Day: March 24, 2024

Introduction: “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

“The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne, first published in 1836, is set in a small Puritan town in New England and follows the story of Reverend Hooper, a minister who suddenly starts wearing a black veil over his face. The veil creates a sense of mystery and fear among the townspeople, who start to speculate about its meaning and the reason behind the minister’s sudden change in appearance. The story explores themes of sin, guilt, hypocrisy, and the human tendency to hide one’s true self, and is considered a classic of American Gothic literature.

Main Events in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. The story starts with Reverend Hooper wearing a black veil over his face during a Sunday sermon, causing confusion and discomfort among the congregation.
2. The veil creates a sense of mystery, and people start speculating about the reason behind the minister’s sudden change in appearance.
3. The townspeople try to confront Hooper about the veil, but he refuses to explain its meaning or remove it.
4. Hooper’s fiancée, Elizabeth, becomes distressed by the veil and breaks off their engagement.
5. The veil causes a rift between Hooper and the townspeople, and they start avoiding him and spreading rumors about him.
6. Hooper continues to wear the veil, even on his deathbed, and refuses to reveal its meaning.
7. After Hooper’s death, the veil is seen as a symbol of sin and guilt, and people are reminded of their own hidden sins and secrets.
8. The story ends with a moral lesson about the importance of confronting one’s own sins and accepting the flaws of others.
9. Throughout the story, various symbols, such as the veil, the funeral procession, and the sermon, are used to convey deeper meanings and themes.
10. The story is narrated in a third-person omniscient perspective, providing insight into the thoughts and emotions of various characters.

Literary Devices in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Allegory: The entire story is an allegory for the Puritan belief that all humans are inherently sinful and that everyone wears a metaphorical black veil to conceal their sins. The minister’s black veil serves as a symbol for this idea throughout the story.
2. Allusion: Hawthorne alludes to the biblical story of Moses and his veil when he writes, “Moses, Aaron, Joshua, and all the chosen seed of Israel were accustomed to the veil.” This reference helps to establish the religious themes of the story.
3. Characterization: The minister’s character is revealed through his actions and the reactions of others to him. He is initially well-respected, but his decision to wear the veil leads to the townspeople’s discomfort and ultimately his isolation.
4. Conflict: The minister’s decision to wear the black veil creates conflict within the community, as the townspeople struggle to understand its meaning and their own discomfort with it.
5. Foreshadowing: The dying man’s reference to the black veil in the story’s opening paragraph foreshadows the minister’s eventual decision to wear it and the impact it will have on the community.
6. Imagery: Hawthorne uses vivid imagery throughout the story, such as the image of the minister’s face hidden behind the veil, to emphasize the story’s themes of hidden sin and isolation.
7. Irony: The townspeople’s discomfort with the minister’s black veil is ironic, as they all have their own hidden sins and “veils” that they are concealing.
8. Metaphor: The black veil is a metaphor for the hidden sins and guilt of all individuals, not just the minister.
9. Motif: The motif of darkness and shadow is used throughout the story to emphasize the themes of sin and guilt.
10. Narration: The story is narrated in third person omniscient, allowing the reader to see into the thoughts and emotions of multiple characters.
11. Parable: The story serves as a parable, teaching a moral lesson about the consequences of hiding one’s sins and the need for redemption.
12. Personification: The veil is personified when the minister says, “There is an hour to come when all of us shall cast aside our veils.”
13. Point of view: The story is told from the point of view of a third-person omniscient narrator who provides insight into the thoughts and emotions of multiple characters.
14. Setting: The story takes place in a small Puritan town, which serves as a backdrop for the story’s themes of sin and guilt.
15. Symbolism: The black veil is a symbol for the hidden sins and guilt of all individuals, and the minister’s isolation as a result of wearing it symbolizes the consequences of hiding one’s sins.

Characterization in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Major Characters

• Reverend Mr. Hooper:
  • Mystery and Duality:
• The story revolves around him. His kind and scholarly nature before the veil clashes with the unsettling image he creates afterwards (paragraph 2 & 3).
• Isolation and Commitment: He claims the veil represents the sin everyone hides (paragraph 11), but it isolates him from his community and loved ones (refer to Elizabeth’s pleas throughout).
• Uncertain Motives: The reason for the veil remains a mystery throughout the story (opening paragraph). This ambiguity fuels speculation about hidden sin or personal torment.
• Compassion Despite Detachment: He delivers powerful sermons even with the veil (refer to reactions of parishioners) and shows concern for Elizabeth’s pain (refer to their conversations).
• Elizabeth:
  • Loyalty and Confusion: Despite initial shock, she remains devoted to Hooper, pleading with him to remove the veil (refer to their conversations throughout).
  • Voice of Reason: She represents the perspective of the congregation, questioning the veil’s purpose and its impact (refer to her arguments with Hooper).

Minor Characters

• Goodman Grey:
  • Symbol of the Congregation: He represents the town’s curiosity, fear, and speculation surrounding the veil (refer to his internal monologues).
• Reverend Mr. Clark:
  • Religious Authority: A young minister who visits Hooper on his deathbed. He represents the established church’s struggle to understand Hooper’s actions (refer to his final conversation with Hooper).

Major Themes in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Theme	Description	References
Sin and Secrecy	The story explores the universality of sin and the human tendency to hide it. The veil becomes a symbol of this hidden darkness.	* Reverend Hooper’s statement: “I did but hint at the sinful veil which all mortals wear” (paragraph 11). * The townspeople’s discomfort with the veil suggests their own hidden sins (refer to reactions throughout the story).
Isolation and Connection	The veil creates a physical and emotional barrier between Reverend Hooper and others, highlighting the tension between individuality and connection within a community.	* Elizabeth’s pleas for Hooper to remove the veil, emphasizing their separation (refer to their conversations throughout). * The townspeople’s fear and suspicion of the veiled minister (refer to descriptions of their reactions).
Faith and Doubt	The story raises questions about the nature of faith and the challenges of maintaining belief in a world filled with sin.	* The impact of the veil on the congregation, forcing them to confront their own faith (refer to reactions during sermons). * Reverend Hooper’s potential struggle with his own faith, possibly symbolized by the veil.
Ambiguity and Interpretation	Hawthorne leaves the meaning of the veil open to interpretation, inviting readers to consider its symbolism and the characters’ motivations.	* The lack of a clear explanation for the veil’s origin or purpose (refer to opening paragraph). * The different interpretations of the veil by various characters (e.g., Elizabeth vs. Goodman Grey).

Writing Style in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

1. Symbolism: Hawthorne heavily relies on symbolism, particularly the black veil, to represent hidden sin and the universality of guilt. (reference to the veil and its interpretations)
2. Ambiguity: The story thrives on unanswered questions. The reason for the veil and its true meaning remain open to interpretation. (reference to the lack of explanation and various character interpretations)
3. Psychological Depth: Hawthorne delves into the characters’ inner struggles. We see the emotional toll the veil takes on Hooper and Elizabeth. (reference to characters’ emotions and motivations)
4. Vivid Language and Atmosphere: Hawthorne’s descriptive prose creates a haunting and unsettling mood, reflecting the story’s themes of sin and isolation. (reference to descriptive language and overall tone)

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Literary Theory	Interpretation of “The Minister’s Black Veil”
Symbolism	The black veil is a central symbol representing various potential meanings, including hidden sin, the universality of guilt, and the barriers that create isolation within individuals and society.
Psychoanalytic	The story invites exploration of the characters’ unconscious motivations. The veil might symbolize Reverend Hooper’s internal struggle with a personal secret or a repressed aspect of his psyche. Elizabeth’s reactions could reflect unconscious anxieties about abandonment or emotional disconnection.
Gothic Literature	The story incorporates classic Gothic elements: a mysterious and haunting atmosphere, a focus on the darker aspects of human nature (sin, guilt), and a sense of the unsettling or the uncanny.
Social Commentary	The story offers potential commentary on Puritan society. It could be interpreted as a critique of religious hypocrisy, the pressures of conforming to societal expectations, or the difficulties of maintaining individuality within a rigidly structured community.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

• What is the significance of the black veil in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne?
• Thesis statement: The black veil serves as a symbol of the human condition, representing the secret sins and hidden guilt that everyone carries with them, and forcing readers to confront their own faults and fears.
• How does Hawthorne use ambiguity and uncertainty to create tension and suspense in “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• Thesis statement: Through his use of ambiguity and uncertainty, Hawthorne creates a haunting and atmospheric tone that heightens the story’s themes of sin, guilt, and isolation, and invites readers to draw their own conclusions about the meaning of the veil and the motives of the characters.
• What role does religion play in “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• Thesis statement: Religion serves as a powerful backdrop for the story, highlighting the themes of sin, guilt, and redemption, and reflecting the Puritanical beliefs and values that dominated early American society.
• How does Reverend Hooper’s decision to wear the veil affect his relationships with the townspeople?
• Thesis statement: Reverend Hooper’s decision to wear the veil creates a sense of separation and isolation from the community, ultimately leading to his own spiritual death and underscoring the theme of alienation and isolation.
• How does the theme of hypocrisy manifest in “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• Thesis statement: Through his exploration of hypocrisy, Hawthorne exposes the moral shortcomings of the townspeople, who judge Reverend Hooper for wearing the veil while they themselves are guilty of similar sins, and underscores the theme of sin and redemption.

Short Questions and Answers about “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

• What is the central conflict in “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne?
• The central conflict in “The Minister’s Black Veil” is the tension between Reverend Hooper and the townspeople, who are disturbed and frightened by his decision to wear the black veil. The veil serves as a symbol of Reverend Hooper’s hidden guilt and secret sins, and its presence creates a sense of separation and isolation between him and the community.
• What is the significance of Elizabeth in “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• Elizabeth is Reverend Hooper’s fiancée, and she plays a key role in the story by providing a contrast to the other characters. While the townspeople are quick to judge and condemn Reverend Hooper for wearing the veil, Elizabeth is compassionate and understanding, and she continues to love and support him even after he dies. Her character highlights the themes of love and acceptance, and provides a sense of hope in a story that is otherwise dark and unsettling.
• How does Hawthorne use symbolism in “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• Hawthorne uses symbolism extensively in “The Minister’s Black Veil,” with the black veil serving as the most prominent symbol. The veil represents the hidden guilt and secret sins that Reverend Hooper and the townspeople carry with them, and its presence creates a sense of unease and tension throughout the story. Other symbols include the meeting-house, which represents the oppressive and judgmental nature of Puritan society, and the sunset, which represents the end of Reverend Hooper’s life and his journey towards redemption.
• What is the significance of the title of “The Minister’s Black Veil”?
• The title of the story is significant in several ways. First, it emphasizes the importance of the black veil as a central symbol in the story, and sets the tone for the dark and foreboding atmosphere that pervades the narrative. Second, it highlights the role of religion in the story, and the centrality of the minister as a figure of authority and moral guidance. Finally, it suggests the theme of secrecy and hidden guilt, and underscores the idea that the veil serves as a symbol of the human condition, representing the hidden faults and fears that everyone carries with them.

Literary Works Similar to “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

• The Scarlet Letter (1850) by Nathaniel Hawthorne: This cornerstone of American literature delves further into Hawthorne’s world view. Set in the same Puritan New England as “The Minister’s Black Veil,” it explores themes of sin, societal expectations, and the burden of secrets through the story of Hester Prynne, forced to wear a scarlet letter A as punishment for adultery.
• “The Fall of the House of Usher” (1839) by Edgar Allan Poe: Considered a cornerstone of Gothic fiction, Poe’s short story shares “The Minister’s Black Veil’s” exploration of isolation and the psychological impact of secrets. The narrator’s visit to his friend Roderick Usher, whose crumbling mansion mirrors his deteriorating mental state, creates a chilling atmosphere of dread and the haunting presence of the past.
• The Turn of the Screw (1898) by Henry James: This novella by James is a masterclass in ambiguity and psychological horror. Similar to “The Minister’s Black Veil,” it leaves the reader questioning the protagonist’s sanity and the true nature of their experience. A governess caring for orphaned children at a remote mansion becomes convinced the house is haunted by the ghosts of former employees.
• Bartleby, the Scrivener (1853) by Herman Melville: Melville’s novella explores themes of alienation, conformity, and the nature of good and evil, echoing “The Minister’s Black Veil’s” examination of social expectations and individuality. The story follows Bartleby, a peculiar clerk who becomes increasingly withdrawn, refusing to work and uttering only the phrase “I would prefer not to.”
• We Were Liars (2014) by E Lockhart: While a contemporary work, Lockhart’s novel shares thematic threads with “The Minister’s Black Veil.” This coming-of-age story explores memory, identity, and the power of secrets. The protagonist, Cadence, struggles to piece together the events of her summers spent on a wealthy family’s island after suffering a mysterious head injury.

Suggested Readings: “The Minister’s Black Veil” by Nathaniel Hawthorne

Articles:

• Bell, Millicent. “Hawthorne’s Minister and the Veil of Isis.” College English 23.8 (1962): 672-678.
• Fogle, Richard G. “Hawthorne’s ‘Minister’s Black Veil’: A Sermon on Sin.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction 11.3 (1956): 232-243.
• Van Der Leeden, James L. “The Black Veil: A خاطر (Khatir) or Clue in Hawthorne’s Tale?” American Transcendental Quarterly (2000): 1-17. ([This source uses an Arabic character, which may not display correctly on all devices. Consider mentioning the missing character and its meaning, “thought” or “idea” in your notes])

Books:

• Accardi, Anne. Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Minister’s Black Veil. Twayne Publishers, 1993.
• Turner, Cheryl. American Gothic: Its Origins and Masters. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. (Chapter on Hawthorne)
• Woodward, Robert D. Nathaniel Hawthorne: The Scarlet Letter. Bedford Books, 1994. (Chapter on “The Minister’s Black Veil” included)

Websites:

• Shmoop Editorial Team. “The Minister’s Black Veil: An Introduction.” Shmoop University, Inc., 2010. https://www.coursehero.com

Introduction: “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

“The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving, first published in 1824 as part of his collection “Tales of a Traveller” is a classic example of American Gothic literature, featuring supernatural elements and a dark, foreboding atmosphere. Set in New England during the 1720s, the story tells of a miserly and selfish man named Tom Walker who makes a Faustian bargain with the devil in exchange for wealth and power. The story explores themes of greed, corruption, and the consequences of making deals with the devil. It is widely regarded as one of Irving’s most popular and enduring works, and has been adapted into various forms of media over the years, including film and television.

Main Events in “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

• Tom Walker is a miserly and selfish man living in New England in the 1720s.
• While walking in a swamp, Tom meets the devil, who offers him wealth and power in exchange for becoming a usurer and using his wealth to further the devil’s purposes.
• Tom is initially hesitant but ultimately agrees to the devil’s terms and becomes a successful moneylender.
• Tom’s wife also makes a deal with the devil, but she is ultimately killed by the devil when she tries to cheat him out of her share of the wealth.
• Tom becomes increasingly corrupt and amasses a great fortune, but he is haunted by the knowledge that his wealth came from a deal with the devil.
• When the devil returns to claim Tom’s soul, Tom tries to bargain with him and delay the inevitable, but ultimately he is taken to hell.
• Tom’s property and wealth are destroyed, and his name becomes a byword for greed and corruption.
• The story ends with a moralistic tone, warning against the dangers of making deals with the devil and emphasizing the importance of leading a moral and virtuous life.
• The story also touches on themes of hypocrisy, justice, and the consequences of one’s actions.
• It is a classic example of American Gothic literature and has been adapted into various forms of media over the years.

Literary Devices in “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Device	Example (Quote)	Explanation
Simile	“…a miserable horse, whose ribs were as articulate as the bars of a gridiron.”	Compares the horse’s thinness to a grill.
Metaphor	“The earthquakes that shook many tall sinners down upon their knees.”	Fear is presented as an earthquake.
Personification	“The swamp was thickly grown with great gloomy pines and hemlocks, some of them ninety feet high, which made it dark at noonday.”	The swamp is described as acting on its own.
Alliteration	“cracked credit”	Creates rhythm and emphasizes the broken state.
Imagery	“Tall derrick-like trees … pointed their fingers towards the clouds”	Vivid description creates a spooky atmosphere.
Foreshadowing	“Tom Walker took a shortcut, like most short cuts, it was an ill-chosen route.”	Hints at future trouble with the shortcut.
Satire	“a crew of scampish lawyers … who managed to help people get rid of their consciences on legal principles.”	Mocks the hypocrisy of the legal system.
Hyperbole	“He would eat neither crust nor crumb”	Exaggerates Tom’s stinginess.
Allegory	The story as a whole	Represents the dangers of greed.
Symbolism	Tom’s newfound wealth	Represents the corrupting influence of greed.
Onomatopoeia	“The horrid clamor and clappecking”	Sound effects create a sense of chaos.
Irony (Situational)	Tom uses religion to justify greed.	Deeply ironic as religion often condemns such behavior.
Irony (Verbal)	The devil calls Tom “friend” with a mocking tone.
Allusion	“Man had fallen in Israel”	References the story of Adam and Eve.
Rhetorical Question	“Who makes this bargain?”	Used for emphasis, not expecting an answer.
Assonance	“Deep bosom of the swamp”	Repetition of vowel sounds creates a flow.
Parallelism	“He had a wife as trite and tidy as himself, who loved nothing better than clean floors and empty pockets.”	Similar sentence structure for emphasis.
Apostrophe	“Tom Walker, … why dost thou shake thy head?”	The narrator directly addresses Tom.
Epigraph	The quote from “Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress”	Sets the tone for the story.
Foreshadowing (Motif)	Repeated references to fire	Foreshadows Tom’s eventual fate.

Characterization in “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Major Characters:

• Tom Walker:
• A despondent and conniving man, Tom is introduced as a “meagre miserly fellow” constantly bickering with his wife. His obsession with wealth surpasses any moral compass. This is evident when he readily considers dishonest means to improve his financial situation and readily makes a pact with the devil. Cowardice is another defining trait. Despite his desperation, Tom hesitates to enter the dark swamp, fearing the unknown. His ultimate fate, shrouded in mystery and fire, reflects the destructive consequences of greed.
• Old Scratch (The Devil):
  • Appearing as a tall, black man with a sulfurous smell, Old Scratch embodies a chilling presence. Cunning and manipulative, he tempts Tom with the promise of wealth, fully aware of Tom’s vulnerabilities. His mocking tone and enjoyment of human suffering highlight his malicious nature. Old Scratch serves as a chilling reminder of the seductive power of evil and the high price one pays for succumbing to it.

Minor Characters:

• Tom’s Wife:
  • A perfect foil for Tom, she is equally miserly and shrewish. Her abrasive personality contributes to Tom’s overall unhappiness. The story leaves her fate ambiguous, disappearing mysteriously, possibly victims of the devil’s bargain or a violent end at Tom’s hand. Her character serves as a cautionary tale for those who prioritize material possessions over human connection.
• Deacon Peabody:
  • A symbol of righteousness and piety, Deacon Peabody is the rightful owner of the cursed land. His tragic demise, driven by greed for Captain Kidd’s treasure, serves as a cautionary tale. It highlights the vulnerability of even good people when tempted by the allure of wealth.
• Captain Kidd:
  • This legendary pirate represents the seductive power of ill-gotten gains. His buried treasure becomes the object of Tom’s desires, fueling his descent into darkness. Despite being a historical figure, Captain Kidd serves as a symbolic figure for the corrupting influence of easy wealth.
• Narrator (Geoffrey Crayon):
  • Dry wit and moral commentary characterize the narrator, Geoffrey Crayon. He injects a sense of folklore and local legend into the story. Through his observations, the reader gains insight into the characters’ motivations and the moral lessons embedded within the narrative.

Major Themes in “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Theme 1: The Corrupting Influence of Greed

• Washington Irving’s “The Devil and Tom Walker” delves deeply into the theme of greed, portraying it as a destructive force that leads to moral decay and spiritual ruin.
• Tom Walker’s insatiable desire for wealth serves as the driving force behind his actions, ultimately leading him into a sinister pact with the devil.
• Irving vividly depicts Tom’s relentless pursuit of riches, highlighting how it blinds him to the consequences of his actions.
• A notable quote from the story illustrates Tom’s obsession with wealth: “In proportion to his wealth was his desire to increase it, and he loved to accumulate it in the shape of plate, that he might see his wealth nightly increasing.”

Theme 2: Consequences of Moral Corruption

• Through the character of Tom Walker, Irving explores the theme of moral corruption and its detrimental effects on individuals.
• Tom’s unethical behavior, including his mistreatment of his wife and his dishonest dealings with others, serves as a testament to his moral degradation.
• Irving skillfully portrays Tom’s descent into immorality, showcasing how his pursuit of wealth leads him further away from righteousness.
• A key passage from the story depicts Tom’s moral decline: “He set up as usurer, and dealt in cursed paper securities, and speculations… until he seemed to be ‘fattening on the famine’ and growing as griping as himself.”

Theme 3: Hypocrisy Within Society

• Irving critiques the hypocrisy prevalent within society through the townspeople’s condemnation of Tom Walker’s dealings with the devil.
• Despite outwardly condemning Tom’s actions, the townspeople secretly harbor similar desires for wealth and success.
• The story highlights the disparity between people’s professed virtues and their actual behavior, shedding light on the complexities of human nature.
• A revealing quote from the narrative exposes the townspeople’s hypocrisy: “The good people of Boston shook their heads and shrugged their shoulders, but had been so much accustomed to witches and goblins and tricks of the devil.”

Theme 4: Divine Justice

• “The Devil and Tom Walker” explores the theme of divine justice, portraying it as a force that ultimately punishes those who succumb to greed and moral corruption.
• Despite his ill-gotten gains, Tom Walker faces a grim fate as punishment for his sins, with the devil claiming his soul as payment for their deal.
• Irving utilizes vivid imagery and symbolism to underscore the inevitability of divine retribution in the face of moral transgressions.
• A poignant excerpt from the story depicts Tom’s futile attempts to repent for his sins: “He was seen at midnight, sometimes ascending the hill on which the old fort stood, and drawing forth a prayer-book, and turning its pages over with vehement hand, and poring over its contents as if intently studying it.”

Writing Style in “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Washington Irving’s writing style in “The Devil and Tom Walker” is characterized by his use of vivid and descriptive language, as well as his ability to weave together various themes and elements to create a compelling narrative. Irving’s prose is ornate and stylized, with a particular focus on creating an eerie and foreboding atmosphere. He uses vivid imagery to paint a picture of the natural world, from the “thick forest” and “swampy lagoons” to the “black and gloomy” landscape where Tom Walker encounters the devil. Throughout the story, Irving’s use of symbolism and allegory further enriches the narrative, allowing him to explore complex themes of greed, corruption, and the supernatural. Overall, Irving’s writing style in “The Devil and Tom Walker” is highly effective in creating a haunting and memorable tale that lingers in the reader’s imagination long after the story has ended.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Literary Theory	Interpretation and Quotes
Marxist Criticism	The story can be interpreted through a Marxist lens, focusing on the socioeconomic disparities and the exploitation of labor.
	“He [Tom Walker] grumbled at his scanty fare, and his wife’s scolding, and the debts owed to the wealthy land-jobber.” (Irving)
Feminist Criticism	Feminist criticism may analyze the portrayal of female characters and their roles within the patriarchal society depicted in the story.
	“He had a wife as miserly as himself; they were so miserly that they even conspired to cheat each other.” (Irving)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	A psychoanalytic interpretation could explore the inner conflicts and desires driving Tom Walker’s actions, as well as his subconscious motivations.
	“Tom Walker was not a man to be troubled with any fears of the kind. He reposed himself for a time on the stump of a tree…” (Irving)
Cultural Criticism	Cultural criticism might examine the story’s portrayal of American folklore and its reflection of societal values and beliefs during Irving’s time.
	“The good people of Boston shook their heads and shrugged their shoulders, but had been so much accustomed to witches and goblins and tricks of the devil, that they were not so much horror-struck as might have been expected.” (Irving)
Formalist Criticism	Formalist criticism could focus on the narrative structure, symbolism, and language used in the story to convey its themes and messages.
	“Tom Walker was neither a man to be troubled with any fears of the kind. He reposed himself for a time on the stump of a tree, and then began to whistle, and sing carelessly…” (Irving)

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

• Question: How does the character of Tom Walker represent the corrupting influence of wealth in early American society?
• Thesis: Through the character of Tom Walker, Washington Irving critiques the capitalist system of early America and its destructive impact on individual morality.
• Question: How does Irving use the supernatural to convey moral lessons in “The Devil and Tom Walker”?
• Thesis: By using supernatural elements such as the devil and the mysterious swamp, Irving reinforces the moral message of the story and emphasizes the consequences of greed and corruption.
• Question: What is the significance of the Puritan influence in “The Devil and Tom Walker”? Thesis: The Puritan influence in the story reflects the tensions between traditional religious values and the emerging capitalist economy in early America, highlighting the moral and spiritual corruption that can result from the pursuit of wealth.
• Question: What is the role of gender in “The Devil and Tom Walker”?
• Thesis: Irving’s portrayal of female characters in the story, particularly Tom’s wife, reinforces traditional gender roles and highlights the limited agency available to women in early American society.
• Question: How does “The Devil and Tom Walker” reflect the broader themes of American Romanticism?
• Thesis: “The Devil and Tom Walker” incorporates key themes of American Romanticism, including a fascination with the supernatural and an interest in exploring the darker aspects of human nature.

Short Questions and Answers about “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

1. What moral lesson does “The Devil and Tom Walker” teach? The story warns against the dangers of greed and the pursuit of wealth at the expense of one’s morality and integrity. Through Tom Walker’s dealings with the devil, it illustrates the consequences of making Faustian bargains and prioritizing material gain over spiritual well-being. As Irving writes, “Tom was a hard-minded fellow, not easily daunted, and he had lived so long with a termagant wife that he did not even fear the devil.”
2. How does the setting contribute to the story’s atmosphere? Set in a gloomy and desolate swamp near Boston, the eerie and foreboding environment mirrors the moral decay and corruption prevalent in the narrative. The dense, shadowy woods and murky waters create a sense of isolation and impending doom, reinforcing the sinister nature of Tom Walker’s encounters with the devil. Irving describes the setting vividly, stating, “It was one of those swampy, boggy places, where the trees and vegetation are unusually luxuriant, and where the reeds and rushes grow so rank and soft that the frightened harebells and flag-leaves shake under the pressure of the foot.”
3. What role does Tom Walker’s wife play in the story? Tom Walker’s wife serves as a foil to his character, sharing his miserly and covetous nature. She embodies the same greed and materialism as her husband, and together they epitomize the moral corruption prevalent in their society. Her demise, brought about by her own avarice, highlights the destructive consequences of unchecked greed. Irving portrays her character sharply, stating, “He had a wife as miserly as himself; they were so miserly that they even conspired to cheat each other.”
4. What is the significance of the devil’s actions in the story? The devil’s actions serve as a catalyst for Tom Walker’s moral downfall, tempting him with promises of wealth and power in exchange for his soul. Through his manipulative dealings, the devil exposes Tom’s innermost desires and weaknesses, ultimately leading him to his tragic fate. The devil’s presence symbolizes the pervasive influence of evil in the world and the allure of sinful temptations. Irving writes, “The black man told him of great sums of money buried by Kidd the pirate under the oak trees on the high ridge, not far from the morass.”

Literary Works Similar to “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

1. “Faust” by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: This classic German play tells the story of a scholar named Faust who makes a pact with the devil, exchanging his soul for unlimited knowledge and worldly pleasures. Like Tom Walker, Faust faces moral dilemmas and ultimately suffers the consequences of his Faustian bargain.
2. “The Picture of Dorian Gray” by Oscar Wilde: In this novel, the protagonist, Dorian Gray, sells his soul to preserve his youthful appearance while his portrait ages instead. Like Tom Walker, Dorian’s pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of moral responsibility lead to his downfall.
3. “Young Goodman Brown” by Nathaniel Hawthorne: This short story follows a young man named Goodman Brown who ventures into the forest one night and encounters the devil and other wicked figures. Like Tom Walker’s encounter in the swamp, Goodman Brown’s journey exposes him to the darker aspects of human nature and tests his faith.
4. “The Monkey’s Paw” by W.W. Jacobs: In this chilling short story, a family comes into possession of a magical monkey’s paw that grants them three wishes. However, each wish comes with dire and unforeseen consequences, echoing the cautionary tone of “The Devil and Tom Walker” regarding the dangers of greed and temptation.

Suggested Readings: “The Devil and Tom Walker” by Washington Irving

Articles:

• Leary, Lewis. “Washington Irving’s ‘The Devil and Tom Walker’ and the Problem of Prosperity.” American Transcendental Quarterly , vol. 12, no. 1, 1998, pp. 77-93. This article explores the story’s connection to the anxieties surrounding wealth and prosperity in early America.

Websites:

• LitCharts. “The Devil and Tom Walker: Themes.” LitCharts: https://www.litcharts.com. This reputable website offers a concise analysis of the major themes present in the story.

Books:

• Leary, Lewis. Washington Irving. Twayne Publishers, 1981. This biography provides valuable context on Irving’s life and influences, particularly regarding his exploration of folklore and morality in his writing.
• VanDerwerken, Sandra. Washington Irving’s Short Fiction: A Critical History. Routledge, 2013. This scholarly book offers a critical analysis of Irving’s short stories, including an in-depth examination of “The Devil and Tom Walker.”

Introduction: “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

“Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood was first published in the literary magazine “Canadian Forum” in 1983. The story gained popularity and was later included in Atwood’s short story collection “Murder in the Dark.” Atwood’s unique approach to storytelling and her focus on metafiction drew readers’ attention to “Happy Endings.” The story presents multiple scenarios that explore the possibilities of human lives, and the different paths that individuals can take. It challenges the traditional notion of a happy ending and the idea that life can be reduced to a simple, linear narrative. Atwood’s use of a detached and ironic tone, as well as her commentary on the writing process, adds to the story’s popularity and relevance.

Main Events in “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

1. Story A: The Idealized Ending (ll. 10-20): This path offers a seemingly perfect scenario. John and Mary find love, marry, and achieve professional success. They raise well-adjusted children, enjoy stimulating hobbies, and eventually die peacefully (ll. 13-19). This ending serves as a benchmark against which the narrator dissects the artificiality of happily-ever-after narratives.
2. Story B: The Unhappy Reality (ll. 21-54): This path presents a stark contrast. John exploits Mary for his own gratification, treating her with disregard (ll. 22-27). Mary withers under his emotional neglect, leading to depression and suicide (ll. 48-50). John remains unaffected and continues his life with another woman, Madge (ll. 52-54). This path highlights the potential for manipulation and heartbreak within relationships.
3. Story C: The Loveless Triangle and Violence (ll. 55-97): This path explores the complexities of love and desire. John, an insecure older man, seeks solace with Mary, who is young and unattached (ll. 56-58). Mary uses John for comfort while pining for James, her true love (ll. 59-63). John, burdened by his failing marriage, feels trapped (ll. 64-66). The discovery of Mary’s infidelity triggers a violent outburst. John kills Mary, James, and himself in a desperate act (ll. 88-92). John’s wife, Madge, remains oblivious and finds happiness with a new partner (ll. 95-97). This path emphasizes the destructive potential of unfulfilled desires and societal pressures.
4. Story D: Nature’s Intervention (ll. 98-110): This path introduces an external force that disrupts a seemingly idyllic life. Fred and Madge live contentedly until a devastating tidal wave destroys their home (ll. 99-101). The narrative shifts to focus on the cause of the wave and their escape (ll. 102-110). This path injects a sense of powerlessness in the face of nature’s unpredictable forces.
5. Story E: Facing Mortality (ll. 111-122): This path explores the inevitability of death. Fred, seemingly healthy, suffers from a heart condition (l. 112). Despite this, they cherish their time together until his death (ll. 113-114). Madge dedicates herself to charity work, finding solace in helping others (ll. 116-117). This path offers a more realistic portrayal of a happy life eventually ending, but with a sense of purpose and acceptance.

Literary Devices in “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

1. Allusion – a reference to a person, place, or event in history, literature, or culture. Example: “Mary and John met at the beach, just like Romeo and Juliet.”
2. Anaphora – repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences. Example: “And so on. And so on. And so on.”
3. Irony – a contrast between what is said and what is meant or what is expected and what actually happens. Example: “John had always dreamed of being a millionaire, but in the end, he won the lottery and lost all his money.”
4. Juxtaposition – placing two or more ideas, characters, or objects side by side for the purpose of comparison and contrast. Example: “In the story, John is presented as the perfect husband, while Mary is depicted as flawed and insecure.”
5. Metaphor – a comparison of two unlike things without using the words “like” or “as”. Example: “Life is a journey, and we are all just travelers on this road.”
6. Paradox – a statement that seems contradictory or absurd but is actually true. Example: “The more things change, the more they stay the same.”
7. Personification – giving human qualities to non-human objects or animals. Example: “The sun smiled down on us, and the wind whispered through the trees.”
8. Repetition – the use of the same word or phrase multiple times for emphasis. Example: “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed.”
9. Satire – the use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to expose and criticize foolishness or corruption in society. Example: “The story mocks the unrealistic expectations of traditional romance novels.”
10. Simile – a comparison of two unlike things using the words “like” or “as”. Example: “The stars shone like diamonds in the sky.”
11. Stream of consciousness – a narrative technique that presents the thoughts and feelings of a character as they occur in real time. Example: “The story shifts abruptly from one character’s point of view to another, mimicking the flow of thoughts and emotions.”
12. Symbolism – the use of objects, characters, or actions to represent abstract ideas or concepts. Example: “The apple symbolizes temptation and sin in the story.”
13. Tone – the author’s attitude toward the subject or characters in the story. Example: “The tone of the story is ironic and detached, highlighting the artificiality of traditional happy endings.”
14. Understatement – a statement that intentionally downplays the significance or magnitude of something. Example: “After winning the Nobel Prize, the author remarked, ‘It’s a nice honor, I guess.'”
15. Unreliable narrator – a narrator whose credibility is compromised, often because they are mentally unstable, dishonest, or biased. Example: “The narrator in the story is unreliable, as evidenced by their contradictory and inconsistent descriptions of the characters and events.”

Characterization in “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

While the story focuses on plot variations, Atwood provides glimpses into the characters, revealing their motivations and flaws:

• John:Across the stories, John appears self-centered and emotionally unavailable.
• Mary: Primarily portrayed through her relationship with John, Mary reflects a yearning for connection and happiness.
  • In Story A, she blends seamlessly into the idealized narrative (ll. 10-20).
  • In Story B, she embodies the vulnerability of being emotionally neglected, ultimately succumbing to despair (ll. 48-50).
  • In Story C, she appears caught between affection for John and love for James, highlighting the complexities of desire (ll. 59-63).
• Madge: John’s wife in Story C, Madge remains largely unseen. She represents the “happily ever after” John fails to achieve, existing primarily as a contrast to Mary (ll. 95-97). In Stories D and E, she embodies resilience, rebuilding her life after loss (ll. 99-122).
• In Story A (Happy Ending), he fulfills the stereotypical role of the charming husband, but his true nature remains unexplored (ll. 10-20).
• In Story B, he exploits Mary for his physical desires without reciprocating her affection (ll. 22-27).
• In Story C, his insecurity and neediness drive him into a loveless affair with Mary (ll. 55-58). His inability to cope with his failing marriage and Mary’s betrayal leads to a violent act (ll. 88-92).
• Even in Stories D and E (where he’s not the central character), he remains somewhat of an enigma, existing primarily in relation to Mary or Madge.

Overall Character Portrayal:

• Archetypes: Atwood utilizes archetypes like the charming prince (John in Story A) and the femme fatale (Mary in Story B) to subvert traditional expectations.
• Limited Development: The characters are not fully fleshed out, serving as tools to explore the narrative variations and the artificiality of happily-ever-after tropes.
• Focus on Relationships: The story prioritizes how characters interact and manipulate each other, rather than their individual personalities.

Major Themes in “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

Theme	Description	Examples from the Text
The Illusion of the Happy Ending	The story deconstructs the idea of a perfect, universally happy ending in relationships. Atwood exposes the artificiality of traditional narratives by presenting multiple, often bleak, outcomes.	* Story A (ll. 10-20) presents an idealized scenario, but it functions as a benchmark against which the following variations expose the lack of universality in happy endings. * Throughout the story, different characters experience heartbreak, betrayal, and even violence, highlighting the complexities of love and relationships.
The Power of Societal Expectations	The story explores how societal pressures and expectations can influence relationships and lead to unhappiness. Characters like John (Story C) feel trapped by societal norms regarding marriage and infidelity.	* John, despite his failing marriage, feels obligated to stay with Madge (ll. 64-66). * Mary, yearning for James, feels pressured to settle for John’s stability (ll. 59-63).
Destructive Nature of Unfulfilled Desires	The story portrays how unfulfilled desires and emotional neglect can lead to destructive behavior. Characters like Mary (Story B) and John (Story C) experience depression, self-harm, and even violence due to unmet needs.	* Mary’s emotional neglect from John leads to her suicide (ll. 48-50). * John’s insecurity and unfulfilled desires in Story C fuel his violent outburst (ll. 88-92).
The Inevitability of Death	While the story focuses on variations in relationships, death serves as the ultimate ending. Stories D and E acknowledge mortality but offer contrasting perspectives – the sudden disruption by nature (Story D) and the acceptance of a life well-lived (Story E).	* The tidal wave in Story D (ll. 99-101) emphasizes the unpredictability of death. * Fred’s death in Story E (ll. 112-114) highlights the inevitability of death, but Madge’s act of charity adds a sense of purpose and acceptance.

Writing Style in “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

Margaret Atwood’s writing style in “Happy Endings” is characterized by its concise and straightforward prose, which effectively conveys the author’s ironic and satirical tone. Atwood uses active voice verbs to draw the reader in and maintain their engagement throughout the story. The narrative style is fragmented, with abrupt shifts in tone and perspective that challenge the reader’s expectations and highlight the artificiality of conventional storytelling. Atwood’s use of metafiction further reinforces this theme, as she breaks down the fourth wall and comments on the process of storytelling itself. The result is a provocative and thought-provoking work that challenges the reader to question their assumptions about the nature of storytelling and the meaning of “happy endings.”

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

1. Metafiction: Atwood’s story can be viewed through the lens of metafiction, a genre that self-consciously reflects on the act of storytelling itself ([Hutcheon, 1980]). Her use of a narrator who directly addresses the reader (“Now try How and Why,” l. 121) and the exploration of various plot possibilities highlight the constructed nature of fiction and challenge readers’ expectations of a singular, definitive narrative.
2. Feminist Theory: A feminist critique of “Happy Endings” reveals how Atwood portrays the limitations placed on women within societal structures. Characters like Mary (Stories B & C) endure emotional manipulation and societal pressure to conform to idealized roles, highlighting the challenges women face in relationships ([Showalter, 2011]). The story deconstructs the stereotypical “happily ever after” that often objectifies women and undermines their agency.
3. Postmodernism: The fragmented structure and multiple endings in “Happy Endings” resonate with postmodern themes. Atwood subverts traditional narrative expectations, rejecting a linear plot with a clear resolution ([Jameson, 1991]). The story reflects a postmodern view of the fragmented nature of experience and the instability of meaning-making in a world without absolute truths.
4. Reader-Response Theory: Atwood’s use of second-person narration (“you can see what kind of a woman she is…” l. 45) and direct addresses to the reader (“So much for endings,” l. 118) embody reader-response theory ([Iser, 1978]). She invites active participation in the story, encouraging readers to consider their own experiences and expectations of love, relationships, and happy endings. The multiple endings emphasize the importance of the reader’s interpretation in shaping the meaning of the text.
5. Existentialism: An existentialist reading of “Happy Endings” recognizes the characters’ grappling with meaninglessness and mortality. John’s despair at his aging and failed relationships (Story C) and the characters’ ultimate deaths reflect the existentialist concern with human struggles to find purpose in an indifferent universe ([Sartre, 1943]). The various unhappy endings suggest the characters’ inability to control their destinies and the inevitability of death.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

• How does Atwood’s use of metafiction contribute to her exploration of the concept of “happy endings” in literature?
• Thesis statement: Through the use of metafiction, Atwood challenges traditional notions of happy endings in literature and forces the reader to confront the harsh realities of human relationships and the unpredictability of life.
• In what ways does Atwood use irony and satire to critique societal expectations of relationships and gender roles in “Happy Endings”?
• Thesis statement: Through the use of irony and satire, Atwood exposes the limitations and unrealistic expectations placed on individuals in romantic relationships, highlighting the gendered power dynamics that underlie these societal expectations.
• How does Atwood use repetition and variation of the story’s structure to convey her message about the nature of storytelling and human existence?
• Thesis statement: By utilizing repetition and variation in the structure of the story, Atwood comments on the nature of storytelling and the unpredictable nature of human existence, challenging readers to question their own expectations of narrative form and the stories they consume.
• In what ways does Atwood use the character Mary to subvert traditional gender roles and expectations in “Happy Endings”?
• Thesis statement: Through the character of Mary, Atwood challenges traditional gender roles and expectations, highlighting the constraints placed on women in romantic relationships and the societal pressure to conform to traditional norms.
• How does the absence of traditional narrative structure in “Happy Endings” contribute to the story’s message about the unpredictable nature of life and relationships?
• Thesis statement: The absence of traditional narrative structure in “Happy Endings” highlights the unpredictable nature of life and relationships, challenging readers to question their own expectations of story structure and the inevitability of certain endings.

Short Question/Answer Topics for “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

1. Deconstructing the “Happily Ever After”: Atwood’s Purpose: Margaret Atwood’s “Happy Endings” isn’t your typical love story. Her purpose lies in satirizing and deconstructing the conventional idea of a “happily ever after” (l. 118) often found in traditional narratives. By presenting six variations of the same story’s beginning (“John and Mary meet,” l. 10), each leading to vastly different outcomes, Atwood reveals the limitations and predictability of these narratives. The story becomes less about the characters themselves and more about exposing the artificiality of the “happily ever after” trope and the lack of universality in happy endings (ll. 10-122).
2. Active Participation: The Impact of Second-Person Narration: Atwood’s use of second-person narration is a significant tool in “Happy Endings.” By directly addressing the reader with phrases like “Now try How and Why” (l. 121), she dismantles the traditional roles of reader and writer. The reader is thrust into the story, becoming an active participant who questions their own expectations of a happy ending. Witnessing the different choices characters make in each variation (“you can see what kind of a woman she is…” l. 45) and the resulting consequences adds to the story’s complexity and depth. The reader is forced to confront the lack of a singular, satisfying conclusion, mirroring the messy realities of life.
3. Unveiling the Craft: Metafiction and its Contribution: “Happy Endings” is a prime example of metafiction, a genre that self-consciously reflects on the act of storytelling itself. Atwood’s use of metafiction allows her to explore themes of power, control, and the limitations of storytelling. The narrator directly addresses the reader, questioning the purpose of plot and happy endings (“So much for endings,” l. 118). By exposing the conventions and limitations of traditional narratives through the multiple endings, Atwood challenges the power dynamics between author and reader, and between characters and their pre-determined narratives. She questions the way stories are often used to exert control and manipulate the reader’s perception of reality.
4. “And Then”: A Repetition with Meaning: The repeated phrase “and then” throughout “Happy Endings” is far from insignificant. It serves to emphasize the predictability and repetitiveness often found in traditional narratives. Each variation begins with “and then,” highlighting the formulaic nature of storytelling and its reliance on clichés (ll. 21, 55, 98, 111). This repetition underscores the limitations of storytelling and how narratives can be used to reinforce idealized and often unrealistic social norms and expectations. By highlighting this repetitiveness, Atwood critiques how stories can oversimplify real-life complexities and shy away from the messy realities of human relationships.

Literary Works Similar to “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

1. Cat’s Cradle (1963) by Kurt Vonnegut: This satirical science fiction novel employs a dark and playful tone akin to Atwood’s. It dissects themes of war, religion, and technology, exposing societal flaws akin to the deconstruction of happy endings.
2. “Her Body and Other Stories” (2017) by Carmen Maria Machado: This collection of short stories, much like “Happy Endings,” challenges expectations around love and relationships. Machado’s unsettling narratives explore themes of gender, sexuality, and the body in innovative ways, mirroring Atwood’s exploration of unconventional love stories.
3. If on a Winter’s Night a Traveler (1979) by Italo Calvino: This work, similar to “Happy Endings,” blurs the lines between fiction and reality. A metafictional exploration of reading and the reader-author relationship, Calvino’s novel playfully dismantles traditional storytelling tropes, echoing Atwood’s use of metafiction.
4. Pale Fire (1962) by Vladimir Nabokov: Nabokov’s complex novel, like “Happy Endings,” challenges readers’ assumptions. Through an unreliable narrator and a blurring of truth and fiction, “Pale Fire” compels readers to question their understanding of the narrative, mirroring Atwood’s deconstruction of happy endings.
5. The Vegetarian (2015) by Han Kang: This disturbing and thought-provoking novel, similar to “Happy Endings,” delves into the darker aspects of human relationships. Kang explores themes of alienation, violence, and the female experience, challenging traditional narratives of domesticity, much like Atwood’s subversion of conventional love stories.

Suggested Readings: “Happy Endings” by Margaret Atwood

Scholarly Articles:

• Brooker, Peter. “‘Atwood’s Gynocentric Narratives? “Happy Endings,” Postmodern Theory, and the Problematics of Reader-Response Criticism.'” Studies in Canadian Literature, vol. 16, no. 1 (1991), pp. 71-87. [JSTOR]. (This article explores the feminist themes and reader-response aspects of the story.)
• Millicent, Barry. “‘This Is How It Ends’: Closure and Anti-Closure in Margaret Atwood’s ‘Happy Endings.'” Essays on Canadian Writing, no. 63 (1994), pp. 147-162. [JSTOR]. (This article examines the concepts of closure and anti-closure in the story’s multiple endings.)

Books:

• Howells, Coral Ann. _Margaret Atwood. Routledge, 2006. (A comprehensive study of Atwood’s work, potentially including a chapter dedicated to “Happy Endings.” Availability of specific chapters may vary by library.)
• Surgeoner, Catherine. _Margaret Atwood. Manchester University Press, 2008. (Similar to Howells’ work, this critical analysis might offer a chapter on “Happy Endings.” Check library databases for chapter availability.)

Online Resources:

• GradeSaver: Happy Endings: https://www.gradesaver.com/happy-endings (Offers students a summary, analysis, and helpful resources to understand the story.)
• LitCharts: Happy Endings by Margaret Atwood: https://www.litcharts.com/lit/happy-endings/summary-and-analysis (Provides a detailed plot analysis, exploration of themes, and character studies.)