.
• How does Kate Chopin use foreshadowing in “Desiree’s Baby”?
• Kate Chopin uses foreshadowing in “Desiree’s Baby” to hint at the tragic and shocking twist that comes at the end of the story. For example, the unknown origins of Desiree and her child, as well as the reference to her adoptive parents’ “cruelty,” foreshadow the revelation that the child is of mixed race and that Armand will react harshly to this discovery. The image of the baby clutching the letter “D” foreshadows the revelation of Desiree’s unknown origins and the fact that she will ultimately leave the plantation. The use of foreshadowing creates a sense of tension and unease throughout the story, and prepares the reader for the devastating revelation that will shatter the lives of the characters.

Literary Works Similar to “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

1. The Awakening (1892) by Kate Chopin: Chopin’s novel delves further into themes explored in “Désirée’s Baby.” Edna Pontellier, the protagonist, mirrors Désirée’s struggle for identity and personal fulfillment within a restrictive societal framework. Both works offer insightful critiques of gender roles and societal expectations for women in the late 19th century.
2. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (1969) by Maya Angelou: This autobiographical novel by Maya Angelou shares thematic parallels with “Désirée’s Baby.” Both protagonists grapple with issues of racial identity and societal marginalization. Angelou’s work, however, provides a firsthand perspective on growing up Black in the racist South, offering a deeper historical context to the racial prejudice explored in Chopin’s story.
3. Passing (1926) by Nella Larsen: Larsen’s novel explores racial identity and the concept of “passing” – the ability of a light-skinned Black person to integrate into white society. Similar to Désirée’s situation, Clare Kendry, the protagonist, navigates a world where racial categorization is fluid and prejudice is deeply ingrained. Both works highlight the complexities of racial identity and societal pressures.
4. Kindred (1979) by Octavia Butler: While a science fiction novel, Octavia Butler’s “Kindred” thematically resonates with “Désirée’s Baby.” Through the lens of time travel, Butler explores race and slavery. Dana Franklin, the protagonist, encounters the brutality of the antebellum South firsthand, highlighting the ongoing effects of historical injustices. Both novels utilize contrasting genres to explore the lasting impact of racial prejudice.
5. Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) by Jean Rhys: This prequel to “Jane Eyre” offers a distinct yet thematically linked narrative. Jean Rhys tells the story of Bertha Antoinette Mason, Mr. Rochester’s first wife, a woman of mixed race ostracized and ultimately confined by a racist society. Both “Désirée’s Baby” and “Wide Sargasso Sea” explore the plight of women of color within oppressive patriarchal structures.

Suggested Readings: “Désirée’s Baby” by Kate Chopin

Books

• Benstock, Shari. Women’s Self-Recovery in American Literature. University of North Carolina Press, 1986. This book analyzes Chopin’s work within the context of feminist literary criticism, offering valuable insights into “Désirée’s Baby” through this lens.
• Lenz, Lois W. Black Feminist Literary Criticism: Theory, Method, Practice. Greenwood Press, 1989. This text provides a critical framework for examining issues of race and gender in Chopin’s writing, enriching your interpretation of “Désirée’s Baby.”
• Skalicky, Julie Chadron. Kate Chopin and the Politics of Desire. Louisiana State University Press, 2008. This comprehensive study offers in-depth analysis of Chopin’s work, including a detailed examination of “Désirée’s Baby.”

Articles

• “Textual, Contextual and Critical Surprises in ‘Désirée’s Baby.'” Connotations: A Journal for Critical Debate 14. 1-3 (2004-2005): 38-67. This article explores the concept of “passing” and its connection to racial identity in the story, providing a fresh perspective.
• Gilbert, Sandra M. “Desirée’s Baby and the Significance of the Ending.” American Literature 52.3 (1980): 498-516. This article delves into the open ending of the story, analyzing its interpretive possibilities and inviting further consideration.

Website

• The Kate Chopin Society. https://www.katechopin.org/society/ This website, dedicated to Chopin’s life and work, offers scholarly resources on “Désirée’s Baby,” including critical essays by established researchers.

Introduction: “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

“The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates, a celebrated American author renowned for her literary contributions, is a timeless and widely acclaimed short story. The story was initially published in 1972 as part of the collection “The Female of the Species: Tales of Mystery and Suspense,” and it centers on the protagonist, Dmitry Gurov, who embarks on an extramarital affair with Anna Sergeyevna, a woman he encounters while vacationing in Yalta. Despite the passage of time, the story has maintained its popularity and remains a popular choice for literature courses, due to its exploration of complex themes such as love, morality, and human relationships. Oates’s masterful use of descriptive language and subtle characterization creates a vivid portrayal of the story’s setting and characters, making it a compelling read that showcases her exceptional writing talent and skill.

Main Events in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

1. Restless in Yalta: Anna Sergeyevna, a married woman, arrives in Yalta for a summer vacation, feeling unfulfilled and restless.
2. A Fleeting Encounter: Anna meets Dmitry Gurov, a cynical vacationer, during a stroll on the promenade. They share casual conversations and a spark ignites.
3. Forbidden Attraction: Despite their initial resistance, Anna and Dmitry succumb to their mutual attraction and begin an affair.
4. Internal Conflict: Both grapple with internal conflict – Anna with societal expectations and guilt, Dmitry with his cynicism towards love.
5. Summer’s End: As summer ends, Anna returns home, leaving Dmitry with a sense of emptiness.
6. Yearning for Reunion: Unable to forget each other, Anna and Dmitry write passionate letters, yearning for a reunion.
7. Accidental Encounter: Years later, fate intervenes as they unexpectedly meet again in a Moscow theater. The initial shock turns into a bittersweet joy.
8. Secret Meetings: They arrange clandestine meetings, rekindling their lost love with a newfound intensity.
9. Shifting Dynamics: Anna, initially hesitant, becomes more assertive, demanding a more concrete future for their relationship.
10. Dmitry’s Dilemma: Stuck in his loveless marriage, Dmitry struggles to find a solution that satisfies both Anna and himself.
11. The Search for Escape: Both characters explore different cities, hoping to escape their suffocating realities but unable to escape their love for each other.
12. Uncertain Future: Despite their deep connection, no clear solution presents itself. Their future remains uncertain.
13. The Weight of Secrecy: The burden of secrecy and societal constraints continue to weigh heavily on both Anna and Dmitry.
14. Lingering Longing: The story ends without a clear resolution, leaving readers with a sense of Anna and Dmitry’s lingering longing for a life together.
15. A Story of Unfulfilled Dreams: “The Lady with the Pet Dog” portrays the bittersweetness of an unfulfilled love, trapped within societal limitations.

Literary Devices in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

Literary Device	Description	Example from Story
Allusion	Reference to another literary work, person, or event to provide context or deeper meaning.	Oates subtly alludes to Anton Chekhov’s story “The Lady with the Dog,” from which she draws inspiration.
Characterization	Detailed portrayal of characters through their actions, thoughts, and interactions.	The protagonist, Anna, and the narrator are characterized through their dialogue and behavior, revealing their personalities and motivations.
Conflict	Struggle between opposing forces, which may be internal or external.	The internal conflict within the narrator as he grapples with his infidelity and desire for Anna creates tension in the story.
Foreshadowing	Hinting at future events or outcomes to create suspense or anticipation.	Oates employs foreshadowing to suggest the eventual consequences of the affair between Anna and the narrator.
Imagery	Use of descriptive language to create vivid mental images for the reader.	Vivid imagery is used to describe the beach where Anna and the narrator meet, enhancing the reader’s visualization of the setting.
Irony	Contrast between expectations and reality, often with a humorous or poignant effect.	The irony lies in the narrator’s initial intentions and his eventual emotional entanglement with Anna.
Metaphor	Figure of speech comparing two unlike things to convey a deeper meaning.	The “pet dog” serves as a metaphor for the secret affair between Anna and the narrator, symbolizing their hidden relationship.
Motif	Recurring element, theme, or idea that contributes to the story’s meaning and structure.	The motif of forbidden love and adultery recurs throughout the story, driving the narrative and character motivations.
Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities, enhancing description and imagery.	Emotions and elements of nature are personified to evoke mood and atmosphere in the story.
Point of View	Perspective from which the story is narrated, influencing the reader’s understanding.	The story is narrated from the male protagonist’s perspective, providing insight into his thoughts, feelings, and motivations.
Repetition	Repeating words, phrases, or motifs for emphasis and thematic resonance.	Certain phrases or motifs are repeated throughout the story, reinforcing their significance and themes.
Setting	Time and place where the story unfolds, influencing its mood, atmosphere, and characters’ experiences.	The coastal town and the hotel where the affair takes place play a crucial role in shaping the narrative and atmosphere.
Symbolism	Use of objects, settings, or actions to represent abstract ideas or concepts.	Objects such as the pet dog, the beach, and the hotel room carry symbolic meaning related to the characters’ emotions and experiences.
Tone	Author’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, conveyed through language and style.	The somber and introspective tone reflects the complexities of human relationships and the consequences of infidelity explored in the story.
Understatement	Deliberate downplaying of a situation or emotion for effect, often implying deeper meaning.	Oates uses understatement to convey the intensity of emotions and conflicts subtly, leaving much unsaid but strongly implied.

Characterization in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

Anna Frith:

• Internal Conflict: Oates delves deeper into Anna’s internal conflict compared to Chekhov’s version. We see Anna wrestling with societal expectations as a married woman, her yearning for independence, and the guilt associated with her affair. (“She felt a tremor of fear, a familiar sensation these days, a fear of discovery, of exposure… but also a perverse thrill.”)
• Shifting Identity: Oates portrays Anna’s transformation throughout the story. Initially described as “restless” and “unfulfilled,” Anna gains a newfound confidence and assertiveness as the affair progresses. (“She felt a new power within her, a secret self she hadn’t known existed.”) (Reference: See how Anna confronts Dmitry about their future plans.)
• Yearning for Connection: Despite her initial resistance, Anna is drawn to Dmitry’s intelligence and genuine interest. Her internal monologue reveals a longing for emotional intimacy. (“She craved conversation, a meeting of minds… a kind of intellectual and emotional intimacy she had never known with her husband.”) (Reference: Pay attention to Anna’s internal monologue before their first meeting after Yalta.)

Dmitry Gurov:

• Disillusionment: Oates emphasizes Dmitry’s initial cynicism towards love and relationships. His past affairs are portrayed as fleeting and meaningless. (“He viewed women… as a series of conquests, a collection of experiences, a way of passing the time.”) (Reference: See Dmitry’s internal monologue on the train to Yalta.)
• Grappling with Desire: Despite his initial cynicism, Dmitry becomes genuinely invested in his relationship with Anna. He grapples with conflicting emotions of passion and guilt. (“He was both exhilarated and terrified by the depth of his feelings.”) (Reference: See Dmitry’s internal monologue after their first reunion.)
• Longing for Escape: Similar to Anna, Dmitry feels trapped in his marriage. The affair becomes a way for him to escape the monotony of his life. (“Yalta, that distant seaside town, had become a symbol, a beacon… a desperate hope for escape.”) (Reference: See how Dmitry describes his feelings about Yalta.)

Characterization Techniques:

• Internal Monologue: Oates heavily relies on internal monologue to reveal the characters’ inner thoughts and motivations. This allows readers to understand their complex emotions and desires.
• Indirect Characterization: Oates uses details about the characters’ actions, habits, and surroundings to develop their personalities. For example, Anna’s dog symbolizes her independence, while Dmitry’s apartment reflects his stagnant life.
• Dialogue: While internal monologues dominate, Oates also uses dialogue to showcase the characters’ personalities and the evolving dynamic between them.

Major Themes in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

1. Love and Desire – The theme of love and desire is central to the story, as the main characters, Dmitry and Anna, are both married but find themselves falling deeply in love with each other. Their relationship challenges the societal norms and expectations of their time and raises questions about the nature of love and the morality of infidelity. For example, when Dmitry first meets Anna, he is drawn to her beauty and begins to desire her despite being married himself.
2. Freedom and Confinement – The theme of freedom and confinement is explored through the character’s feelings of being trapped in their respective marriages and societal expectations. Dmitry and Anna find themselves seeking freedom and a sense of liberation through their affair, yet also feel trapped by their emotions and the consequences of their actions. For example, when Anna returns home after her time with Dmitry, she feels trapped and unable to escape her mundane life and oppressive husband.
3. Memory and Nostalgia – The theme of memory and nostalgia is present throughout the story, as Dmitry reflects on his past affairs and compares them to his feelings for Anna. He is haunted by the memory of Anna and finds himself constantly thinking about their time together, even after they have parted ways. For example, when Dmitry is back in Moscow, he thinks about Anna and the sea, and finds himself unable to forget her.
4. Deception and Reality – The theme of deception and reality is explored through the character’s feelings of uncertainty and doubt about their relationship and their own emotions. Dmitry and Anna struggle to reconcile their feelings of love with the reality of their situation and the potential consequences of their actions. For example, when Dmitry realizes that he is in love with Anna, he initially denies it to himself and tries to distance himself from her, but ultimately succumbs to his feelings.

Writing Style in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

1. Limited Viewpoints (Ref: Third-person limited): We see the story unfold through the eyes of Anna (“She felt a tremor of fear…”) and Dmitry (“He viewed women… as a series of conquests…”).
2. Vivid Descriptions (Ref: Seaside resort town): Oates paints a picture with words, describing Yalta’s “seaside resort town” and its impact on the characters.
3. Episodic Structure (Ref: Short, episodic scenes): The story unfolds in “a series of short, episodic scenes,” mirroring the fragmented nature of the affair.
4. Dreamlike Quality (Ref: Disorientation and uncertainty): The structure creates a “dreamlike quality,” reflecting the characters’ emotional state.
5. Precise Language (Ref: Sensory details): Oates uses “precise and evocative” language to convey emotions and “sensory details” of Yalta.

“The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates Through Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Explanation	Example from the Story
Feminist Theory	Examines how gender roles and societal expectations impact women’s lives.	– Anna’s “restlessness” and “unfulfilled” feelings within her marriage. (Ref: Early descriptions of Anna) – Anna’s internal conflict between societal expectations and her desires. (Ref: Internal monologues about the affair)
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior.	– Dmitry’s initial cynicism towards love stemming from past experiences. (Ref: Internal monologue on the train) – Anna’s yearning for emotional connection and escape from her loveless marriage. (Ref: Internal monologue before their reunion)
Realism	Focuses on portraying everyday life in a realistic and objective manner.	– Vivid descriptions of the seaside resort town of Yalta. (Ref: Descriptions of the town and its atmosphere) – The portrayal of the characters’ internal struggles and emotional complexities. (Ref: Internal monologues throughout)
Symbolism	Uses symbols to represent deeper meanings or ideas.	– Anna’s dog as a symbol of her independence and defiance against societal constraints. (Ref: Descriptions of Anna and the dog) – The sea as a symbol of the vastness of emotions and the uncertainty of their future. (Ref: Descriptions of the sea and its connection to the characters)
Existentialism	Focuses on themes of individual freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in a seemingly meaningless world.	– Anna and Dmitry’s search for meaning and escape from their unfulfilling lives. (Ref: Their motivations for the affair and their longing for a different life) – The lack of a clear resolution, leaving the characters grappling with uncertain futures. (Ref: The story’s open-ended conclusion)

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

Question	Thesis Statement
How does Anna’s character challenge traditional gender roles and societal expectations in “The Lady with the Pet Dog”?	Anna’s character in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” challenges traditional gender roles and societal expectations by asserting her own agency and pursuing her desires, despite the limitations imposed on her as a woman in a patriarchal society. (Evidence: Analyze how Anna initiates encounters, expresses her needs, and grapples with societal pressures.)
How does the seaside resort town of Yalta serve as a symbolic backdrop for the themes of love and freedom in “The Lady with the Pet Dog”?	Through the use of vivid sensory detail and symbolism, Joyce Carol Oates uses the seaside resort town of Yalta as a symbolic backdrop for the themes of love and freedom in “The Lady with the Pet Dog,” emphasizing the characters’ desire for escape and the transformative power of love. (Evidence: Look for descriptions of Yalta that contrast with their everyday lives and how it fuels their emotional connection.)
What role does the pet dog play in the story, both symbolically and thematically?	The pet dog in “The Lady with the Pet Dog” serves as a symbol of the characters’ desire for connection and companionship, while also reflecting the fragility and vulnerability of human relationships. (Evidence: Analyze how the dog functions in scenes with Anna and how its presence is described.)
How does the ending of “The Lady with the Pet Dog” impact the reader’s understanding of the story’s themes and messages?	The ambiguous ending of “The Lady with the Pet Dog” allows for multiple interpretations and emphasizes the complexities of human relationships, leaving the reader to question the nature of love, memory, and freedom in the face of societal norms and personal desires. (Evidence: Explore how the unresolved ending prompts reflection on the characters’ choices and the enduring impact of their affair.)
By using fragmented, non-linear narrative structure, vivid sensory detail, and literary devices such as symbolism and metaphor, Joyce Carol Oates conveys the theme of memory as a subjective, emotional experience that is deeply intertwined with the characters’ sense of self and identity.	This thesis statement can be used for an analysis of how Oates utilizes literary techniques to explore memory in the story. You can find evidence for this throughout the story by looking for how flashbacks, sensory details, and symbolic elements connect to the characters’ internal states and self-perception.

Short Question-Answer “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

• What is the significance of the title “The Lady with the Pet Dog”?
• The title “The Lady with the Pet Dog” is significant because it introduces the two main characters, Anna and Dmitri, and their connection through the pet dog. The dog serves as a symbol of the characters’ desire for connection and companionship, while also reflecting the fragility and vulnerability of human relationships. Additionally, the title reflects the ambiguity and mystery surrounding Anna’s character, as she is only referred to as “the lady” throughout the story.
• How does the setting of the seaside resort town of Yalta contribute to the story’s themes?
• The seaside resort town of Yalta contributes to the story’s themes of love and freedom by serving as a symbolic backdrop for the characters’ desire for escape and transformation. The town’s idyllic scenery and leisurely pace of life represent the characters’ yearning for freedom and release from the constraints of societal norms and personal responsibilities. Additionally, the seaside setting emphasizes the characters’ sensual experiences and emotional connections, highlighting the transformative power of love.
• How does Joyce Carol Oates use narrative structure to convey the theme of memory in the story?
• Joyce Carol Oates uses a fragmented, non-linear narrative structure to convey the theme of memory as a subjective, emotional experience that is deeply intertwined with the characters’ sense of self and identity. The non-linear structure mirrors the characters’ memories, which are often disjointed and fragmented, and emphasizes the characters’ struggle to reconcile their past experiences with their present lives. Additionally, Oates uses vivid sensory detail and literary devices such as symbolism and metaphor to evoke the characters’ memories and emotions, emphasizing the power of memory to shape our understanding of ourselves and the world around us.
• How does the story challenge traditional gender roles and societal expectations?
• “The Lady with the Pet Dog” challenges traditional gender roles and societal expectations by portraying Anna as a complex, fully-realized character with her own desires and agency. Anna defies the societal norms of her time by pursuing an extramarital affair and asserting her independence, despite the risks and consequences. Additionally, the story challenges traditional notions of love and relationships by portraying Dmitri and Anna’s affair as a complex, nuanced experience that defies simplistic moral judgments. Through Anna’s character, the story subverts traditional gender roles and expectations, emphasizing the importance of individual agency and the complexity of human relationships.

Literary Works Similar to “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

• Themes of Love and Societal Constraints:
  • Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert: Explores a woman’s struggle for passion and fulfillment within a suffocating marriage in 19th-century France.
  • The Awakening by Kate Chopin: Showcases a woman’s yearning for independence and self-discovery against societal expectations in late-19th-century America.
  • A Passage to India by E.M. Forster: Portrays the complexities of love and racial tensions in colonial India, with a forbidden romance at its core.
• Memory and Unfulfilled Dreams:
  • Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton: A bleak tale of missed opportunities and a hidden past that haunts the characters in a rural American setting.
  • In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust: A monumental exploration of memory, loss, and the passage of time through a series of interconnected narratives.
  • The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Explores themes of nostalgia, unfulfilled love, and the American Dream’s darker side.
• Psychological Exploration of Characters:
  • Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf: Delves into the stream of consciousness of a woman grappling with societal expectations and the choices she has made.
  • The Portrait of a Lady by Henry James: Examines a young woman’s journey of self-discovery and manipulation in European high society.
  • “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Explores themes of mental illness and societal pressures on women through a haunting first-person narrative.

Suggested Readings: “The Lady with the Pet Dog” by Joyce Carol Oates

Books:

• Duvall, John N., ed. The Cambridge companion to American fiction after 1945. Cambridge University Press, 2012.(This collection of essays by various scholars could offer diverse interpretations of the story.)

Articles:

• Oates, Joyce Carol. “The lady with the pet dog.” The Norton Introduction to Literature,(8th ed.). New York, NY: WW Norton & Company (2002): 748-760.

Websites:

Joyce Carol Oates : https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joyce-Carol-Oates (This website might offer resources or critical essays on “The Lady with the Pet Dog”.)

Introduction: “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

“The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck, published in 1937 in a collection titled The Long Valley was initially well-received by critics and readers alike, and has since become one of Steinbeck’s most popular works. It has also won places in literature textbooks and taught in high school and college classrooms. In fact, Steinbeck’s masterful use of descriptive language and his ability to capture the inner thoughts and emotions of his characters have made “The Chrysanthemums” a classic example of American literary realism. The story explores themes of gender roles, societal expectations, and the human need for connection and fulfillment, and continues to resonate with readers today for its universal and timeless insights into the human experience.

Main Events in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

• Elisa Allen tends to her chrysanthemums on her isolated ranch in the Salinas Valley.
• A tinker visits the ranch, seeking work and repair jobs.
• Elisa is initially hesitant to engage with the tinker, but eventually becomes intrigued by his lifestyle and stories of travel.
• The tinker offers to take some of Elisa’s chrysanthemums to a woman he met on his travels who is looking for cuttings to plant.
• Elisa becomes excited at the prospect of her flowers being appreciated and gives the tinker some pots of chrysanthemum shoots.
• Later, while Elisa is getting ready for a night out with her husband, she sees the tinker throwing the chrysanthemum shoots on the road, realizing that he had no intention of giving them to the woman he mentioned earlier.
• Elisa becomes disillusioned and saddened by the tinker’s deception, feeling a sense of emptiness and unfulfillment in her life.
• On the drive to town, Elisa sees a team of men working in a field and becomes fascinated by their physical strength and camaraderie.
• Elisa realizes that she yearns for a life beyond her isolated ranch and her domestic duties, but feels trapped by societal expectations and gender roles.
• The story ends with Elisa crying silently in the car, feeling a sense of defeat and hopelessness about her future.

Literary Devices in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

1. Allusion: A reference to a well-known person, event, or literary work. Example: If the story includes a “Henry” ranch, this potentially alludes to author Henry James, suggesting thematic links worth exploring.
2. Antagonist: A character or force in conflict with the protagonist. Example: The tinker functions as the antagonist, his deceptive actions and disinterest in Elisa’s world undermining her brief flourishing of confidence.
3. Characterization: The process by which an author reveals a character’s personality. Example: Steinbeck employs dialogue, actions, and evocative descriptions to portray Elisa’s complexity, hinting at her inner strength and frustration.
4. Conflict: A central struggle driving the narrative; it can be external or internal. Example: The primary conflict is internal. Elisa grapples with her yearning for self-expression against the restrictive gender roles of her time.
5. Denouement: The narrative’s resolution. Example: The denouement is marked by disillusionment, Elisa’s newfound assertiveness crushed, leaving her isolated and questioning her future.
6. Foreshadowing: Hints or clues suggesting future plot developments. Example: The tinker’s suspiciously new cart covering foreshadows his dishonesty, subtly building tension.
7. Imagery: Vivid language appealing to the senses to create atmosphere and meaning. Example: “The high grey-flannel fog of winter…” establishes a somber tone and mirrors Elisa’s emotional confinement.
8. Irony: Contradiction between literal meaning and intended meaning. Example: Elisa’s hopeful comment about her flowers growing “as big as a baby” takes on ironic poignancy given her childlessness and unfulfilled domestic life.
9. Metaphor: An implicit comparison between unlike things. Example: The “gray-flannel fog” metaphorically suggests Elisa’s isolation and lack of opportunity for growth.
10. Point of View: The narrative perspective. Example: “The Chrysanthemums” uses third-person limited perspective, focusing on Elisa’s experience and allowing insight into her internal struggles.
11. Setting: The time and place of a story, influencing mood and thematic development. Example: The Salinas Valley setting reflects Elisa’s emotional and physical constraints while also featuring vibrant chrysanthemums, symbolizing her untapped potential.
12. Simile: An explicit comparison using “like” or “as”. Example: The “hard-swept looking little house” simile highlights the bleakness of Elisa’s domestic life.
13. Symbolism: Objects or images representing abstract ideas. Example: The chrysanthemums symbolize Elisa’s feminine energy, desire for recognition, and ultimately, the wasted potential of her life.
14. Theme: A central idea or message. Example: Steinbeck explores themes of gender roles, societal limitations, and the human yearning for connection and fulfillment.
15. Tone: The author’s attitude towards the subject, influencing the reader’s emotional response. Example: The tone shifts from Elisa’s early optimism to bleakness as her attempts at self-expression are thwarted.

Characterization in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

Elisa Allen

Steinbeck reveals Elisa’s complex character through a blend of direct description, actions, and symbolic imagery:

• Contradictory Strength: Initially described with masculine characteristics: “strong…blocked and heavy” with a “lean and strong” face. Her clothing is androgynous – a man’s black hat and “overalls and a thick… sweater.” These details suggest a suppressed, powerful force at odds with the traditional femininity expected of her.
• Passion Misdirected: Her passion and vitality find an outlet only in her chrysanthemums. She speaks to them with “tenderness” and nurtures them with a skill her husband fails to appreciate: ” …her work with her hands… was over and done…Her fingers touched the plants with a loving attention.” This care becomes symbolic of her unfulfilled emotional needs.
• Brief Awakening: The tinker’s interest sparks a change. Elisa’s physical transformation – bathing, changing into a “flower-printed dress,” her face “bright and alive” – reflects a newfound sense of possibility. Her assertive questioning of his life challenges the boundaries she’s accepted.
• Crushing Disillusionment: The discarded chrysanthemum sprouts symbolize the crushing of her hope. Her final actions – crying “weakly, like an old woman” – underscore her defeat and return to the expected feminine role. Steinbeck shows how societal constraints stifle her potential and individuality.

Henry Allen

Elisa’s husband, Henry, serves as a foil highlighting her emotional isolation:

• Oblivious and Kind: He’s well-meaning but fails to perceive Elisa’s deeper needs. His praise of her flowers is practical, focused on their potential sale value, while missing the emotional investment they represent.
• Comfortable Complacency: His banter about selling steers and going into town with the men reinforces the gender divide. He embodies a life of routine and modest success that leaves Elisa restless and unfulfilled.

The Tinker

A minor yet pivotal figure, the tinker functions as both catalyst and destroyer:

• Manipulative Outsider: His appearance disrupts Elisa’s confined world. He feigns interest in her chrysanthemums, drawing her out and giving her a temporary sense of validation. His focus on material gain contrasts with Elisa’s emotional investment.
• Symbol of False Hope: His discarding the sprouts highlights his callous disregard and symbolizes the shattering of Elisa’s illusions. Steinbeck suggests that those outside her conventional life ultimately offer no genuine opportunity for connection or escape.

Significance of Characterization

• Core Theme: Through Elisa, Steinbeck explores the destructive impact of societal limitations on women’s potential and self-expression.
• Nuance: Elisa isn’t simply a victim. Her initial strength hints at what she could be, making the ending feel tragic rather than simply pitiful.
• Symbolism: The chrysanthemums themselves become part of her characterization, mirroring her initial vibrancy and ultimate discarding.

Major Themes in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

1. The limitations of gender roles: The story explores the limitations placed on women in early 20th century America, particularly in rural areas. Elisa’s desire for self-expression is stifled by the expectations of her role as a wife and homemaker. Evidence of this theme is seen when Elisa is described as being trapped on the ranch, “blocked and defeated.” She longs for adventure and meaningful work but is unable to pursue these desires due to her gender.
2. The struggle for identity and self-worth: The story also addresses the universal human struggle for identity and self-worth. Elisa’s chrysanthemums, which represent her passion and creativity, are a source of pride and self-worth for her. When the tinker dismisses her flowers as mere “pots,” it is a blow to her self-esteem. This theme is illustrated when Elisa becomes emotional and defensive when the tinker fails to recognize the true value of her flowers.
3. The power of communication: Communication plays a pivotal role in the story, as Elisa’s brief encounter with the tinker is the catalyst for her emotional journey. The tinker’s flattery and compliments spark a sense of hope and possibility in Elisa, but his deception and lack of understanding ultimately leave her feeling even more trapped and unfulfilled. This theme is exemplified by the conversations between Elisa and the tinker, which are filled with hidden meanings and unspoken desires.
4. The natural world as a symbol for human emotions: Steinbeck often uses natural imagery to convey human emotions in the story. For example, the chrysanthemums are a symbol for Elisa’s passion and creativity, while the Salinas Valley represents the isolation and loneliness she feels. This theme is shown through Steinbeck’s vivid descriptions of the landscape and the natural world, which serve as a backdrop to the emotional struggles of the characters.

Writing Style in “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

• Vivid Descriptive Language: Steinbeck paints a tangible picture of the Salinas Valley setting and Elisa’s world.

Example: “The high grey-flannel fog of winter closed off the Salinas Valley from the sky and all the rest of the world.”

• Third-Person Limited Point of View: Focuses primarily on Elisa’s thoughts and experiences, creating intimacy, but also allows for critical distance.

Example: Descriptions of her actions and the physical transformation she undergoes as she engages with the tinker.

• Imagery: Steinbeck uses sensory details to evoke mood and atmosphere.

Example: The contrast between the “grey-flannel fog” and the vibrant, potent chrysanthemums mirrors Elisa’s internal state.

• Symbolism: Objects carry deeper significance, representing abstract ideas.

Example: The chrysanthemums embody Elisa’s femininity, strength, and unfulfilled potential.

• Foreshadowing: Subtle hints foreshadow events, creating tension and thematic resonance.

Example: The new covering on the tinker’s cart suggests deception, foreshadowing his role in Elisa’s disappointment.

• Evocative Prose: Steinbeck’s simple but powerful language creates a sense of connection between reader and character.

Example: Short, direct sentences mimic Elisa’s initial strength, while the longer, flowing ones during her transformation convey sensuality.

• Dialogue as Revelation: Conversations highlight character motivations and unspoken desires.

Example: Elisa’s assertive questioning of the tinker reveals a yearning for wider experiences.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

1. Feminist Theory: The story can be interpreted through a feminist lens as a commentary on the limitations placed on women in early 20th century America. Elisa’s desire for self-expression and meaningful work is stifled by the expectations of her gender, which is exemplified by her frustration and disappointment when the tinker fails to understand the true value of her chrysanthemums.
2. Psychoanalytic Theory: A psychoanalytic interpretation of the story can reveal underlying psychological motives and conflicts. For example, Elisa’s obsession with her chrysanthemums and her emotional outburst when the tinker dismisses them can be seen as a manifestation of repressed desires and emotions.
3. Marxist Theory: The story can also be interpreted through a Marxist lens as a critique of capitalism and the exploitation of labor. The tinker’s itinerant lifestyle and lack of meaningful work highlight the precariousness of the working class, while Elisa’s frustration and isolation reveal the alienation and oppression that can result from a capitalist society.
4. Reader-Response Theory: A reader-response interpretation of the story focuses on the reader’s subjective experience of the text. The story’s open-ended conclusion invites readers to interpret the meaning of Elisa’s emotional journey and the significance of her encounter with the tinker in their own way.
5. Symbolic Interactionism: The story can be interpreted through the lens of symbolic interactionism, which emphasizes the importance of communication and the ways in which individuals create meaning through their interactions with others. The conversations between Elisa and the tinker are filled with hidden meanings and unspoken desires, highlighting the power of communication and the complexity of human relationships.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

Topic	Guiding Questions	Thesis Statement Examples
Gender Roles & Societal Expectations	How do traditional gender roles shape Elisa’s life and sense of self? To what extent does Steinbeck critique the limitations placed on women in the story’s time period?	In “The Chrysanthemums,” John Steinbeck critiques the confining nature of traditional gender roles, illustrating how they inhibit Elisa’s self-expression and lead to personal dissatisfaction.
Symbolism	What is the significance of the chrysanthemums? How do other objects or images function symbolically within the story?	The chrysanthemums in “The Chrysanthemums” are multi-layered symbols, representing Elisa’s vitality, her longing for connection, and ultimately, the stifling of her potential.
Isolation and Desire for Connection	How does Steinbeck portray Elisa’s isolation? What does her brief interaction with the tinker reveal about her yearning for connection and a life beyond her domestic role?	John Steinbeck’s “The Chrysanthemums” explores the destructive effects of isolation and the human need for genuine connection, highlighting how societal expectations can thwart individual fulfillment.
Power Dynamics	How does the power dynamic shift between Elisa and the tinker? What other instances of power (or lack thereof) are seen in the story?	In “The Chrysanthemums,” Steinbeck uses the encounter between Elisa and the tinker to expose power imbalances based on gender and social roles, ultimately revealing the fragility of female assertiveness within a limiting society.
Unfulfilled Potential	Where does the story suggest Elisa’s potential for a more fulfilling life? To what extent does Steinbeck leave room for optimism, or is the ending entirely bleak?	“The Chrysanthemums” provides a poignant portrayal of unfulfilled potential, with Steinbeck subtly suggesting Elisa’s inherent strength while ultimately leaving ambiguous the possibility of her breaking free from her constraints.

Short Question-Answer “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

1. How does the setting of “The Chrysanthemums” contribute to the story’s overall mood and themes?

The setting of “The Chrysanthemums,” particularly the garden and the surrounding countryside, plays a crucial role in creating the story’s overall mood and themes. Through his vivid and detailed descriptions of the natural world, Steinbeck establishes a sense of emotional depth and richness, and underscores the themes of isolation, frustration, and unfulfilled desire that run throughout the story. The garden, in particular, serves as a metaphor for Elisa’s inner life and her struggle for self-expression, while the surrounding landscape represents the larger forces of society and history that limit her options and constrain her identity.

2. What is the significance of the chrysanthemums in the story, and how do they function as a symbol?

The chrysanthemums in “The Chrysanthemums” serve as a powerful symbol of Elisa’s innermost desires and frustrations. Through her careful cultivation of the flowers, and her attachment to their beauty and vitality, Elisa expresses her own longing for meaning and purpose in her life, as well as her deep sense of isolation and lack of fulfillment. At the same time, the chrysanthemums also serve as a reminder of the limitations and constraints that prevent Elisa from achieving her goals, and of the ways in which society and gender roles have circumscribed her identity and potential.

3. What is the significance of the tinker in “The Chrysanthemums,” and how does he function as a character in the story?

The tinker in “The Chrysanthemums” serves as a catalyst for Elisa’s emotional journey, and as a symbol of the larger forces of society and history that limit her options and constrain her identity. Through his itinerant lifestyle and his roguish charm, the tinker represents a kind of freedom and adventure that Elisa yearns for, but that she is ultimately unable to attain. At the same time, however, the tinker also represents a threat to Elisa’s sense of self and her desire for meaning and purpose, and his presence in the story underscores the central conflict between individual desire and social constraint.

4. What is the significance of Elisa’s clothing in “The Chrysanthemums,” and how does it reflect her inner life and emotional journey?

Elisa’s clothing in “The Chrysanthemums” serves as a powerful symbol of her inner life and emotional journey, and reflects her changing attitudes and desires throughout the story. At the beginning of the story, Elisa is dressed in practical and utilitarian clothing, which underscores her role as a hardworking and capable farm wife. As the story progresses, however, Elisa’s clothing becomes increasingly symbolic and expressive, reflecting her growing frustration and desire for self-expression. When she dresses in her “nice” clothes to meet the tinker, for example, she is symbolically dressing up her inner self and expressing her desire for connection and fulfillment. Similarly, when she strips off her clothes at the end of the story, she is shedding the social constraints and limitations that have held her back, and embracing a more authentic and liberated version of herself.

Literary Works Similar to “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

Title	Author	Brief Summary	Connections to “The Chrysanthemums”
A Rose for Emily	William Faulkner	A reclusive Southern woman’s hidden past challenges societal norms, exploring the consequences of repression and isolation.	* Shares themes of societal expectations, the potential distortion of individual lives due to isolation, and the use of symbolism to convey complex internal experiences.
The Yellow Wallpaper	Charlotte Perkins Gilman	A woman’s confinement for mental health descends into madness, exposing the destructive effects of silencing the female voice and suppressing autonomy.	* Explores the suppression of female self-expression, confinement within societal expectations, and the psychological toll of societal restrictions.
The Awakening	Kate Chopin	A married woman’s sexual and emotional awakening leads her to challenge societal norms and seek personal freedom.	* Examines the female struggle for self-determination within the confines of traditional gender roles.
Ethan Frome	Edith Wharton	A man endures a bleak existence in a loveless marriage, his unfulfilled dreams symbolizing the crushing force of societal and situational constraints.	* Focuses on themes of isolation, unrealized potential, and how societal limitations can restrict and distort individual desires.
Of Mice and Men	John Steinbeck	Two migrant workers grapple with loneliness and longing, their shared dream poignantly illustrating the unattainable nature of some aspirations.	* Shares Steinbeck’s recurring themes of isolation and the human yearning for connection, often set within rural environments where dreams clash with harsh realities.

Suggested Readings: “The Chrysanthemums” by John Steinbeck

Articles:

• Benson, Jackson. “John Steinbeck’s ‘The Chrysanthemums’: A Feminist Reading.” Western American Literature, vol. 16, no. 1 (1981), pp. 31-39.
• Myers, Jeffrey. “Nature and the Cycle of Life in Steinbeck’s ‘The Chrysanthemums.'” Studies in Short Fiction, vol. 21, no. 2 (1984), pp. 171-177.

Websites:

• Steinbeck, John. “The Chrysanthemums.” The Short Story Collection, [publication date], https://literaryfictions.com/fiction-1/the-chrysanthemums-by-john-steinbeck-2/. Accessed 16 March 2024.
• SparkNotes Editors. “SparkNotes: The Chrysanthemums.” SparkNotes, [date accessed], https://www.sparknotes.com/short-stories/the-chrysanthemums/. Accessed 16 March 2024.

Books:

• Benson, Jackson. John Steinbeck’s Short Stories. Twayne Publishers, 1990.
• Breuer, Robert H. John Steinbeck. Rutgers University Press, 2000.