Month: March 2024

Introduction: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

“On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats was first published in December of 1816 in The Examiner, a weekly paper edited by Leigh Hunt. This deceptively simple sonnet showcases Keats’s budding mastery of vivid imagery and his deep appreciation for nature’s enduring song. The poem delicately contrasts the grasshopper’s carefree summer melody with the cricket’s comforting winter tune.

Text: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

The Poetry of earth is never dead:    

  When all the birds are faint with the hot sun,    

  And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run    

From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead;    

That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead      

  In summer luxury,—he has never done    

  With his delights; for when tired out with fun    

He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed.    

The poetry of earth is ceasing never:    

  On a lone winter evening, when the frost     

    Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills    

The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,    

  And seems to one in drowsiness half lost,    

    The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills.

Annotations: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Line	Annotation
The poetry of earth is never dead:	Central Theme: Nature offers continuous beauty and inspiration, even when it might seem dormant.
When all the birds are faint with the hot sun,	Summer Setting: Birds, typically associated with song, are silenced by the intense summer heat.
And hide in cooling trees, a voice will run	Nature’s Continuity: Though the birds fall silent, a different, vibrant voice emerges, highlighting the persistence of nature’s song.
From hedge to hedge about the new-mown mead;	The Grasshopper’s Song: This voice is identified as the grasshopper’s, singing freely across the summer landscape.
That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead	Grasshopper as Protagonist: The grasshopper becomes the focus as the leader of summertime music.
In summer luxury,—he has never done	Endless Delight: The grasshopper’s pleasure in summer appears boundless, embodying the abundance of the season.
With his delights; for when tired out with fun	Carefree Existence: Even when tired, the grasshopper’s enjoyment of summer doesn’t cease.
He rests at ease beneath some pleasant weed.	Simple Pleasures: The grasshopper finds contentment and rest within nature’s simple offerings.
The poetry of earth is ceasing never:	Repetition with Variation: Echoes the first line but shifts the focus from summer to winter.
On a lone winter evening, when the frost	Winter Setting: Creates a stark, quiet setting, contrasting the previous summer scene.
Has wrought a silence, from the stove there shrills	Unexpected Music: Winter’s silence is surprisingly broken by an unlikely source – the cricket.
The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,	Cricket’s Comfort: The cricket’s song is associated with domestic warmth, offering comfort amidst the winter chill.
And seems to one in drowsiness half lost,	Dreamlike Quality: The cricket’s song induces a pleasant, dreamlike state, bringing peace within the cold.
The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills.	Circle Back to Summer: Unexpectedly, the cricket’s song evokes the image of the grasshopper in a summer setting, highlighting nature’s continuous cycle of beauty.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

No.	Device	Example	Definition
1	Personification	“a voice will run From hedge to hedge”	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities or objects.
2	Metaphor	“The Poetry of earth”	A figure of speech that implies a comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as”.
3	Alliteration	“cooling trees”	Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.
4	Assonance	“hedge to hedge”	Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words.
5	Symbolism	“new-mown mead”	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.
6	Enjambment	“That is the Grasshopper’s—he takes the lead”	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.
7	Hyperbole	“In summer luxury”	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.
8	Anaphora	“The poetry of earth is never dead”	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or verses.
9	Repetition	“he has never done / With his delights”	The recurrence of words or phrases to create emphasis or reinforce meaning.
10	Oxymoron	“ceasing never”	A figure of speech in which contradictory terms are combined for emphasis or effect.
11	Onomatopoeia	“shrills”	Words that imitate the sound they describe.
12	Imagery	“On a lone winter evening”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating mental images for the reader.
13	Simile	“The Cricket’s song, in warmth increasing ever,”	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things using “like” or “as”.
14	Synecdoche	“from the stove there shrills”	A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or vice versa.
15	Allusion	“The Poetry of earth”	A brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or political significance.
16	Consonance	“winter evening”	Repetition of consonant sounds within nearby words.
17	Parallelism	“The Poetry of earth is never dead”	The use of similar grammatical structures or patterns in successive phrases or clauses.
18	Euphony	“warmth increasing ever”	The quality of being pleasing to the ear, achieved through harmonious combinations of sounds.
19	Irony	“seems to one in drowsiness half lost”	A contrast between what is expected and what actually occurs, often with a humorous or poignant effect.
20	Paradox	“The Grasshopper’s among some grassy hills”	A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or logically absurd, but upon closer inspection, may reveal a deeper truth.

Themes: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

• Nature’s Unceasing Beauty: The poem’s central theme is the persistence of beauty within the natural world, even during seemingly barren times. Keats contrasts the grasshopper’s joyful summer song with the cricket’s comforting winter tune, emphasizing how inspiration and solace can arise even in the harshest seasons.
  • The repetition of “The poetry of earth…” highlights this persistence
  • The contrast between the “faint” birds and the lively insects reinforces this continuous cycle
• The Cyclical Nature of Time: The poem subtly explores how time moves in cycles. The cricket’s song, in a moment of dreamlike reverie, evokes the memory of the grasshopper. This blending of seasons suggests that the passage of time is not linear, but filled with echoes and repetitions of nature’s patterns.
  • The circular return to the grasshopper at the poem’s end reinforces this cyclical view
• The Power of Sound and Music: Keats highlights the powerful effect of sound in nature. Both the grasshopper and the cricket become sources of music, representing joy in summer and comfort in winter. Their songs act as potent forces, shaping the atmosphere and the listener’s emotions.
  • Words like “shrills,” “run,” and “lead” emphasize the active quality of their sounds
• Simple Pleasures and Contentment: The poem celebrates the simple pleasures found within nature. The grasshopper’s carefree existence, finding delight in a “pleasant weed,” suggests that contentment can be found in the most unassuming aspects of the natural world.
  • The grasshopper’s rest and enjoyment highlight this theme of simplicity

Literary Theories and “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Literary Theory	Analysis of “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”	Reference
Formalism	Examines the poem’s structure, language, and form. Focuses on the use of poetic devices, such as metaphor, personification, and imagery, to convey meaning.	Keats’ use of metaphor to personify nature and its elements highlights the cyclical nature of life and the enduring beauty of the earth.
New Criticism	Analyzes the text in isolation from its historical or authorial context, focusing solely on its intrinsic qualities and meaning.	Through a close reading of the poem’s language and imagery, readers can appreciate its timeless themes of vitality and resilience.
Reader-Response	Emphasizes the reader’s subjective experience and interpretation of the text. Considers how individual readers’ backgrounds and experiences influence their understanding.	Different readers may interpret the Grasshopper and Cricket’s songs differently based on their personal associations with summer and winter.
Psychoanalytic	Explores the poem’s symbolism and imagery to uncover unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts. Analyzes the speaker’s psyche and emotional state.	The contrast between the Grasshopper’s summer song and the Cricket’s winter song could symbolize the speaker’s inner turmoil or emotional journey.
Marxist Criticism	Examines the poem’s portrayal of social class, power dynamics, and economic issues. Considers how societal structures influence the characters and their interactions.	The Grasshopper’s song in summer luxury may represent the leisure enjoyed by the upper class, while the Cricket’s song in winter reflects the struggles of the working class.
Feminist Criticism	Considers the representation of gender roles and relationships in the text. Examines how women and femininity are depicted and how they intersect with broader themes.	The absence of gender-specific language in the poem allows for interpretations of the Grasshopper and Cricket as gender-neutral symbols of nature and its cycles.

Critical Questions about “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

1. How does Keats employ the imagery of the grasshopper and cricket to symbolize the cyclical nature of life and the passage of time in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”?

Keats utilizes the grasshopper’s vibrant summer song and the cricket’s melancholic winter chirp to symbolize the contrasting seasons of life. The grasshopper’s joyous chirping represents vitality, abundance, and the fecundity of summer, while the cricket’s somber song evokes the quiet solitude and dormancy of winter. Through this imagery, Keats suggests that life is a perpetual cycle of growth, decline, and renewal, echoing broader themes of mortality and the transient nature of existence.

• How does the absence of human presence in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” contribute to the poem’s portrayal of nature’s autonomy and significance?

Keats deliberately excludes human presence from the poem, allowing nature to take center stage as the primary subject. By focusing solely on the grasshopper and cricket, Keats emphasizes nature’s autonomy and intrinsic value independent of human influence. The absence of human characters underscores the idea that the poetry of earth exists beyond human perception and intervention, highlighting the interconnectedness of all living beings within the natural world.

• In what ways does Keats’ use of sound devices such as onomatopoeia and alliteration enhance the auditory experience of “On The Grasshopper and Cricket”?

Keats masterfully employs sound devices like onomatopoeia and alliteration to create an immersive auditory experience in the poem. The onomatopoeic words “shrills” and “shrill” vividly capture the sharp, piercing sound of the cricket’s chirping, evoking a sense of winter’s chill. Additionally, the alliteration in phrases like “cooling trees” and “hedge to hedge” amplifies the musicality of the poem, mimicking the rhythmic cadence of nature’s symphony. These sound devices not only enhance the poem’s sensory richness but also deepen its emotional resonance, inviting readers to fully immerse themselves in the soundscape of the natural world.

• How does Keats’ juxtaposition of summer and winter in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” reflect broader themes of contrast and harmony in his poetry?

Keats juxtaposes the liveliness of summer with the stillness of winter to explore themes of contrast and harmony in “On The Grasshopper and Cricket.” The stark difference between the grasshopper’s vibrant song in summer and the cricket’s subdued chirp in winter underscores the inherent duality of existence—joy and sorrow, life and death, growth and decay. Yet, despite these contrasts, Keats suggests a harmonious balance within nature’s rhythms, where each season plays a vital role in the cyclical continuum of life. This juxtaposition serves as a microcosm of Keats’ broader philosophical outlook, emphasizing the interconnectedness and equilibrium of opposing forces in the natural world.

Literary Works Similar to “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

• Romantic Poetry with Nature Themes:
  • “Ode to a Nightingale” (John Keats): Shares Keats’s fascination with the musicality of nature and its connection to human emotion.
  • “To Autumn” (John Keats): Focuses on change and abundance within the natural world, similar to the cyclical shifts in “On the Grasshopper and Cricket.”
  • “I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” (William Wordsworth): Celebrates the simple beauty of nature and its lasting impact on the speaker’s memory.
• Poems Contrasting Seasons:
  • “The Four Seasons” (Antonio Vivaldi): A musical composition depicting the changing seasons, mirroring the shift from summer to winter in Keats’s poem.
  • “Winter” from The Seasons (James Thomson): Poetic exploration of winter’s harshness, providing a strong contrast to the warmth evoked by the cricket’s song.
• Works Celebrating Simple Creatures:
  • “To a Mouse” (Robert Burns): Focuses on a small creature and uses it to reflect on larger themes of life and hardship.
  • “The Tyger” (William Blake): Explores the awe-inspiring nature of a creature, much like Keats does with the persistent voices of the grasshopper and cricket.
• Sonnet Form:
  • Many of William Shakespeare’s sonnets: Share the same structure as Keats’s poem (14 lines, iambic pentameter), often exploring themes of love, time, and beauty.

Suggested Readings: “On The Grasshopper and Cricket” by John Keats

Books

• Gittings, Robert. John Keats. Penguin Books, 1987. (Note: Look for chapters analyzing Keats’s sonnets or his recurring nature themes)
• Stillinger, Jack. The Poetry of John Keats. Harvard University Press, 1981. (Note: Offers extensive analysis of Keats’s work, likely including “On the Grasshopper and Cricket”)

Articles

• Vendler, Helen. “Keats’s ‘To Autumn’ and ‘On the Grasshopper and Cricket.'” The Harvard Advocate, vol. 135, no. 4-5, 1981, pp. 5-9.
• Sperry, Stuart M. “From ‘On the Grasshopper and Cricket’ to ‘Ode to a Nightingale.'” Keats-Shelley Journal, vol. 19, 1970, pp. 1-8. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed].

Websites

• Keats, John. “On the Grasshopper and Cricket.” Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/53210/on-the-grasshpper-and-cricket.
• “On the Grasshopper and Cricket – Poem Analysis.” Poem Analysis, 20 Dec. 2018, https://poemanalysis.com/john-keats/

Introduction: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

“Ode to Psyche” by John Keats was written in the spring of 1819 and published in 1820 as part of his acclaimed collection Lamia, Isabella, The Eve of St. Agnes, and Other Poems. The poem stands out as a unique experiment within the ode form. Instead of the structured stanzas found in works like “Ode on a Grecian Urn” or “Ode to a Nightingale,” Keats adopts a looser, more free-flowing style in “Ode to Psyche”. This choice reflects the poem’s celebration of the imagination and its ability to create realms of worship and devotion, even for a goddess long neglected by the world.

Text: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

O Goddess! hear these tuneless numbers, wrung

         By sweet enforcement and remembrance dear,

And pardon that thy secrets should be sung

         Even into thine own soft-conched ear:

Surely I dreamt to-day, or did I see

         The winged Psyche with awaken’d eyes?

I wander’d in a forest thoughtlessly,

         And, on the sudden, fainting with surprise,

Saw two fair creatures, couched side by side

         In deepest grass, beneath the whisp’ring roof

         Of leaves and trembled blossoms, where there ran

                A brooklet, scarce espied:

Mid hush’d, cool-rooted flowers, fragrant-eyed,

         Blue, silver-white, and budded Tyrian,

They lay calm-breathing, on the bedded grass;

         Their arms embraced, and their pinions too;

         Their lips touch’d not, but had not bade adieu,

As if disjoined by soft-handed slumber,

And ready still past kisses to outnumber

         At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love:

                The winged boy I knew;

But who wast thou, O happy, happy dove?

                His Psyche true!

O latest born and loveliest vision far

         Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!

Fairer than Phoebe’s sapphire-region’d star,

         Or Vesper, amorous glow-worm of the sky;

Fairer than these, though temple thou hast none,

                Nor altar heap’d with flowers;

Nor virgin-choir to make delicious moan

                Upon the midnight hours;

No voice, no lute, no pipe, no incense sweet

         From chain-swung censer teeming;

No shrine, no grove, no oracle, no heat

         Of pale-mouth’d prophet dreaming.

O brightest! though too late for antique vows,

         Too, too late for the fond believing lyre,

When holy were the haunted forest boughs,

         Holy the air, the water, and the fire;

Yet even in these days so far retir’d

         From happy pieties, thy lucent fans,

         Fluttering among the faint Olympians,

I see, and sing, by my own eyes inspir’d.

So let me be thy choir, and make a moan

                Upon the midnight hours;

Thy voice, thy lute, thy pipe, thy incense sweet

         From swinged censer teeming;

Thy shrine, thy grove, thy oracle, thy heat

         Of pale-mouth’d prophet dreaming.

Yes, I will be thy priest, and build a fane

         In some untrodden region of my mind,

Where branched thoughts, new grown with pleasant pain,

         Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind:

Far, far around shall those dark-cluster’d trees

         Fledge the wild-ridged mountains steep by steep;

And there by zephyrs, streams, and birds, and bees,

         The moss-lain Dryads shall be lull’d to sleep;

And in the midst of this wide quietness

A rosy sanctuary will I dress

   With the wreath’d trellis of a working brain,

         With buds, and bells, and stars without a name,

With all the gardener Fancy e’er could feign,

         Who breeding flowers, will never breed the same:

And there shall be for thee all soft delight

         That shadowy thought can win,

A bright torch, and a casement ope at night,

         To let the warm Love in!

Annotations: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1	* The speaker addresses Psyche, the goddess of the soul, as if she can hear him. He seeks forgiveness for revealing her secrets in his poem. He then describes a vision – Psyche with open eyes, and then the discovery of two figures (Psyche and Cupid). These lines evoke uncertainty (dreams vs. reality) and introduce the poem’s themes: love, beauty, and the soul.
Stanza 2	* This stanza focuses on the intertwined figures of Psyche and Cupid. It details their physical closeness, even in sleep, hinting at a passionate but unconsummated love. The final lines identify Cupid, then question who Psyche could be and celebrate her as his true love.*
Stanza 3	* The speaker elevates Psyche above other goddesses, comparing her favorably to Phoebe (goddess of the moon) and Vesper (the evening star). He notes that even without traditional temples or worship, her beauty and spirit are unmatched.*
Stanza 4	* The speaker laments being born in a time when the power of the ancient gods, nature, and faith has diminished. Despite this, Psyche remains a powerful inspiration. The speaker declares himself her devotee, promising to replace the external trappings of worship with internal devotion.*
Stanza 5	* The speaker offers to create a sacred space for Psyche within his mind. He compares his creative thoughts to growing branches and the workings of his mind to a fertile garden. This stanza centers on imagination as a sacred space.*
Stanza 6	* Closing the poem, the speaker describes the sanctuary he will build for Psyche within his mind. It’s a place of beauty, wildness, and natural harmony. He promises her a place of contemplation, warmth, and the entry of love. *

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “Ode to Psyche”	Explanation
Alliteration	“Blue, blue-silver, and budded Tyrian”	Repetition of consonant sounds for emphasis and musicality.
Allusion	“Phoebe’s sapphire-region’d star”, “Vesper”	References to figures in classical mythology (Phoebe, goddess of the moon, and Vesper, the evening star) to add depth and evoke history.
Apostrophe	“O Goddess!”	Direct address to an absent figure (Psyche), creating dramatic intensity.
Enjambment	“…thy lucent fans, / Fluttering among the faint Olympians…”	Lines flow into each other without pause, enhancing meaning & rhythm.
Hyperbole	“O latest born and loveliest vision far / Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!”	Exaggeration to emphasize Psyche’s beauty and importance.
Imagery	“Where branched thoughts, new grown with pleasant pain, / Instead of pines shall murmur in the wind “	Vivid sensory descriptions to create mental pictures.
Inversion	“Sweet enforcement”	Reversal of usual word order for emphasis and poetic effect.
Metaphor	“And there by zephyrs, streams, and birds, and bees, / The moss-lain Dryads shall be lull’d to sleep;”	Compares Dryads (tree spirits) to sleeping figures, blending the natural and mythical.
Ode	The entire poem is an ode: a formal, lyrical poem of praise.
Oxymoron	“pleasant pain”	Contradictory terms joined to express complex emotions.
Personification	“And ready still past kisses to outnumber / At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love”	Gives human qualities (kissing, outnumbering) to abstract concepts (kisses and love).
Repetition	“…thy lute, thy pipe, thy incense sweet…”	Repeating “thy” emphasizes the speaker’s act of creating elements of worship.
Rhetorical Question	“But who wast thou, O happy, happy dove?”	Question posed for effect, not expecting an answer, heightening drama.
Sensory Language	“whisp’ring roof / Of leaves and trembled blossoms”, “hush’d, cool-rooted flowers”	Appeals to multiple senses (sight, sound, touch) to create a vivid experience.
Sibilance	” Surely I dreamt to-day, or did I see / The winged Psyche with awaken’d eyes?”	Repetition of the ‘s’ sound for a soft, dreamy effect.
Simile	“As if disjoined by soft-handed slumber”	Comparison using ‘as if’ to describe the lovers’ separation.
Symbolism	Psyche herself symbolizes the soul; Cupid represents love.
Synesthesia	“fragrant-eyed”	Blending senses (smell and sight) for a unique, imaginative effect.
Tone	Shifts from awe, reverence, and uncertainty to passionate devotion and imaginative energy.
Vivid Diction	“lucent fans”, “soft-conched ear”, “pale-mouth’d prophet”	Uses striking, evocative word choices to create powerful images.

Themes: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

1. The Power of Imagination

• The speaker celebrates the imagination as a sacred space, able to create what the external world lacks: “Yes, I will be thy priest, and build a fane / In some untrodden region of my mind”.
• He envisions a richly detailed sanctuary for Psyche: “With the wreath’d trellis of a working brain, / With buds, and bells, and stars without a name”.
• Imagination (“Fancy”) is seen as a limitless source of beauty and creativity: “Who breeding flowers, will never breed the same”.

2. The Search for Beauty and the Soul

• Psyche, the goddess of the soul, is described as “loveliest vision far / Of all Olympus’ faded hierarchy!”, exceeding traditional goddesses in beauty as the soul may transcend the gods.
• The speaker’s devotion is sparked by her beauty, yet there’s an emphasis on Psyche’s inner essence. The word “soul” isn’t explicit, but the poem celebrates its qualities.
• This reflects Keats’s concept of ‘Negative Capability’: embracing mystery and uncertainty, which is linked to appreciating beauty without dissecting it.

3. The Lament for Lost Faith and Reverence

• Keats acknowledges a secularized world: “Too late for antique vows… the fond believing lyre”.
• Ancient Greek religion is idealized: “When holy were the haunted forest boughs, / Holy the air, the water, and the fire”.
• However, Keats finds a new spiritual inspiration in Psyche, and in his ability to use imagination to create his own devotional space.

4. The Interplay of Love and the Psyche

• The poem begins with the revelation of Psyche and Cupid intertwined, sparking the speaker’s journey.
• Psyche’s identity is revealed through her connection with Eros (Cupid), the god of love.
• There’s an emphasis on a tender, ideal love: “At tender eye-dawn of aurorean love”.
• The speaker promises Psyche a place where love can enter: “A bright torch, and a casement ope at night, / To let the warm Love in!”

Literary Theories and “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

New Criticism:

• ·  Focus on the text itself: Closely read the poem for its formal elements like imagery (“fragrant-eyed”, “lucent fans”), symbolism (Psyche representing the soul), and Keats’s use of the ode form.
• Ambiguity and paradox: Explore the contradictions within the poem, like “pleasant pain” or the tension between the “faded hierarchy” of Olympus and the new inspiration of Psyche.
• Keats’s focus on imagination and beauty as their own end goal, rather than conveying a specific moral or message aligns with principles of New Criticism.

Reader-Response Theory:

• The reader’s role: Consider how your emotional responses shape your interpretation. Does the poem evoke awe, longing, sadness, or a sense of creative possibility?
• Varying interpretations: Different readers might prioritize different aspects of the poem (its beauty vs. its commentary on faith), leading to diverse readings.
• The line “O Goddess! hear these tuneless numbers…” invites the reader directly into the poem, making them a participant in the speaker’s act of devotion.

Psychoanalytic Theory:

• Unconscious desires: Could the speaker’s devotion to Psyche represent an unconscious yearning for something unattainable, or a wish for greater spiritual connection?
• Symbols and dreams: Explore the dreamlike quality of the poem’s opening (“Surely I dreamt today…?”), and how it blurs the boundaries between imagination and reality.
• The emphasis on Psyche, representing the soul, can be read through a psychoanalytic lens as a quest for self-understanding.

Deconstruction:

• Questioning binaries: Does the poem ultimately reinforce or challenge traditional oppositions of mind/body, dream/reality, or old gods/new gods?
• Hidden contradictions: Is there an undercurrent of doubt beneath the speaker’s overt praise of Psyche? Look for moments where language might undercut itself.
• The line “Too, too late for the fond believing lyre” hints at a sadness while simultaneously celebrating a new, less dogmatic form of belief the speaker himself creates.

Critical Questions about “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Topic	Critical Questions
Imagination as Sacred Space	* How does the speaker transform his own mind into a sanctuary for Psyche? What does this suggest about the value Keats places on imagination? * Does the imaginative world the speaker creates hold the same power as traditional religious spaces?
The Nature of Beauty	* How is beauty portrayed in the poem? Is it solely external, or is inner beauty emphasized as well? * In what ways does Keats challenge traditional notions of beauty tied to ancient Greek deities?
Spirituality and Faith	* Does the poem offer a completely secular viewpoint, or does it create a new form of spirituality centered around Psyche and the imagination? * How does the speaker’s lament for lost faith (“too late for antique vows”) shape his new devotion to Psyche?
Love and the Soul	* What kind of bond does the poem portray between Psyche and Cupid? Is it primarily physical, or more complex? * In what ways does the poem suggest a connection between the experience of love and the exploration of one’s inner self?
Keats’s Romantic Sensibilities	* How does “Ode to Psyche” exemplify key elements of Romantic poetry, such as the focus on nature, the idealization of emotion, and the importance of the individual? * In what ways does the poem engage with

Literary Works Similar to “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

• Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Hymn to Intellectual Beauty”: Both poems elevate abstract concepts (Intellectual Beauty and Psyche, representing the soul), emphasizing their power to inspire. They champion internal contemplation and the poet’s ability to embody the intangible.
• William Wordsworth’s “Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood”: Wordsworth and Keats share a nostalgic longing for a perceived spiritual connection that has been lost. Both poets find solace and inspiration in nature’s profound beauty.
• William Blake’s “Songs of Innocence and of Experience”: Blake’s exploration of contrasting worldviews mirrors a tension in “Ode to Psyche,” questioning established hierarchies and seeking new forms of devotion. Both poets employ evocative imagery and rich symbolism.
• Mythological Retellings: Keats’s focus on a lesser-known mythological figure and exploration of the psychology of the gods has parallels in works by later poets who also reimagine classical myths:
• H.D.’s (Hilda Doolittle) poetry: Her starkly beautiful poems often center on female figures from mythology, re-examining their stories from a distinctly modern perspective.
• Ted Hughes’s Tales from Ovid: This powerful translation explores the raw, often violent passions within Ovid’s myths, resonating with Keats’s exploration of the complex relationship between love and the soul.

Key Points of Analysis:

• Focus on Inner Worlds: Many of these works share Keats’s emphasis on the internal landscape of the mind, emotion, and spirit as sites of profound experience.
• Re-examination of Tradition: These poets, while drawing inspiration from the past, challenge traditional concepts of beauty, spirituality, and mythology, carving out their own unique modes of expression.
• Evocative Language and Aesthetics: Like Keats, these poets rely heavily on striking imagery, symbolism, and musicality of language to convey complex ideas and emotions.

Suggested Readings: “Ode To Psyche” by John Keats

Scholarly Monographs

• Bate, Walter Jackson. John Keats. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
  • Provides a definitive biography of Keats, deeply contextualizing his poetry, including “Ode to Psyche,” within his life and experiences.
• Sperry, Stuart M. Keats the Poet. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973.
  • Offers a detailed examination of Keats’s artistic evolution, tracing thematic threads throughout his odes and situating “Ode to Psyche” as a pivotal work.
• Vendler, Helen. The Odes of John Keats. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1983.
  • A highly regarded study of Keats’s odes, offering meticulous analysis and unpacking the nuanced complexities of “Ode to Psyche.”

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• Gittings, Robert. “Keats’s ‘Ode to Psyche’.” The Keats-Shelley Review, vol. 10, 1996, pp. 1-8.
  • Explores the historical contexts and potential biographical inspirations that shaped Keats’s composition of the ode.
• Keach, William. “Cockney Keats: A Foucauldian Reading of Keats’s ‘Ode to Psyche.'” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 31, no. 4, 1991, pp 685-706.
  • Presents a theoretical reading of the poem, analyzing power dynamics, social class, and the construction of identity within the poem’s structure.
• Stillinger, Jack. “The Hoodwinking of Madeline: Skepticism in ‘The Eve of St. Agnes’ and ‘Ode to Psyche.’ ” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 5, no. 3, 1966, pp. 133-155.
  • Analyzes the poem’s engagement with themes of doubt and the potential for illusion, offering insightful connections within Keats’s larger body of work.

Reputable Online Resources

• The Keats-Shelley House Website: https://www.keats-shelley-house.org/
  • Offers curated articles, biographical information, and multimedia content providing a comprehensive exploration of Keats’s life and poetry.
• Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44480/ode-to-psyche
  • Provides the poem’s text with essential critical notes and links to further resources on Keats.

Introduction: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

“We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson first appeared in the Springfield Republican in 1862, although it wasn’t included in any of her collections published during her lifetime. The poem explores the human capacity to adapt to difficult circumstances and changing conditions. With her characteristic use of dashes and concise language, Dickinson examines the gradual process of adjusting to metaphorical darkness, suggesting that even in the bleakest of times, we develop a resilience that allows us to navigate uncertainty. This poem resonates for its exploration of universal human experiences and its subtle notes of optimism within the acknowledgment of hardship, displaying the timeless qualities of Dickinson’s work.

Text: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. We grow accustomed to the Dark—
2. When Light is put away—
3. As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp
4. To witness her Goodbye—

1. A Moment—We uncertain step
2. For newness of the night—
3. Then—fit our Vision to the Dark—
4. And meet the Road—erect—

1. And so of larger—Darknesses—
2. Those Evenings of the Brain—
3. When not a Moon disclose a sign—
4. Or Star—come out—within—

1. The Bravest—grope a little—
2. And sometimes hit a Tree
3. Directly in the Forehead—
4. But as they learn to see—

1. Either the Darkness alters—
2. Or something in the sight
3. Adjusts itself to Midnight—
4. And Life steps almost straight.

Annotations of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Line	Difficult Words or Phrases	Annotations
1	accustomed	familiar with; used to
2	put away	turned off
3	witness	observe
5	uncertain step	tentative movement
6	newness of the night	unfamiliarity with darkness
7	fit our Vision to the Dark	adjust our sight to the darkness
8	erect	upright
9	larger Darknesses	metaphorical reference to greater challenges or struggles
11	disclose	reveal
13	grope a little	feel around uncertainly
15	Directly in the Forehead	in the face
17	Darkness alters	changes in the darkness
18	something in the sight	visual perception
19	Adjusts itself to Midnight	adapts to the darkness of night

Literary Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Device	Verse Reference	Identification, Meanings, and Explanations
Alliteration	Line 15: “Directly in the Forehead”	The repetition of the “D” sound in the words “Directly” and “Forehead” creates a harsh and abrupt sound, emphasizing the pain and suddenness of hitting a tree in the darkness.
Assonance	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark”	The repetition of the “ow” sound in “grow” and “accustomed” creates a sense of familiarity and comfort, emphasizing the idea that darkness can become something we are accustomed to.
Consonance	Line 6: “For newness of the night”	The repetition of the “n” sound in “newness” and “night” creates a soft and flowing sound, evoking a sense of the calm and peacefulness of the night.
Enjambment	Lines 5-6: “A Moment—We uncertain step / For newness of the night—”	The sentence continues from line 5 to line 6 without any punctuation, creating a sense of movement and uncertainty as the speaker takes a step into the darkness.
Hyperbole	Line 13: “The Bravest—grope a little—”	The use of “a little” exaggerates the difficulty of navigating in the dark, implying that even the bravest individuals struggle in unfamiliar or completely dark environments.
Imagery	Line 10: “Those Evenings of the Brain—”	The use of the word “evenings” creates a visual image of a dark and shadowy space within the mind.
Irony	Line 2: “When Light is put away—”	The use of “put away” to describe the act of turning off a light is ironic, as it implies a casual and effortless action when in reality, it can create a sense of unease and uncertainty.
Metaphor	Line 3: “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp”	The darkness is compared to a physical object, with the neighbor’s lamp serving as a symbol of the light that provides guidance in the darkness.
Onomatopoeia	Line 14: “And sometimes hit a Tree”	The use of “hit” creates a sharp and abrupt sound, emphasizing the suddenness and impact of colliding with an object in the darkness.
Oxymoron	Line 9: “larger—Darknesses”	The use of the word “larger” contradicts the idea of darkness, which is typically associated with a lack of substance or mass.
Paradox	Line 17: “Either the Darkness alters—”	The idea that darkness can change or alter itself is contradictory, creating a paradoxical statement that emphasizes the unpredictability of the darkness.
Personification	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark—”	Darkness is personified as something that can be experienced and adjusted to, emphasizing the speaker’s relationship with the darkness.
Repetition	Line 1: “We grow accustomed to the Dark—”	The repetition of “We” at the beginning of the line creates a sense of community or shared experience, emphasizing the universality of the speaker’s experience.
Rhyme	Line 4: “To witness her Goodbye—”	The words “by” and “goodbye” rhyme, creating a musical and memorable sound that emphasizes the finality and sadness of the neighbor’s departure.
Simile	Line 3: “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp”	The darkness is compared to a situation where a neighbor holds a
Symbolism	4	“To witness her Goodbye—” – the neighbor’s goodbye is symbolic of a farewell to light and the arrival of darkness.
Synecdoche	19-20	“And Life steps almost straight” – the use of “Life” represents the person’s journey or path through the darkness.

Sound and Poetic Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Literary Device	Examples/Reference	Meanings and Functions
Alliteration	“We uncertain step” (line 5)	The repetition of the “s” sound in “uncertain step” emphasizes the hesitation and uncertainty of stepping into the darkness.
Assonance	“meet the Road—erect” (line 8)	The repeated “ee” sound in “meet” and “erect” creates a sense of firmness and resolve in the face of the darkness.
Consonance	“Witness her Goodbye” (line 4)	The repeated “s” and “d” sounds in “witness,” “her,” and “goodbye” create a soft, melancholic sound that reflects the sadness of saying farewell.
End Rhyme	“Brain” and “within” (lines 10-12)	The end rhyme of “brain” and “within” creates a sense of closure and completeness to the thought.
Rhyme Scheme	ABCBDEFE (stanzas 1-2), GGHHII (stanzas 3-4)	The consistent rhyme scheme creates a sense of pattern and structure, while the different rhyme sounds in each stanza give them distinct moods.
Diction	“We grow accustomed” (line 1)	The choice of “grow accustomed” instead of “become accustomed” creates a sense of gradual adaptation and familiarity over time.
Verse Type	Blank Verse	The poem is written in blank verse, which is unrhymed iambic pentameter. This creates a sense of natural rhythm and flow that echoes the poem’s themes of adaptation and adjustment.
Stanza Type	Quatrain (ABCB)	The poem is divided into four quatrains, which creates a sense of structure and order. Each stanza explores a different aspect of darkness and adaptation.
Poem Type	Lyric Poetry	The poem is a lyric poem, which is a type of poetry that expresses personal emotions or feelings. The poem’s intimate tone and focus on the speaker’s personal experience of darkness reflect this genre.
Tone	Melancholic	The poem has a melancholic tone that reflects the sadness and uncertainty of darkness. The speaker’s gradual adjustment to the darkness creates a sense of hope, but this is tempered by a sense of loss and sorrow.

Functions of Literary Devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Enhancing the Imagery: In “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark,” Dickinson uses several literary devices to create vivid imagery that portrays the darkness and the fear of the unknown. For example, the alliteration in “uncertain step” emphasizes the disorientation of walking in the dark, while the metaphor of the “larger darknesses” in the brain conveys the deeper psychological impact of the fear of the unknown.
2. Creating a Musicality: The poem’s musicality is also heightened by literary devices such as rhyme and rhythm. The end rhyme in the first and third lines of each stanza creates a sense of symmetry and closure, while the internal rhyme in lines 1 and 2 of stanza 2 contributes to the poem’s musicality.
3. Establishing a Tone: The use of literary devices helps to establish the poem’s tone of resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity. The repetition of the phrase “We grow accustomed to the dark” throughout the poem creates a sense of acceptance and adaptation, while the use of enjambment in lines 7-8 of the second stanza creates a feeling of determination.
4. Conveying Meaning: Finally, literary devices in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” convey meaning by emphasizing the themes of the poem. For example, the metaphor of “fitting our vision to the dark” in line 7 of stanza 2 suggests that we must adjust to difficult circumstances and challenges in life. The alliteration in “directly in the forehead” in line 15 reinforces the idea that overcoming obstacles requires bravery and perseverance.

Themes in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Human Adaptability: The poem’s opening lines suggest that humans have an innate ability to adapt to challenging circumstances. We can grow accustomed to the darkness when the light is put away, and adjust our vision to meet the road ahead. This theme reminds us that we are capable of overcoming challenges, even in the face of adversity. As the poem says, “We grow accustomed to the Dark—/ When Light is put away—” (lines 1-2).
2. The Struggle of Adjustment: The poem describes the initial uncertainty and disorientation that we may feel when we first encounter darkness. We may take uncertain steps and struggle to adjust to the newness of the night. This theme reminds us that change can be difficult, but with time and effort, we can adapt and thrive in new circumstances. As the poem says, “A Moment—We uncertain step/ For newness of the night—” (lines 5-6).
3. The Importance of Perseverance and Courage: The poem highlights the importance of resilience and the ability to persevere through difficult times. Even the bravest among us may stumble and hit a tree directly in the forehead, but with practice, we can learn to overcome the challenges that darkness presents. This theme reminds us that perseverance and courage are key to navigating challenging situations. As the poem says, “The Bravest—grope a little—/ And sometimes hit a Tree/ Directly in the Forehead—” (lines 13-15).
4. The Transformative Power of Darkness: The poem suggests that darkness can be transformative, bringing about new insights, perspectives, and a deeper appreciation for the light. As we adjust our vision to the darkness, something in our sight adjusts itself to midnight, and life steps almost straight. This theme reminds us that challenging circumstances can be opportunities for growth and transformation, and that by embracing darkness and the difficulties it presents, we can emerge stronger, wiser, and more resilient. As the poem says, “Either the Darkness alters—/ Or something in the sight/ Adjusts itself to Midnight—/ And Life steps almost straight.” (lines 17-20).

Literary Theories and Interpretations of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. Psychoanalytic interpretation: One interpretation of this poem from a psychoanalytic perspective is that it represents the human psyche’s ability to adjust and cope with difficult situations. Dickinson uses darkness as a metaphor for life’s uncertainties, fears, and anxieties, which we must learn to accept and live with. The speaker’s journey into darkness can be seen as a metaphor for the human psyche’s descent into the unconscious. The poem suggests that as we confront and learn to live with the darkness in our lives, we gain the strength and resilience to cope with life’s challenges. Example: “And so of larger – Darknesses – Those Evenings of the Brain – When not a Moon disclose a sign – Or Star – come out – within -“
2. Feminist interpretation: From a feminist perspective, this poem can be read as a commentary on the restrictions that society places on women’s lives. The “Darkness” in the poem can be interpreted as the societal norms and expectations that limit women’s opportunities and autonomy. The line “As when the Neighbor holds the Lamp/ To witness her Goodbye” can be seen as an allusion to the idea of the male gaze, where women are constantly being watched and judged by men. The poem suggests that women must learn to navigate and survive in a world that is often hostile and oppressive towards them. Example: “And meet the Road – erect -“
3. Reader-response interpretation: A reader-response interpretation of this poem emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning from the text. The poem’s use of imagery and metaphor invites the reader to imagine their own personal struggles and how they cope with darkness in their own lives. This interpretation emphasizes the poem’s universality, as it speaks to the human experience of learning to live with uncertainty and the unknown. Example: “And so of larger – Darknesses – Those Evenings of the Brain – When not a Moon disclose a sign – Or Star – come out – within -“
4. New Criticism interpretation: From a New Criticism perspective, the poem’s language, structure, and literary devices are central to its meaning. The poem’s use of repetition, such as “We grow accustomed to the Dark,” emphasizes the poem’s central theme of adapting to difficult situations. The poem’s imagery, such as “The Bravest – grope a little – And sometimes hit a Tree Directly in the Forehead,” suggests that the journey into darkness is not without risk, but that it is necessary for growth and resilience. Example: “A Moment – We uncertain step For newness of the night -“

Essay Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. The Themes of Death and Darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson explore the theme of death in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”?
• How does the darkness in the poem serve as a metaphor for death and the unknown?
• Thesis statement: Through her use of vivid imagery and metaphorical language, Dickinson explores the themes of death and darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” to convey the human struggle with mortality and the unknown.

2. The Role of Perception and Adaptation in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does the speaker’s perception of the darkness change throughout the poem?
• What is the significance of the speaker’s adaptation to the darkness?
• Thesis statement: Dickinson uses the metaphor of darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” to explore the importance of perception and adaptation in overcoming adversity and navigating the unknown.

3. The Feminist Interpretation of “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson challenge traditional gender roles in the poem?
• In what ways does the female perspective play a role in the poem’s themes?
• Thesis statement: By exploring themes of strength, perseverance, and adaptation through a female perspective in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark,” Dickinson challenges traditional gender roles and presents a feminist interpretation of the human experience.

4. The Use of Metaphorical Language in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark”

• How does Dickinson use metaphorical language to convey the poem’s themes?
• What is the significance of the recurring metaphor of darkness in the poem?
• Thesis statement: Through her use of metaphorical language, particularly the recurring metaphor of darkness, Dickinson effectively conveys the themes of human struggle, adaptation, and perseverance in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark.”

Short Questions-Answers about “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. What is the significance of the imagery of darkness in the poem?

The imagery of darkness in “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” serves as a metaphor for the unknown and difficult experiences that we face in life. The darkness is representative of the obstacles we encounter and the uncertainties we face when we are faced with new situations or when we are forced to say goodbye to something or someone. Line 1 states, “We grow accustomed to the Dark,” implying that we become familiar with the struggles that come with darkness, and line 5 mentions how we “uncertain step” as we navigate through the unfamiliarity of the night.

2. What is the meaning behind the line “And sometimes hit a Tree/Directly in the Forehead”?

The line “And sometimes hit a Tree/Directly in the Forehead” (lines 14-15) highlights the painful experiences that come with navigating through the darkness. The “tree” can be interpreted as a symbol of the obstacles we encounter in life, which can cause us physical and emotional pain. The line also shows how we are sometimes blindsided by these obstacles, and the phrase “Directly in the Forehead” suggests that the pain is intense and immediate. However, the pain is only temporary, and as we learn to see in the darkness, we become better equipped to navigate through our struggles.

3. What is the significance of the use of the word “erect” in the poem?

The word “erect” in line 8 serves as a symbol of strength and resilience. The line states, “And meet the Road—erect—,” implying that we face our challenges with a sense of determination and confidence. Despite the obstacles we face, we stand tall and strong as we navigate through the darkness. The use of “erect” can also be interpreted as a metaphor for the importance of staying grounded and rooted during times of uncertainty.

4. How does the poem suggest that we adapt to darkness?

The poem suggests that we adapt to darkness through perseverance and the ability to adjust our vision. In line 7, the speaker mentions how we “fit our Vision to the Dark,” indicating that we learn to see in the darkness and adapt to our surroundings. The final stanza suggests that either the darkness changes or we change how we see it, indicating that as we become more accustomed to the darkness, we become better equipped to navigate through it. The poem also highlights the importance of bravery in the face of uncertainty and the ability to learn from our mistakes as we adapt to the darkness.

Literary Works Similar to “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

1. “Hope is the thing with feathers” by Emily Dickinson: Another short poem by Dickinson, exploring the enduring nature of hope even within difficult circumstances.
2. “Acquainted with the Night” by Robert Frost: This poem delves into themes of loneliness and alienation within a nocturnal setting, with a hint at finding solace in the shared experience of darkness.
3. “Do not go gentle into that good night” by Dylan Thomas: While the focus is on death, the poem’s core message is the fight for life and the refusal to accept darkness without resistance.
4. Poetry of the Harlem Renaissance: Many poets of this movement, like Langston Hughes and Claude McKay, explored themes of struggle, perseverance, and finding light and identity within the metaphorical darkness of oppression.
5. Existentialist literature: Works by writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre or Albert Camus often explore the darkness of the human condition, and the search for meaning and individual strength within an ultimately absurd world.

Suggested Readings: “We Grow Accustomed to the Dark” by Emily Dickinson

Books

• Sewall, Richard B. The Life of Emily Dickinson. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994.
• Wolff, Cynthia Griffin. Emily Dickinson. Alfred A. Knopf, 1986.
• Martin, Wendy. An American Triptych: Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Adrienne Rich. University of North Carolina Press, 1984.

Articles

• Cameron, Sharon. “Lyric Time in Emily Dickinson’s Poems.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 87, no. 4, 1979, pp. 575–596. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/27541052.
• Gelpi, Barbara Charlesworth. “Emily Dickinson and the Deerslayer: The Dilemma of the Woman Poet in America.” Feminist Re-Visions, edited by Vivian Patraka and Louise A. Tilly. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983, pp. 77-95.
• Eberwein, Jane Donahue. “‘Esteem Her most for Consciousness’: Revaluing Dickinson’s Textual Revisions.” Dickinson Studies, no. 58, 1987, pp. 49–69. Project Muse, muse.jhu.edu/article/395732.

Websites

• The Emily Dickinson Museum: https://www.emilydickinsonmuseum.org/ (Offers biographies, analyses, and other resources)
• The Poetry Foundation: [invalid URL removed] (Provides the poem’s text and some critical commentary)
• Emily Dickinson Archive: https://www.edickinson.org/ (A comprehensive digital archive of Dickinson’s manuscripts and scholarship)

Introduction: “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

“For the Time Being” by W. H. Auden, written in the shadow of World War II, offers a poignant reflection on faith and doubt during a time of global crisis. The poem grapples with the elusive nature of spiritual experience and the struggle to reconcile the promise of Christmas with the harsh realities of the world. Auden’s exploration of individual and societal responses to spiritual disillusionment resonates deeply within its historical context and continues to speak to contemporary audiences.

1. Well, so that is that. Now we must dismantle the tree,
2. Putting the decorations back into their cardboard boxes —
3. Some have got broken — and carrying them up to the attic.
4. The holly and the mistletoe must be taken down and burnt,
5. And the children got ready for school. There are enough
6. Left-overs to do, warmed-up, for the rest of the week —
7. Not that we have much appetite, having drunk such a lot,
8. Stayed up so late, attempted — quite unsuccessfully —
9. To love all of our relatives, and in general
10. Grossly overestimated our powers. Once again
11. As in previous years we have seen the actual Vision and failed
12. To do more than entertain it as an agreeable
13. Possibility, once again we have sent Him away,
14. Begging though to remain His disobedient servant,
15. The promising child who cannot keep His word for long.
16. The Christmas Feast is already a fading memory,
17. And already the mind begins to be vaguely aware
18. Of an unpleasant whiff of apprehension at the thought
19. Of Lent and Good Friday which cannot, after all, now
20. Be very far off. But, for the time being, here we all are,
21. Back in the moderate Aristotelian city
22. Of darning and the Eight-Fifteen, where Euclid’s geometry
23. And Newton’s mechanics would account for our experience,
24. And the kitchen table exists because I scrub it.
25. It seems to have shrunk during the holidays. The streets
26. Are much narrower than we remembered; we had forgotten
27. The office was as depressing as this. To those who have seen
28. The Child, however dimly, however incredulously,
29. The Time Being is, in a sense, the most trying time of all.
30. For the innocent children who whispered so excitedly
31. Outside the locked door where they knew the presents to be
32. Grew up when it opened. Now, recollecting that moment
33. We can repress the joy, but the guilt remains conscious;
34. Remembering the stable where for once in our lives
35. Everything became a You and nothing was an It.
36. And craving the sensation but ignoring the cause,
37. We look round for something, no matter what, to inhibit
38. Our self-reflection, and the obvious thing for that purpose
39. Would be some great suffering. So, once we have met the Son,
40. We are tempted ever after to pray to the Father;
41. “Lead us into temptation and evil for our sake.”
42. They will come, all right, don’t worry; probably in a form
43. That we do not expect, and certainly with a force
44. More dreadful than we can imagine. In the meantime
45. There are bills to be paid, machines to keep in repair,
46. Irregular verbs to learn, the Time Being to redeem
47. From insignificance. The happy morning is over,
48. The night of agony still to come; the time is noon:
49. When the Spirit must practice his scales of rejoicing
50. Without even a hostile audience, and the Soul endure
51. A silence that is neither for nor against her faith
52. That God’s Will will be done, That, in spite of her prayers,
53. God will cheat no one, not even the world of its triumph.

Annotations of “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

Lines	Annotations
1-9	These lines establish a somber tone of post-holiday anticlimax. The physical actions of dismantling decorations symbolize the emotional dismantling of festive spirit. The broken ornaments represent the ephemeral nature of joy.
10-15	The cyclical pattern of spiritual aspiration and failure is highlighted. “The Vision” refers to the profound spiritual significance of Christ’s birth, which the speaker and society at large fail to integrate into their daily lives.
16-20	The fading joy of Christmas underscores the impending spiritual trials of Lent and Good Friday. The phrase “for the time being” emphasizes the transitory nature of this respite before the introspection Lent demands.
21-24	The poem establishes a contrast between the heightened spirituality of the Christmas season and the return to a mundane world governed by rationality and routine (“the moderate Aristotelian city”).
25-27	The world seems diminished post-holiday, with streets narrower and the office more oppressive, echoing the speaker’s shrunken perspective.
28-29	For those who’ve experienced a glimpse of spiritual revelation, the ordinary world (“The Time Being”) becomes particularly difficult to bear.
30-35	This section explores the juxtaposition of childlike Christmas joy and adult guilt over failing to uphold learned spiritual ideals. The “stable” symbolizes a moment of profound spiritual connection.
36-44	The poem delves into the human desire to avoid introspection through external suffering or distraction. There’s a paradoxical temptation to seek pain after spiritual elevation.
45-53	These lines emphasize the necessity of perseverance in faith. Despite the fading joy and encroaching spiritual challenges, the daily tasks of life and the work of spiritual redemption must continue.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

1. Alliteration: The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words for emphasis and musicality. Example: “Weeping with a weeping world”
2. Allusion: A reference to a historical event, cultural figure, or other literary work, adding layers of meaning. Example: Auden’s allusions to Biblical narratives and figures.
3. Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines or clauses. Example: “He is the Way. / Follow Him…”
4. Apostrophe: Directly addressing an absent person, abstract concept, or inanimate object. Example: “O Light Invisible, we praise Thee!”
5. Diction: The poet’s specific word choice, contributing to tone and meaning. Example: Auden contrasts archaic diction (“Thee,” “spake”) with modern anxieties.
6. Dramatic Monologue: A poem spoken from the perspective of a single character, revealing their inner thoughts and motivations. Example: Herod’s monologue, expressing his paranoia.
7. Hyperbole: Exaggeration for emphasis or dramatic effect. Example: “Wise Men wonder what we mean.”
8. Imagery: Vivid use of language to evoke the senses, creating a mental picture. Example: “The summerless climates where the abscess pries”
9. Irony: A contrast between what is said and what is meant, often creating a sense of humor or exposing contradictions. Example: Herod’s feigned concern for finding the Christ child.
10. Metaphor: A comparison between two things without using “like” or “as”, suggesting deeper similarity. Example: The star as a metaphor for divine guidance.
11. Paradox: A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth. Example: “Now they are departed… they are everywhere”
12. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human entities or abstractions. Example: “Justice will be done”
13. Repetition: Repeating words, phrases, or ideas for emphasis or to create rhythm. Example: The repetition of “He is…” in the Simeon’s narrative.
14. Simile: A comparison using “like” or “as” to highlight a connection. Example: “The night is like the mind.”
15. Symbolism: Use of objects, people, or places to represent abstract ideas. Example: The star as a symbol of hope and guidance.

Functions of Literary Devices in “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

1. Allusion: Auden’s extensive use of Biblical allusions (especially the Nativity story) adds layers of meaning and connects the poem to a broader cultural and spiritual context. It reinforces the timeless and universal struggle between good and evil, faith and doubt within the Christmas story.
2. Dramatic Monologues: Auden uses characters like Herod and Simeon to express distinct viewpoints and anxieties, creating a multifaceted exploration of faith, modernity, and human psychology. This allows for complex and contradictory perspectives, refusing to offer simple answers or clear moral judgements.
3. Imagery: Vivid sensory language contributes to the shifting moods of the poem, from despair with images of “summerless climates” to hope with metaphors of light and stars. This imagery helps make abstract concepts of loss, faith, and potential renewal more tangible for the reader.
4. Symbolism: Auden weaves symbols throughout, like the Star, which embodies hope and guidance even in the darkest times. These symbols contribute to the poem’s complexity, leaving room for multiple interpretations and adding emotional resonance to its abstract themes.

Themes in “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

Theme	Explanation	Lines from the Poem
The Search for Meaning in a Modern World	Auden explores the tension between faith and doubt in a world marked by war, suffering, and uncertainty.	“All the ports are darkened and all the plains extinct… The world, we thought, had been redeemed.”
The Paradox of the Incarnation	The poem wrestles with the concept of the divine entering the ordinary world – an act of profound humility and vulnerability.	“In the unlikely event of there being a God… Could He really choose such a place and such a people?”
The Cyclical Nature of Time	Auden juxtaposes the historical moment of Christ’s birth with the “time being” of the reader’s present, emphasizing the ongoing relevance of the Nativity story.	“Because in a time of disorder, he has tidied our room… is the kind of Person we might hope to meet.”
The Struggle Between Good and Evil	The poem acknowledges the existence of darkness and despair, embodied in figures like Herod, while asserting the enduring potential for hope and renewal.	“[Herod]: For the wicked man, the world he wishes / Is always a world impossible to live in.”
Human Responsibility and Free Will	Characters grapple with moral choices, while the poem suggests that faith is an active choice, not merely a passive acceptance.	“All our choices are important… At all times our lives are important.”

Literary Theories and “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

• New Criticism:
• Analyze the internal structure of the poem, focusing on word choice, imagery, symbolism, and formal elements like rhyme and meter.
• Consider how Auden uses poetic techniques to create ambiguity and complex tonal shifts within the text.

·  Psychoanalytic Criticism:

• Analyze the psychological motivations of characters like Herod and Simeon, exploring their internal conflicts and anxieties.
• Explore themes of unconscious desire, repression, and potential anxieties around the concept of divine incarnation.

·  Marxist Criticism:

• Analyze power dynamics in the poem, such as Herod’s political authority contrasted with the vulnerable “lowly” birth of Christ.
• Consider how the poem critiques materialism, social inequality, and abuses of power within the context of a Christian framework.

·  Existentialism:

• Explore the poem’s focus on individual choice and responsibility within the context of faith.
• Analyze how the characters confront the anxieties of existence, uncertainty, and the search for meaning in a world that seems indifferent.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

Topics

• The Role of Allusion in “For the Time Being”
• Faith vs. Doubt in Auden’s Oratorio
• Character Analysis in “For the Time Being” (Focus on a specific figure like Herod or Simeon)
• The Representation of Time in the Poem
• Symbolism and Meaning in Auden’s Oratorio

Essay Questions

• How does Auden use literary devices to create a sense of spiritual and emotional conflict within “For the Time Being”?
• Analyze the ways in which the poem both upholds and challenges traditional representations of the Nativity story.
• Does the poem offer a hopeful resolution to its anxieties, or does it leave the reader with a sense of ambiguity?
• Analyze the portrayal of power in the poem. How does this relate to Auden’s personal and historical context?
• Compare and contrast “For the Time Being” to other Christmas-themed literary works. How does it diverge from tradition?

Thesis Statements

• W.H. Auden’s “For the Time Being” utilizes biblical allusion and shifting poetic forms to reflect the modern struggle for faith amidst a world burdened by doubt and uncertainty.
• Auden’s “For the Time Being” complicates the traditional Nativity narrative by presenting figures like Herod and Simeon as complex, psychologically conflicted individuals, mirroring the anxieties of the 20th century.
• In “For the Time Being,” Auden employs symbolism, vivid imagery, and contrasting tones to convey both the hope associated with the Nativity and the pervasive anxieties of the modern world.
• “For the Time Being” critiques power structures and materialism, offering a vision of faith rooted in humility and a focus on the present moment as a source of potential renewal.
• While rooted in Christian traditions, Auden’s “For the Time Being” explores themes of existential choice and responsibility, ultimately asking the reader to actively grapple with questions of faith in their own time.

Short Question-Answers about “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

Question	Answer
How does Auden challenge traditional Nativity narratives?	Auden disrupts the idealized Christmas story with images of war, suffering, and doubt (“O shut your bright eyes which confound the sun”). He depicts characters like Herod and Simeon as complex and flawed, mirroring modern anxieties.
What is the poem’s view on the relationship between faith and doubt?	The poem acknowledges the constant tension between faith and doubt, particularly within the “time being” of the modern world. Yet, it suggests a resilient hope despite uncertainty, seen in characters like the Shepherds and Simeon.
How is time portrayed in the poem?	Auden juxtaposes the historical moment of Christ’s birth with the “time being” of the reader’s present, emphasizing the ongoing relevance of the Nativity story. He highlights the potential for renewal and the importance of actively choosing faith within a cyclical view of time.
What is one key literary technique Auden uses?	Auden employs dramatic monologues for characters like Herod and Simeon, giving voice to their distinct and often contradictory perspectives. This contributes to the poem’s nuanced exploration of faith, morality, and human nature.

Literary Works Similar to “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

1. T.S. Eliot’s “Journey of the Magi”: This modernist poem offers a resonant exploration of faith, doubt, and the challenges of spiritual transformation. Both Auden and Eliot employ dramatic techniques, fragmented imagery, and a questioning tone to depict a complex spiritual landscape.
2. Gerard Manley Hopkins’ religious poetry: Hopkins’ deeply devotional work shares some stylistic similarities with Auden – intensity of language, metrical experimentation, and a grappling with profound spiritual questions. A key contrast lies in their frameworks: Hopkins’ devout Catholicism vs. Auden’s more ambiguous and questioning spirituality.
3. Milton’s “Paradise Lost”: A foundational work of English literature, “Paradise Lost” shares thematic concerns with “For the Time Being” – exploring temptation, the struggle between good and evil, and humanity’s place within a divine cosmology. Their stark difference lies in Milton’s unwavering Christian perspective, contrasting with Auden’s 20th-century questioning.
4. Contemporary Christmas-themed Poetry: Exploring less traditional poetic responses to the Christmas story offers interesting contrasts with Auden’s approach. Such poems might reflect secular viewpoints, address modern social concerns, or employ diverse poetic forms, illuminating Auden’s unique place within this broader conversation.
5. Other works by W.H. Auden: Analyzing poems like “Musée des Beaux Arts” or “September 1, 1939” alongside “For the Time Being” would reveal thematic connections and demonstrate the breadth of Auden’s poetic voice, illuminating his recurring concerns with faith, modernity, and human psychology.

Suggested Readings: “For The Time Being” by W. H. Auden

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. W.H. Auden. Chelsea House Publishers, 2004. (Includes essays exploring Auden’s work and may contain analysis specific to “For the Time Being”).
• Davenport-Hines, Richard. Auden. Heinemann, 1995. (A comprehensive biography offering insights into Auden’s life experiences that influenced his poetry).
• Mendelson, Edward. Early Auden. Faber & Faber, 1981. (Focuses on Auden’s earlier work, providing context for understanding “For the Time Being” within his development).

Articles

• Callan, Edward. “Auden’s ‘New Year Letter’ and ‘For the Time Being.'” Twentieth Century Literature, vol. 13, no. 4, Hofstra University, 1967, pp. 221-230. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed]. (Analyzes thematic parallels between two significant longer poems by Auden).
• Spears, Monroe K. The Poetry of W.H. Auden: The Disenchanted Island. Oxford University Press, 1963. (Offers analysis of Auden’s overall poetic approach and includes discussion of “For the Time Being”).

Websites

• The W.H. Auden Society: (Offers resources including critical essays, biographical information, and news about Auden-related scholarship)
• Modern American Poetry: (Features biographical information, a selection of Auden’s poems, and links to critical articles).