Month: March 2024

Introduction: “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor has become one of her most celebrated and widely read works after its publication in 1955. The story centers on Hulga, a cynical and intellectual young woman with a physical disability. Feeling deeply alienated from the world around her, Hulga encounters Manley Pointer, a seemingly naive and good-hearted Bible salesman. However, their encounter develops into a complex web of deceit and betrayal, forcing Hulga to confront the limitations of her own perspectives. Through its exploration of identity, deception, and the intricacies of human relationships, “Good Country People” has secured its place as a beloved classic of American literature.

Main Events in “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

1. Meet Hulga: We’re introduced to Hulga, a woman with a physical disability, a cynical intellectual outlook, and deep feelings of isolation.
2. The Bible Salesman: Manley Pointer, a seemingly innocent Bible salesman, arrives on the scene.
3. A Cynical Seduction: Hulga decides to seduce Manley, believing she can dismantle his simple faith and worldview.
4. The Picnic Plot: They plan a picnic in the countryside, where Hulga believes she will carry out her cynical plan.
5. The Stolen Leg: During the picnic, Manley steals Hulga’s prosthetic leg, revealing his true manipulative nature.
6. Betrayal and Revelation: Hulga is shocked and humiliated, seeing the world and herself in a new light.
7. Deception Unmasked: Manley reveals a hidden collection of trophies – mementos of his previous deceptions.
8. The Hollow Bible: Manley’s Bible turns out to be filled with playing cards, whiskey, and lewd items, shattering Hulga’s idea of religious purity.
9. Crushing Humiliation: Left alone and abandoned, Hulga experiences a profound sense of humiliation and disillusionment.
10. No Easy Answers: The story ends without a neat resolution, leaving Hulga (and the reader) to confront the complexity of human nature and the limits of intellectual superiority.

Literary Devices in “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

1. Allusion: A brief reference to a well-known person, place, event, or work of art.
2. Example: Hulga’s original name, Joy, is an ironic allusion to her lack of joy and deep-seated bitterness.
3. Epiphany: A sudden and transformative moment of realization experienced by a character.
   • Example: Hulga experiences an epiphany when Manley steals her leg, shattering her prior belief in her intellectual superiority.
4. Foreshadowing: Hints or clues that suggest future events in the story.
   • Example: Early in the story, Mrs. Hopewell observes a hairline crack in the ceiling, a subtle but ominous sign of things falling apart.
5. Grotesque: Characters or situations that are distorted, bizarre, or unsettlingly strange.
   • Example: Manley Pointer’s exaggerated country mannerisms and Hulga’s physical disability contribute to the grotesque nature of the story.
6. Hyperbole: An extreme exaggeration used for emphasis or effect.
   • Example: Mrs. Hopewell’s declaration that “good country people” are the most pleasant people to meet.
7. Imagery: Vivid language that appeals to the senses, creating a strong impression.
   • Example: O’Connor’s description of the rural landscape Hulga looks upon with disdain.
8. Irony: A contrast between expectation and reality, often with a layer of humor or wry observation.
   • Example: The title “Good Country People” is deeply ironic considering the manipulative and cruel behavior exhibited by the characters.
9. Metaphor: A comparison of two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”
   • Example: O’Connor’s description of Hulga’s heart as “churning like an overloaded washing machine” depicts her intense, conflicted emotions.
10. Motif: A recurring symbol, image, or idea that contributes to the overall theme of the work.
    • Example: The motif of sight and blindness, both literal and metaphorical, highlights the limitations of the characters’ perceptions.
11. Paradox: A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth.
12. Example: The idea that by losing her leg, Hulga actually gains something – a shattering of her worldview.
13. Personification: Giving human qualities or actions to inanimate objects or ideas.
14. Example: O’Connor describes the landscape as having a “face” conveying a sense of the setting’s own personality.
15. Satire: Using humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize and expose societal flaws.
16. Example: O’Connor satirizes self-righteousness, simple-mindedness, and the illusion of moral superiority.
17. Setting: The time, place, and social context in which the story takes place.
18. Example: The rural Southern setting establishes a sense of isolation and emphasizes the clash between Hulga’s world and Manley’s.
19. Simile: A comparison of two unlike things using “like” or “as.”
20. Example: Hulga comparing her removed prosthetic leg to a “monument.”
21. Symbolism: An object, event, or character that represents a larger idea or concept.
22. Example: Hulga’s prosthetic leg symbolizes both her disability and her false sense of control and superiority.

Characterization in “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Hulga (Joy) Hopewell

• Intellectual Cynicism: Hulga prides herself on her fierce intellect and atheist worldview. She dismisses those around her as ignorant and sees the world as fundamentally meaningless.
  • Example: Her condescending thoughts about Mrs. Freeman and her daughters.
• Embittered by Disability: Her physical disability has fostered bitterness and a sense of superiority to compensate for her perceived vulnerability.
  • Example: Her defiant and deliberately unattractive behavior.
• Naiveté Despite Intellect: While intellectually sharp, Hulga is emotionally naive and blind to her own self-delusions.
  • Example: Her belief that she could easily manipulate and outwit Manley Pointer.
• Transformation through Trauma: Manley’s theft of her leg and his cruel revelations lead to a shattering of Hulga’s worldview and the potential for a humbling change.

Mrs. Hopewell

• Superficial Optimism: Mrs. Hopewell maintains a relentlessly positive facade, classifying people as either “good country people” or “trash.”
  • Example: Her insistence that everyone is pleasant despite ample evidence to the contrary.
• Stereotypical Thinking: She relies heavily on generalizations and stereotypes to make sense of the world, lacking true insight into individuals.
  • Example: Her assumptions about Manley Pointer’s character based on his appearance and occupation.

Mrs. Freeman

• Nosy and Gossipy: Mrs. Freeman is obsessed with gathering and sharing trivial information about others.
  • Example: Her detailed commentary on the Freemans’ family history and current affairs.
• Socially Anxious: Mrs. Freeman’s focus on gossip and appearances suggests a deep insecurity and a desire to align herself with accepted social standards.

Manley Pointer

• Deceptive Simplicity: Manley cultivates an image of a naive, innocent country boy, masking his manipulative and exploitative nature.
  • Example: His feigned interest in religion and his exaggerated politeness.
• Con Artist: He targets vulnerable individuals, using charm to gain their trust before betraying them.
  • Example: His carefully planned seduction of Hulga leading to the theft of her leg.
• Collector of Trophies: His collection of “treasures” (stolen trinkets from previous victims) reveals his sadistic pleasure in exploiting others.

Major Themes in “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Theme	Explanation	Reference/Quote from the Story
Deception and Self-Delusion	Characters deceive themselves and others about their motives and true nature. This theme challenges notions of absolute good and evil.	* Hulga believes herself superior and intellectually above manipulation, yet falls prey to Manley’s tactics (“Well, ain’t we just good country people?” – Hulga) * Manley presents himself as a simple Bible salesman while harboring sinister intentions (“I been believing in Jesus for twenty years” – Manley)
The Limitations of Intellectualism	Hulga’s atheist philosophy and pride in her intelligence blind her to the complexities of human nature and the potential for vulnerability.	* Hulga’s cynical worldview collapses when faced with Manley’s betrayal (“She decided that for the first time in her life she was face to face with real innocence” – about Manley). * Hulga’s intellectual detachment proves to be a false sense of security.
The Grotesque Nature of Existence	The story explores the bizarre, unsettling, and potentially cruel aspects of life, blurring the lines between normal and abnormal.	* Hulga’s physical disability and her bitter worldview paint a grotesque picture. * Mrs. Hopewell’s superficial optimism and Mrs. Freeman’s gossipy nature highlight distortions in social interactions.
The Need for Humility	Pride and self-righteousness blind characters to their own flaws and potential for growth. Humility often comes through suffering.	* Hulga’s intellectual arrogance is shattered by the end of the story, leaving room for self-reflection. (“How was she going to face it when she got home?” – Hulga at the end). * Mrs. Hopewell’s simplistic classifications of people are shown to be inadequate.

Writing Style in “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

1. Southern Gothic:O’Connor is a master of the Southern Gothic tradition. This means the story features decaying settings, an atmosphere of the macabre or grotesque, and a focus on deeply flawed characters.
2. Grotesque Characters: People in O’Connor’s stories are often exaggerated and distorted, both physically and morally. This highlights their flaws while creating a sense of unease and fascination.
3. Dark Humor: O’Connor balances the horrific elements of her stories with a sardonic wit. This humor is often uncomfortable but serves to further accentuate the flaws of her characters and their worldviews.
4. Religious Themes: A devout Catholic herself, O’Connor often writes about characters’ struggles with faith, morality, and spiritual blindness. The concept of grace, found even in the most unlikely places, is central to her work.
5. Symbolism: Seemingly ordinary objects carry important symbolic weight. Hulga’s wooden leg in “Good Country People” is a physical representation of her inner brokenness and distorted worldview.
6. Emphasis on Moments of Shock and Revelation: O’Connor’s stories lead her characters towards moments of brutal self-awareness, often through unexpected and violent means.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Supporting Quote
Southern Gothic	O’Connor uses Southern Gothic elements to portray a grotesque and decaying world, highlighting the characters’ moral flaws.	“…two long lines of pines, converging on a red farmhouse… the look of a decayed mansion”
Feminist Critique	The story can be read as a critique of patriarchal views of women, with both Mrs. Hopewell and Hulga representing limited and problematic female roles.	“Mrs. Hopewell had no bad qualities of her own but she was able to use other people’s in such a constructive way…”
New Criticism	A close reading of the text reveals symbolic details and narrative structure that offer deeper meanings about hypocrisy and self-delusion	“Her [Hulga’s] face was almost purple… the girl’s eyes seemed lit all of a sudden with a peculiar light, an unnatural light…”
Psychoanalytic Lens	The story suggests repressed desires and unconscious motivations driving the characters’ actions. Hulga’s actions can be interpreted as a subconscious rebellion and desire for connection.	“She took care of it as someone else would his soul, in private and almost with her own eyes turned away.” (Referring to Hulga’s leg)
Religious/ Theological Readings	Explores themes of grace, spiritual blindness, and the potential for redemption even within the most morally flawed characters.	“And I’ll tell you another thing, Hulga,” he said, using the name as if he didn’t think much of it, “you ain’t so smart. I been believing in nothing ever since I was born!”

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

1. Irony and Societal Expectations: In “Good Country People,” Flannery O’Connor employs irony to critique restrictive societal expectations placed upon women, revealing the hypocrisy of traditional gender roles and their damaging effects.
2. Symbolism and Inner Struggles: Flannery O’Connor utilizes symbolism in “Good Country People” to expose the characters’ deep-seated psychological and spiritual conflicts, ultimately revealing their complex inner struggles to find meaning in a chaotic world.
3. Manley Pointer: Catalyst for Change: The character of Manley Pointer in “Good Country People” embodies hypocrisy and the potential for human darkness. His presence catalyzes Joy/Hulga’s transformation, shattering her intellectually arrogant worldview and highlighting the risks of misjudging others.
4. Gothic Elements and Human Nature: Flannery O’Connor infuses “Good Country People” with gothic literary elements to delve into the darker side of human nature, emphasizing how fear, desire, and unchecked emotions can result in self-destruction.
5. Joy/Hulga: Struggle for Identity: In “Good Country People,” Joy/Hulga exemplifies the fight for individuality and purpose in a world that devalues those who deviate from societal expectations, highlighting the need for self-acceptance and agency.
6. Religious Allegory: Good and Evil: Flannery O’Connor uses religious allegory in “Good Country People” to scrutinize the complex nature of good and evil, critiquing rigid moral systems and underscoring the struggle to find faith in a flawed world.

Short Question-Answer “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

1. How does the use of irony contribute to the themes of “Good Country People”?

In “Good Country People,” Flannery O’Connor uses irony to underscore the superficiality of the characters and the hollowness of their beliefs. For example, the character of Mrs. Hopewell is named after her optimistic outlook on life, but she is shown to be oblivious to the true nature of those around her. Similarly, Hulga, who prides herself on her intellectual superiority, is ultimately outwitted by the simple and seemingly naive Manley Pointer. Through these ironic twists, O’Connor highlights the theme that appearances can be deceiving and that true understanding requires looking beyond surface-level impressions.

2. How does the use of symbolism contribute to the meaning of “Good Country People”?

Symbolism plays an important role in “Good Country People” and is used to represent the characters’ inner thoughts and motivations. For example, Hulga’s prosthetic leg represents her vulnerability and her desire to distance herself from others. The Bible salesman’s valise, on the other hand, represents the deceitful nature of his character and his true intentions. Through these symbols, O’Connor creates a deeper understanding of the characters and the themes of the story.

3. How does the theme of deception play out in “Good Country People”?

Deception is a central theme in “Good Country People,” and it is explored through the actions of several characters. Mrs. Hopewell and Hulga both engage in self-deception, creating false narratives about their lives and relationships. Manley Pointer, the Bible salesman, uses deception as a means of gaining Hulga’s trust and ultimately taking advantage of her. Through these various forms of deception, O’Connor underscores the idea that people are not always what they seem and that trust must be earned rather than blindly given.

4. How does the use of grotesque imagery contribute to the meaning of “Good Country People”?

The use of grotesque imagery in “Good Country People” serves to heighten the sense of disorientation and discomfort felt by the characters and the reader. For example, the description of Hulga’s prosthetic leg is intentionally jarring and unsettling, emphasizing her sense of isolation and difference from others. The violent and graphic ending of the story similarly creates a sense of shock and revulsion. Through these disturbing images, O’Connor underscores the dark and twisted nature of the characters and their actions, and the moral ambiguity of the story.

Literary Works Similar to “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Other Works by Flannery O’Connor:

• A Good Man Is Hard to Find and Other Stories (short story collection): This collection exemplifies O’Connor’s exploration of morality, faith, and unexpected violence, often with a darkly humorous edge.
• Wise Blood (novel): Features a deeply flawed protagonist grappling with his own twisted spirituality, a theme echoed in “Good Country People.”
• The Violent Bear It Away (novel): Explores themes of religious fanaticism and the struggle between destiny and individual will, offering a different angle on the spiritual conflicts present in O’Connor’s short story.

Southern Gothic Writers:

• Carson McCullers: Her work, particularly The Heart is a Lonely Hunter, shares O’Connor’s focus on misfits and social outcasts within the distinct world of the American South.
• William Faulkner: His novels, such as As I Lay Dying and Absalom, Absalom!, use fragmented storytelling, grotesque elements, and a deep examination of Southern culture. These techniques align with O’Connor’s approach.
• Eudora Welty: Her short stories and novellas offer nuanced portrayals of Southern life and human relationships, subtly revealing character flaws and societal pressures similar to O’Connor’s work.
• Writers Exploring Faith, Morality, and the Grotesque:
  • Walker Percy: His novels, like The Moviegoer, portray characters disillusioned with modern existence and their search for meaning, a struggle also central to “Good Country People.”
  • Cormac McCarthy: His often violent works, including Blood Meridian and The Road showcase the extremes of human behavior and the battle between good and evil, offering a darker and more visceral counterpart to O’Connor’s explorations of morality.

Suggested Readings: “Good Country People” by Flannery O’Connor

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. Flannery O’Connor (Modern Critical Views). Chelsea House Publishers, 1986.
• Coles, Robert. Flannery O’Connor’s South. Louisiana State University Press, 1980.
• Gooch, Brad. Flannery: A Life of Flannery O’Connor. Little, Brown and Company, 2009.
• Martin, Carter W., ed. The Art of the Short Story. Penguin Academics, 2006. (This contains a general essay on O’Connor’s work and may specifically analyze “Good Country People”)
• Westling, Louise. Sacred Groves and Ravaged Gardens: The Fiction of Eudora Welty, Carson McCullers, and Flannery O’Connor. University of Georgia Press, 1985.

Articles

• Brinkmeyer, Robert H. Jr. “Flannery O’Connor: Misfits, Monsters, and the Sacred.” Christianity in Literature, vol. 46, no. 4, 1997, pp. 418-433.
• Desmond, John F. “Flannery O’Connor and the Limits of Southern Gothic.” Southern Literary Journal, vol. 43, no.2, 2011, pp. 71-83.
• Giannone, Richard. “Flannery O’Connor and the Grotesque.” Flannery O’Connor Review, vol. 8, no. 1, 2010, pp.50-63.

Websites

• The Flannery O’Connor Review: (Published by Georgia College, offers critical articles and insights)
• The Flannery O’Connor Trust: (Provides biographical information, resources about her home Andalusia, and additional reading links)

Introduction: “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

Published in 1922, “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald explores themes of unrequited love and the disillusionment that accompanies the pursuit of the American Dream. The story’s poignant depiction of the protagonist’s inner turmoil, coupled with themes of social class and materialism in the Jazz Age, has earned it enduring popularity. Fitzgerald’s masterful language and complex, multidimensional characters make “Winter Dreams” a timeless classic that continues to resonate with readers today.

Main Events in “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

1. Dexter Green, a young caddy at a golf club, becomes infatuated with the beautiful and wealthy Judy Jones.
2. Dexter works hard to climb the social ladder and eventually becomes a successful businessman, hoping to win Judy’s affection.
3. Dexter and Judy begin a tumultuous affair, but Judy proves to be emotionally unavailable and manipulative.
4. Judy becomes engaged to another man, causing Dexter to feel betrayed and heartbroken.
5. Dexter tries to move on by dating other women, but he cannot forget Judy and continues to long for her.
6. Judy reappears in Dexter’s life, and they have a brief encounter that leaves Dexter feeling disillusioned and unsatisfied.
7. Dexter realizes that his obsession with Judy has caused him to neglect his own happiness and personal growth.
8. Dexter decides to leave his successful business and move away, hoping to find a new sense of purpose and fulfillment.
9. Dexter reflects on his past and realizes that his “winter dreams” of love and success were based on shallow and materialistic desires.
10. Dexter ultimately finds a sense of peace and acceptance, recognizing that his experiences with Judy have taught him valuable lessons about the nature of love and human relationships.

Literary Devices in “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

• Allusion: References to external things (historical events, figures, other works of art) to create richer meaning.

Example: Dexter’s striving for greater wealth and status echoes the myth of Icarus, who flew too close to the sun.

• Diction: The author’s deliberate word choice to create a specific mood or tone.

Example: Fitzgerald’s use of words like “shimmering,” “luminous,” and “radiant” to paint the idyllic summer scenes contrasts with the “crass” and “vulgar” language used to describe later events.

• Foil: Two characters who contrast each other to highlight specific traits.

Example: Judy Jones and Irene Scheerer serve as foils. Judy represents unattainable desires and ambition, while Irene symbolizes a more grounded, although less appealing, reality.

• Foreshadowing: Hints of what’s to come in the story, creating suspense and anticipation.

Example: The changing seasons (from the brilliance of summer to the starkness of winter) foreshadow Dexter’s changing fortunes and the decline of his dreams.

• Imagery: Vivid use of language to appeal to the senses, creating strong mental pictures.

Example: “The shore was lined with sleek canoes…the orchestra was playing yellow cocktail music…” Fitzgerald paints a detailed scene of wealth and leisure.

• Irony:

Situational Irony: When events turn out differently than expected. Example: Dexter achieving wealth doesn’t bring the happiness he thought it would.

Verbal Irony: When a character says something they don’t literally mean. Example: Judy’s flippant comments often have deeper, sometimes hurtful, intentions.

• Metaphor: Directly comparing two things for greater understanding or meaning.

Example: “He was a fish out of water…” illustrates Dexter’s discomfort in certain social circles.

• Mood: The emotional atmosphere the author creates within the story.

Example: The beginning has a nostalgic and romantic mood, which shifts to a colder, more melancholy tone as Dexter achieves his goals but loses his sense of wonder.

• Motif: A recurring image, idea, or symbol that reinforces the story’s themes.

Example: The changing seasons parallel Dexter’s rise and fall, mirroring the cyclical nature of dreams and ambition.

• Oxymoron: Combining contradictory words to create a surprising effect. *Example: “Deliciously fatigued” describes a feeling of pleasant exhaustion after a leisure-filled day.
• Personification: Giving non-human things human qualities.

Example: “The winter night was speaking…” adds depth and mystique to the setting.

• Setting: The time and place where the story happens, playing a significant role in themes and character development.

Example: The Midwestern country club represents Dexter’s initial comfort zone, while the big city symbolizes the wider world of success he aspires to conquer.

• Simile: Comparing two things using ‘like’ or ‘as’ for emphasis and description.

Example: “Her casual whim… drifted her here and there like a leaf blown by the wind.”

• Symbolism: Objects, colors, or concepts representing a deeper meaning in the context of the story.

Example: Judy Jones herself becomes a symbol of Dexter’s unattainable dreams and ambitions.

• Tone: The attitude the author conveys towards the characters, subject, or audience.

Example: Fitzgerald’s tone moves from wistful nostalgia to a sense of disillusionment and lost potential.

Characterization in “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

Character	Thematic Significance	Key Quotes from the Story	Analysis
Dexter Green	Embodies the pursuit of the American Dream and its pitfalls.	* “The winter dreams had been definite and sufficiently triumphant…”* * “…a universe of ineffable gaudiness spun itself out in his brain…” * “He wanted not association with glittering things but possession of them.”	Dexter’s unrelenting ambition and idealization of wealth lead to his ultimate disillusionment. Fitzgerald critiques the notion that material success guarantees happiness.
Judy Jones	Represents unattainable desire and the destructive nature of infatuation.	* “…a gust of wind and it would blow her just where she wanted to go…”* * “[he was] helplessly in love with her, with her and for her.” * “There was no difference between men, in her opinion, except in wealth.”	Judy’s fickleness and self-absorption hurt Dexter, highlighting the difference between true connection and romanticized fantasy.
Irene Scheerer	Symbolizes a potential for grounded love and contentment.	* “…light-haired, sweet and honorable and a little stout…”* * “It was his duty to her to be old and wise.”	Irene offers stability and genuine affection, but Dexter remains fixated on his impossible dream, represented by Judy.
Mr. Mortimer Jones	Represents the gatekeeper of social class and privilege.	* “You’d better start on the garage then … You can start now, over in the corner. I want it cleared away this week.”	Mr. Jones’s disapproval reinforces the barriers Dexter faces in his desire to elevate his status, highlighting the theme of social inequality.
T.A. Hedrick	Represents both the promise of success and its potential hollowness.	* “…his destiny was to become much richer.” * “…go as far as you like.”	Hedrick encourages Dexter’s ambitions, yet his own life suggests there’s more to fulfillment than merely attaining wealth.

Minor Characters:

• Mr. Sandwood, Devlin, Miss Baker, Men at the golf club: These characters highlight different shades of ambition, social divides, and contrasting forms of love, acting as foils to Dexter and Judy.

Major Themes in “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

1. The Illusion of the American Dream

• ·  Dexter’s initial belief that success equals “glittering things” and a “sense of magic”.
• His relentless work ethic transforming him into an “ambitious young man ready to begin his fight” and eventually a self-made millionaire
• The emptiness he feels despite having wealth: “The dream was gone. Something had been taken from him…”

3. Love and Infatuation

• Dexter’s initial childlike awe when encountering Judy Jones: “The helpless ecstasy of losing himself in her charm.”
• Judy’s fickle nature, blowing hot and cold, described by another character as “She’s a wild one… she’s always got half a dozen poor suckers around trailing along…”
• Dexter’s heartbreak, even during engagement to another: “…he couldn’t have forgotten Judy Jones”

4. Social Class and Ambition

• Young Dexter quitting his job as a caddy, where he felt an odd outsider among “these wealthy and secure people.”
• His calculated emulation of the wealthy: “The consideration that…to be careless in dress and manner required more confidence than to be careful”.
• His ultimate disillusionment with wealth, which doesn’t erase the difference between “old money” and his hard-earned success.

5. Loss and Regret

• Dexter’s loss of connection to simple joys after his rise in status: “The waters of disillusion had closed over his head.”
• His nostalgic longing for the days on the golf course: “He wanted to catch in his hands… the sparkle of the dew on the grass…”
• The final image of the story: A man in a worn suit hearing of Judy’s declining beauty, Dexter experiencing a “shocking sense of loss” for the dreams he once possessed.

Writing Style in “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

Vivid Imagery

• ·  “The shore was lined with sleek canoes…” – Evokes the luxury and leisure of the country club world.
• “The only caddies were poor as sin…” – Paints a picture of social and economic disparity.

Lyrical Prose

• “His heart turned over like the fly-wheel of the boat…” – Illustrates the intensity of Dexter’s infatuation with Judy.
• “One autumn night…the orchestra was playing yellow cocktail music” – Creates a nostalgic, romantic mood.

Complex Themes

• “Deliciously fatigued” – Captures the bittersweet emotions of a day filled with both exertion and indulgence.
• “He wanted not association with glittering things but possession of them.” Demonstrates Dexter’s obsession with material wealth.

Literary Devices

• Metaphor: “The universe of ineffable gaudiness spun itself out in his brain…” equates wealth with transcendent beauty.
• Foreshadowing: The changing seasons parallel Dexter’s rise and fall, hinting at his changing fortunes.
• Symbolism: Judy Jones becomes a symbol of Dexter’s unattainable dreams and aspirations.

Social/Cultural Context

• Fitzgerald keenly contrasts Dexter’s humble beginnings with the opulence of Judy’s world, highlighting social divides.
• The decline of Dexter’s “Winter Dreams” criticizes the illusion of the American Dream and its empty promises.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

Marxist Criticism

• Focuses on class struggles and economic inequalities.
• Examples:
  • Dexter’s initial outsider status at the golf club, working as a caddy for “poor as sin” wages.
  • His relentless pursuit of wealth as a means to break through social barriers.
  • Judy’s flippant attitude toward love, emphasizing the power wealth has over genuine connection.

Feminist Criticism

• Examines power dynamics and gender roles in a text.
• Examples:
  • Judy Jones exercising power through her beauty and social status, manipulating men like Dexter.
  • Her ultimate confinement within a stifling marriage, suggesting traditional gender roles trap her.
  • Irene Scheerer offering a potential for real love, but being overshadowed by the idealized Judy.

New Historicism

• Analyzes both the literary text and its historical context to gain deeper meaning.
• Examples:
  • The story’s setting in the Roaring Twenties reveals the pursuit of the American Dream during a time of economic boom and social change.
  • Dexter’s disillusionment echoes a larger post-WWI disillusionment of the era.

Psychoanalytic Criticism

• Explores characters’ unconscious desires and motivations
• Examples:
  • Dexter’s obsession with Judy as a potential projection of his deeper yearning for status and belonging.
  • His dreams as windows into his ambition and hidden insecurities.

Reader-Response Criticism

• Focuses on the reader’s individual experience and interpretations of the text.
• Examples:
  • Readers may sympathize with Dexter’s ambition while also critiquing his obsession.
  • The story’s open ending might lead to different interpretations about the true nature of loss – was it Judy, or Dexter’s own youthful dreams?

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

Topic	Guiding Questions	Potential Thesis Statements
The American Dream	* How does Fitzgerald portray the pursuit of the American Dream? * Is the story an endorsement, a critique, or something in-between?	* “Winter Dreams” reveals the emptiness of the American Dream, demonstrating that ambition without deeper purpose leads to disillusionment.*
Love and Infatuation	* What is the difference between genuine love and romanticized fascination in the story? * How do characters manipulate love for their own purposes?	* In “Winter Dreams”, Judy Jones represents unattainable desire, revealing how infatuation can blind individuals to the possibility of genuine connection.*
Social Class	* How does Dexter navigate different social classes? * What obstacles does he face, and are they solely external ones?	* “Winter Dreams” demonstrates how social climbing can lead to a loss of self, with Dexter’s pursuit of wealth changing him fundamentally.*
Loss and Regret	* What does Dexter truly lose in his pursuit of success? * What role does nostalgia play in the story’s tone?	* “Winter Dreams” suggests true fulfillment may lie in simpler joys, and that the cost of achieving societal ideals can be a loss of individual spirit.*
Symbolism and Literary Devices	* How does Fitzgerald use symbolism (Judy, seasons, wealth) to enhance themes? * Analyze a specific device (metaphor, etc.) and its impact on the story.	* Fitzgerald’s use of seasonal imagery in “Winter Dreams” parallels Dexter’s rise and fall, foreshadowing his changing fortunes and the cyclical nature of ambition.*

Short Question-Answer about “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

1. How does “Winter Dreams” explore the theme of the American Dream?

Answer: “Winter Dreams” explores the theme of the American Dream by depicting the pursuit of success and wealth as a hollow and ultimately unfulfilling goal. The character of Dexter Green is driven by his desire to achieve the trappings of success and social status, but his pursuit of these goals ultimately leaves him feeling empty and disillusioned. Through Dexter’s story, Fitzgerald suggests that the American Dream is an illusion that can never truly be achieved, as the pursuit of material success can never satisfy the deeper longings of the human heart.

2. How does “Winter Dreams” use the theme of memory to explore the human experience?

Answer: “Winter Dreams” uses the theme of memory to explore the human experience by portraying the power of memory to shape our perceptions of the world around us. The character of Dexter Green is haunted by memories of his past, particularly his infatuation with Judy Jones, which he can never fully recapture. Through Dexter’s memories, Fitzgerald suggests that memory is a potent force that can both enrich and complicate our lives, as we are shaped by our past experiences even as we strive to move forward into the future.

3. How does the theme of love intersect with the theme of ambition in “Winter Dreams”?

Answer: In “Winter Dreams,” the theme of love intersects with the theme of ambition in complex ways, as the character of Dexter Green is driven by both his desire for romantic fulfillment and his ambition to achieve success and social status. Dexter’s infatuation with Judy Jones is fueled in part by his desire to possess the kind of woman who represents the pinnacle of social and economic success, while his pursuit of success in business is fueled by his desire to impress and win the approval of the wealthy and powerful. Through this complex interplay of love and ambition, Fitzgerald suggests that our deepest longings are often shaped by social and economic forces that are beyond our control.

4. How does the theme of disillusionment manifest itself in “Winter Dreams”?

Answer: The theme of disillusionment is a pervasive one in “Winter Dreams,” as the character of Dexter Green experiences a profound sense of disillusionment as he comes to realize that his pursuit of success and wealth has left him feeling empty and unfulfilled. This disillusionment is further deepened by Dexter’s failed romance with Judy Jones, which ultimately reveals her to be a flawed and human character rather than the idealized object of his desire. Through Dexter’s disillusionment, Fitzgerald suggests that the pursuit of material success and romantic fulfillment can often lead to disappointment and disillusionment, as our expectations are inevitably shaped by the illusions of the world around us.

Literary Works Similar to “Winter Dreams” by Scott Fitzgerald

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Perhaps the most well-known parallel, both narratives explore the disillusionment of the American Dream. They trace protagonists driven by ambition, wealth, and an unattainable, idealized love.
2. “A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner: These works share a focus on social class, a clinging to the past, and the complexities of Southern society. Both reveal the destructive consequences of resisting change and obsessing over lost ideals.
3. Ethan Frome by Edith Wharton: This novel mirrors “Winter Dreams” in its portrayal of unfulfilled love, the weight of societal expectations, and the bleakness that results from stifled dreams and desires.
4. Tender is the Night by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Another Fitzgerald novel that explores characters disillusioned by wealth and consumed with superficial desires. Both works address the emptiness that can follow the pursuit of status and material gain.
5. Babbitt by Sinclair Lewis: This novel aligns with Fitzgerald’s critique of ambition and the American Dream by satirizing conformity and materialism found in middle-class American life.
6. The Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton: This work parallels “Winter Dreams” in its exploration of the sacrifices individuals make due to rigid social structures. Both stories depict characters limited by class expectations and the unattainable nature of certain desires.

Suggested Readings: “Winter Dreams” by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Scholarly Articles:

• Bruccoli, Matthew J. “Dexter’s Journey in Fitzgerald’s ‘Winter Dreams’.” The Short Story: Theory and Technique. Ed. Sylvan Barnet et al., New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1965. 13-23. Print.
• Hutchisson, James M. “Winter Dreams.” The Explicator 61.4 (2003): 233–236. ProQuest. Web. 26 Feb. 2024. 
• Mizruchi, Susan L. “Revising the American Dream: ‘Winter Dreams,’ Desire, and the Market.” *The Power of Historical Thought: Essays on American Literature. * Madison, WI: U of Wisconsin P, 1988. 197-220. Print.

Websites:

• Encyclopedia.com “Winter Dreams by F. Scott Fitzgerald, 1922” Entry. Encyclopedia.com. 2024. Web. 26 Feb 2024. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/winter-dreams-f-scott-fitzgerald-1922
• Kibin Essay Examples: “Dexter’s Desires in Winter Dreams, a Short Story by F. Scott Fitzgerald.” Kibin, 2024. Web. 26 Feb 2024. https://www.kibin.com/essay-examples/dexters-desires-in-winter-dreams-a-short-story-by-f-scott-fitzgerald-qw5CLrdP

Books:

• Fitzgerald, F. Scott. *The Jazz Age: F. Scott Fitzgerald. * Ed. Sara Crangle. London: Penguin Modern Classics, 2021. (“Winter Dreams” is included in this collection)
• Prigozy, Ruth, ed. *The Cambridge Companion to F. Scott Fitzgerald. * Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. (Likely includes chapters analyzing “Winter Dreams”)

Introduction: “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

“Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid that depicts a mother’s advice to her daughter in a single sentence of dialogue, in which the mother provides a series of instructions and warnings to her daughter. The instructions cover various aspects of domestic life, including cooking, cleaning, sewing, and child-rearing. Throughout the story, the mother’s voice is both commanding and critical, highlighting the expectations placed on women in Caribbean society. The story’s popularity can be attributed to its simple, yet evocative style, and its ability to capture the complexity of relationships between mothers and daughters. It also serves as a commentary on the oppressive nature of gender roles and societal expectations.

Main Events in “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

1. Domestic Chores and Skills: The mother begins with a relentless list of household duties: washing clothes, cooking techniques, gardening, and maintaining a clean house. (“Wash the white clothes on Monday…”, “cook pumpkin fritters in very hot sweet oil…”)
2. Social Propriety: Instructions on how to behave in polite society emerge: curtseying, table manners, walking appropriately, and interacting with others. (“don’t walk barehead in the hot sun”, “don’t squat down to play marbles…”)
3. Avoiding ‘Sluttish’ Behavior: The mother’s warnings take a sharp turn, focusing on how to avoid being perceived as promiscuous and how to deal with unwanted male advances. (“this is how you sew on a button…”, “this is how to bully a man…”)
4. Womanly Skills for Attracting Men: Contradictory instructions surface, emphasizing feminine wiles to attract men. (“this is how to make a good medicine to throw away a child…”)
5. Home Remedies and Superstition: Advice veers into folk remedies and superstitious beliefs. (“this is how to make ends meet…”)
6. Defiance and the Daughter’s Voice: The daughter briefly interrupts twice, once to question and another time to protest.
7. Mother’s Assumptions of Bad Character: The mother assumes the daughter has an inherent inclination towards improper behavior. (“on Sundays try to walk like a lady…”).
8. Preventing Pregnancy: The advice returns to more overt warnings about becoming pregnant and its social consequences.
9. Social Expectations of Women: The mother harps on avoiding shame and maintaining a reputation as a respectable woman and future wife.
10. The Cycle Continues: The story implies that the daughter, now armed with all this ‘wisdom’, will someday pass the same on to her own daughters.

Literary Devices in “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

1. Allusion: Possible allusions to biblical themes or proverbs within the mother’s instructions (e.g., not throwing stones at blackbirds might reference the idea of casting the first stone).
2. Anaphora: The repetition of phrases throughout the story, most notably “this is how…” and “don’t…” These repetitions reinforce the relentlessness of the mother’s advice.
3. Antithesis: Contrasting ideas placed next to each other to highlight their differences. Examples include the conflicting instructions about attracting and repelling men.
4. Asyndeton: Purposeful omission of conjunctions (“and,” “or,” “but”) between a series of words or phrases, creating a sense of urgency and breathlessness.
5. Diction: The mother’s choice of words is simple and direct, reflecting the practical worldview she is imparting. The word “sl*t”, though jarring, drives home the mother’s fears about her daughter’s potential behavior.
6. Foreshadowing“>Foreshadowing: Hints of the cycle of womanhood and the expectation that this knowledge will be passed down to the next generation.
7. Imagery: Vivid use of sensory details, particularly in the descriptions of food preparation and domestic tasks, to ground the story in the realm of lived experience.
8. Imperatives: The mother uses a barrage of commands in instructing her daughter. This reflects the controlling nature of their relationship and the weight of societal expectations.
9. Juxtaposition“>Juxtaposition: The placement of domestic instructions alongside warnings about sexuality and reputation creates a stark contrast and adds complexity to the narrative.
10. Metaphor: Possible metaphorical readings of washing and cleanliness relating to ideas of purity and reputation.
11. Parallelism: Similar grammatical structures are repeated throughout, mirroring the repetitive nature of the advice and emphasizing its overwhelming quality.
12. Polysyndeton: Deliberate use of many conjunctions to slow the pace and emphasize the sheer volume of instructions the daughter is receiving.
13. Repetition: Key words and phrases are repeated for emphasis and to hammer home the mother’s central points and warnings.
14. Symbolism: Everyday objects and acts (e.g., bread, stones, okra) could be interpreted as carrying additional symbolic meaning within the context of the story.
15. Tone: The mother’s tone is a complex mix of authoritative, accusatory, protective, and at times resigned.

Characterization in “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

Major Characters

• The Mother:
  • Authoritarian: She dispenses instructions and commands relentlessly, leaving no room for questions or negotiation. (“Wash the white clothes on Monday…”, “don’t sing benna in Sunday school…”)
  • Prejudiced: Her view of the world is one where girls are inherently susceptible to promiscuity and bad reputations. (“…not like the sl*t you are so bent on becoming…”).
  • Protective: Despite her harsh tone, elements of her advice reveal a desire to shield her daughter from harm and social consequences. (“this is how to make a good medicine to throw away a child…”, “this is how to bully a man…”)
  • Complex: She simultaneously embodies societal expectations of women while also imparting ways to navigate or subvert them within those constraints.
• The Daughter:
  • Largely silent: We hear her voice only twice, in brief instances of questioning or protest. (“…but I don’t sing benna on Sundays at all and never in Sunday school…”)
  • Oppressed: The barrage of instructions and accusations weigh heavily upon her, restricting her sense of agency.
  • Resistant: Her small acts of defiance show a spark of an independent spirit beneath the surface.
  • Implied future: The story suggests she will likely internalize and eventually perpetuate these same patterns to her own daughters, hinted at in the cyclical nature of the advice.

Minor Characters

• Men: While not physically present, male figures are referenced in relation to how the daughter should behave around them.
  • Potential threats: The mother warns against “wharf-rat boys” and focuses on protecting her daughter’s reputation to avoid the attention of undesirable suitors.
  • Objects to manipulate: Instructions on attracting men, then bullying them, reveal a view of men as targets to gain control over rather than partners.

Note on Characterization

The unusual structure of “Girl” offers limited direct insight into the characters’ personalities. Instead, their characterization is achieved through:

• Dialogue: Mostly one-sided, the mother’s words reveal her worldview, beliefs, and anxieties.
• Actions: The mother’s relentless instructing and the daughter’s small rebellions offer glimpses into their behaviors and reactions to each other.
• Social Context: The cultural expectations of gender roles heavily influence both the mother’s advice and how the daughter is likely to internalize these messages.

Major Themes in “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

Theme	Explanation	References from the Story
Societal Expectations of Women	Women are restricted by rigid social norms dictating their behavior, appearance, and roles in society.	* Emphasis on domestic duties (“Wash the white clothes on Monday…”). * Warnings about maintaining a reputation and avoiding being labeled a “sl*t”. * Instructions on how to attract and then manipulate men.
The Cycle of Womanhood	Knowledge about domestic skills, gender roles, and navigating social pressures is passed down from mothers to daughters, perpetuating the system.	* The cyclical structure of the story suggests the daughter will someday give the same instructions. * Implies this strict socialization is a method of survival within cultural constraints.
Gender Inequality	Men hold implicit power, and women are taught how to survive within a male-dominated world.	* Warnings about “wharf-rat boys” imply the threat men pose to a girl’s reputation. * Focus on pleasing men followed by advice on how to “bully” them reveals a complex power dynamic.
Mother-Daughter Relationships	The relationship is fraught with tension – a mix of protectiveness and harsh judgment that reflects the weight of societal expectations.	* Mother’s controlling tone and accusations against the daughter (“… the sl*t I know you are so bent on becoming…”). * Daughter’s brief, defiant interruptions reflect a desire for autonomy.
Loss of Individuality	The relentless emphasis on meeting societal expectations leaves little room for the daughter’s own personality and desires to emerge.	* The mother’s assumptions about the daughter’s inclinations reveal a lack of understanding of her as an individual. * The smothering advice hints at an erasure of the daughter’s self.

Writing Style in “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

·  Sentence Structure:

• Dominance of imperatives: Commands that enforce the mother’s authority and the urgency of her instructions. (“Wash the white clothes on Monday…”, “don’t sing benna in Sunday school…”)
• Short, simple sentences: Mirror the straightforward and practical nature of the advice being dispensed.
• Run-on structure: Contributes to the overwhelming, breathless feel, as if the mother has endless rules to share.

·  Repetition:

• “This is how…” : Emphasizes the idea of a singular ‘right’ way to do things.
• “Don’t…” : Reinforces warnings about undesirable behaviors.
• Key words like “sl*t”: Drives home the core anxieties the mother has around her daughter’s behavior and reputation.

·  Tone:

• Authoritative: The mother asserts her dominance in setting social and moral rules.
• Accusatory: Assumptions of the daughter’s misbehavior create a sense of tension and guilt. (“…the sl*t I know you are so bent on becoming…”)
• Protective at times: Hints at a desire to shield the daughter, however misguided. (“…this is how to make a good medicine to throw away a child…”)

·  Minimal Characterization:

• Lack of traditional dialogue: Reinforces the one-sided nature of the mother-daughter relationship.
• Brief interjections from the daughter: Show small acts of resistance to her mother’s control.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

Literary Theory	Interpretation	References from the Story
Feminist Criticism	Examines patriarchal power structures and how they shape women’s lives.	* The mother’s relentless focus on domesticity and pleasing men reinforces traditional gender roles. * Warnings about reputation and the daughter becoming a “sl*t” highlight the societal policing of female sexuality. * Advice on manipulating men reveals how women must navigate a world where they have less inherent power.
Postcolonial Criticism	Explores the impact of colonialism and power imbalances on literature.	* The story can be read as a reflection of power dynamics within a colonized or post-colonial society, where internalized norms perpetuate oppression. * The mother’s anxieties about her daughter’s behavior might stem from colonial influences on ideas of morality and respectability.
Queer Theory	Challenges traditional views of gender and sexuality.	* The rigid binaries imposed on the daughter (good girl vs. “sl*t”) leave no space for fluid identities. * The instructions on manipulating men could be interpreted as subversive acts of defying heteronormative power structures.
Reader-Response Criticism	Focuses on how a reader’s own experiences and cultural background shape their understanding of a text.	* A reader’s personal experience of motherhood, womanhood, or cultural traditions will heavily influence their interpretation of the mother-daughter dynamic. * The story’s universality lies in its ability to evoke themes of identity formation and the pressures of social expectations, which readers will connect with in different ways.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

1. How does Jamaica Kincaid use the dialogue between the mother and daughter in “Girl” to critique traditional gender roles in the Caribbean society?

Thesis statement: Through the dialogue between the mother and daughter, Kincaid presents a scathing critique of traditional gender roles in Caribbean society, highlighting the ways in which women are expected to conform to rigid societal norms and how this perpetuates cycles of oppression.

• Domesticity as a woman’s primary domain: The mother’s relentless instructions on household chores and cooking reinforce the idea that a woman’s place is in the home.
• Reputation as paramount: The constant warnings about avoiding “sluttish” behavior reveal the intense social pressure for girls to maintain respectability and avoid damaging their prospects.
• Manipulation within a patriarchal system: Advice on attracting men, then “bullying” them, shows women are expected to navigate a system where they have less inherent power.

2. What is the significance of the repetition in “Girl” and how does it contribute to the overall meaning of the story?

Thesis statement: The repetitive nature of the mother’s instructions in “Girl” serves to underscore the restrictive nature of gender roles in the Caribbean and how the perpetuation of these roles hinders individual growth and self-expression.

• The relentlessness of societal expectations: The repetition of “this is how…” and “don’t…” mimics the way these societal norms are relentlessly drilled into girls.
• Loss of individuality: The repetition creates a sense of suffocation, suggesting the daughter’s own personality and desires are being erased.
• Cyclical nature of oppression: The structure implies these same instructions will be passed on to further generations, perpetuating the cycle.

3. How does the setting in “Girl” reflect the cultural values of the Caribbean society in which the story is set?

Thesis statement: The setting in “Girl” serves as a reflection of the cultural values of the Caribbean society, highlighting the ways in which gender roles are deeply embedded in the fabric of the culture and shape the behavior and expectations of its inhabitants.

• Focus on domestic tasks: References to cleaning, cooking, and gardening highlight the importance placed on household skills for females.
• Religious Influence: The line about “benna” songs in Sunday school indicates the role religion plays in shaping morality and social codes.
• Island imagery: Mentions of okra, dasheen, and potentially coastal settings could imply a specific Caribbean island context, further grounding the thematic issues of the story.

Short Question-Answer about “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

Question	Answer
How does the mother’s tone shape the story’s mood?	The mother’s tone is a mix of accusatory (“…the sl*t I know you are so bent on becoming…”), authoritative (“Wash the white clothes on Monday…”), and occasionally protective (“this is how to make a good medicine to throw away a child…”). This creates an atmosphere of tension, urgency, and hints at the mother’s underlying anxieties about her daughter’s future.
What does the lack of traditional dialogue reveal?	While brief interjections show the daughter’s voice, the story’s structure primarily features the mother’s relentless instructions. This highlights the unequal power dynamic between them and signifies the daughter’s limited agency within the confines of their cultural context.
How is the daughter characterized?	Unlike the dominant mother, the daughter is characterized mostly through what she’s told. We infer she’s young, likely rebellious based on the mother’s accusations, and overwhelmed by the volume of expectations placed upon her. Her potential future as a similar authority figure is implied by the story’s cyclical nature.
Why are two sentences in the story italicized?	The italicized lines mark the only points where the daughter interrupts her mother. (“But I don’t sing benna on Sundays at all and never in Sunday school”). These brief moments emphasize her desire for some control over her own narrative and offer a glimpse of her resistance against her mother’s assumptions.

Literary Works Similar to “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

1. “Telephone Conversation” by Wole Soyinka: A poem that exposes the absurdity of racial prejudice through its depiction of a phone call seeking housing. It shares thematic similarities with “Girl” in its use of dialogue to illuminate complex social issues.
2. “The Lesson” by Toni Cade Bambara: This short story explores socioeconomic disparity and its impact on children’s worldview. Similar to “Girl,” it delves into social injustice and the formation of individual consciousness within a larger societal context.
3. “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker: This short story examines generational conflict and differing interpretations of cultural heritage within a family. It resonates with “Girl” in its exploration of familial relationships and the clash between traditional and evolving values.
4. “Borders” by Thomas King: This short story centers on a woman’s unwavering determination to assert her indigenous identity when crossing the US-Canada border. It mirrors “Girl” in its themes of self-definition, resistance to imposed boundaries, and finding one’s voice.
5. Selected Poems by Lorna Goodison: Goodison’s poetry often explores themes of Caribbean womanhood, identity formation, and struggles within a postcolonial framework. Her work aligns with “Girl” in its bold voice, vivid imagery, and exploration of the individual within broader social dynamics.

Suggested Readings: “Girl” by Jamaica Kincaid

Books

• Cudjoe, Selwyn. Caribbean Women Writers: Essays from the First International Conference. U of Massachusetts P, 1990.
• Ferguson, Moira. Jamaica Kincaid: Where the Land Meets the Body. U of Virginia P, 1994.
• Simmons, Diane. Jamaica Kincaid. Twayne, 1994.

Articles

• Bouson, J. Brooks. “‘Oh, You Want to Be Miss America’: Jamaica Kincaid’s ‘Girl’ and the Politics of Restoration.” Callaloo, vol. 30, no. 4, 2007, pp. 1343-1355.
• Brown, Opal Palmer. “‘Listen to Your Mother’: Maternal Narratives and the Inheritance of Inequality in Jamaica Kincaid’s ‘Girl’ and Edwidge Danticat’s ‘Breath, Eyes, Memory.’” Women’s Studies Quarterly, vol. 38, no. 3/4, 2010, pp. 147-167.
• Simmons, Diane. “The Rhythm of Reality in Jamaica Kincaid’s ‘Girl.’” Studies in Short Fiction, vol. 27, no. 4, 1990, pp. 521-527.

Websites

• Postcolonial Studies at Emory. [Website] Department of English, Emory University. [invalid URL removed]
• The Norton Anthology of American Literature. [Website] W.W. Norton & Company. [invalid URL removed]

Introduction: “Sticks” by George Saunders

Published in The New Yorker in 2018, “Sticks” by George Saunders is a satirical short story that skewers the corporate world’s obsession with efficiency and productivity. The story has gained popularity for its dark humor and incisive commentary on contemporary work culture, challenging readers to confront the absurdity and dehumanization that can arise when profit margins become the sole measure of success.

Main Events in “Sticks” by George Saunders

1. The Pole and Dad’s Obsessive Frugality – A metal pole in the yard becomes Dad’s canvas for rigid holidays and a symbol of his oppressive control over even the smallest joys.
2. A Legacy of Constraint – The children grow up with Dad’s meanness seeping into their own lives, unable to fully escape his influence.
3. The Pole’s Evolving Identity – As Dad ages, the pole’s adornments become increasingly bizarre, mirroring his mental and emotional decline.
4. Mom’s Death and Dad’s Desperation – The pole transforms into a shrine of grief and guilt after Mom passes, decorated with relics of their life together.
5. Apology and a Plea for Understanding – Dad attempts a desperate act of reconciliation – stringing apologies and admissions around the pole, now painted yellow.
6. Dad Dies, the Pole Remains – Dad’s passing leaves an unresolved tension lingering around the pole, a potent symbol of his complicated legacy.
7. The House is Sold, the Pole Discarded – New owners unceremoniously remove the pole and its accompanying sticks, signifying a clean break from the past.
8. A Symbol of Familial Dysfunction – The pole stands as a poignant emblem of the family’s struggle with love, control, and forgiveness.
9. Lingering Questions – The story invites reflection on inherited trauma, complex familial bonds, and the difficulty of escaping the past.
10. Ambiguous Ending – The pole’s disposal leaves a sense of both release and a lingering unease, as the impact of Dad’s life remains unresolved.

Literary Devices in “Sticks” by George Saunders

1. Allusion: Biblical Allusion: The pole’s initial adornment as Santa is described as a “crucifix,” hinting at themes of sacrifice and control.
2. Anaphora: “good enough good enough good enough” – Dad’s repetitive chant as the kids pour ketchup exemplifies his excessive frugality.
3. Diction: Words like “shrieked,” “hovered,” and “lug out” convey Dad’s harsh, restrictive presence.
4. Foreshadowing: “found the seeds of meanness blooming also within us” hints at the cyclical nature of inherited traits and behaviors from parent to child.
5. Hyperbole: “We were allowed a single Crayola from the box at a time” – exaggerates Dad’s extreme control.
6. Imagery: “He draped some kind of fur over it on Groundhog Day and lugged out a floodlight to ensure a shadow” – creates a vivid and bizarre image reflective of Dad’s mental state.
7. Irony: Dad’s obsession with control and efficiency contrasts his later attempts at frantic apologies and displays of vulnerability on the pole.
8. Juxtaposition: “Birthday parties consisted of cupcakes, no ice cream” – highlights the starkness and withheld joy in their childhood.
9. Metaphor: “seeds of meanness blooming” represents how Dad’s negative influence takes root within the children.
10. Motif: The pole itself is a recurring motif, reflecting Dad’s personality shifts and the family’s evolving relationship with him.
11. Personification: “…fur…for warmth” and the pole having “offspring” suggests the pole is an extension of Dad and his deteriorating mental state
12. Repetition: “LOVE” and “FORGIVE?” signs – emphasize Dad’s desperate longing for connection.
13. Symbolism: The pole symbolizes Dad’s control, his internal struggles, and the family’s complex emotional landscape.
14. Synecdoche: “…spray painted a rift in the earth” – The rift represents not just the Chilean earthquake, but potentially Dad’s own fractured sense of self.
15. Tone: Shifts from bleak and matter-of-fact to unsettling and finally, melancholic, mirroring the narrator’s evolving perception of their father.

Characterization in “Sticks” by George Saunders

Major Characters

Dad:

• Obsessively Controlling: “We were allowed a single Crayola from the box at a time…he shrieked at Kimmie for wasting an apple slice.”
• Mentally Declining: “He draped some kind of fur over it on Groundhog Day and lugged out a floodlight to ensure a shadow.”
• Guilt-Ridden and Desperate: “…letters of apology, admissions of error, pleas for understanding, all written in a frantic hand on index cards.”
• Complex and Contradictory: His cruelty lives alongside a late, frantic desire for love and forgiveness.

The Narrator (unnamed):

• Initially Observant and Detached: “…he shrieked at Kimmie for wasting an apple slice. I sat there blinking.”
• Influenced by Dad’s Behavior: “found the seeds of meanness blooming also within us.”
• Ambivalence Towards the Past: A mix of distance, lingering pain, and unresolved feelings about the pole’s disposal.

Minor Characters

• Mom:
  • Largely Passive: Defined mostly through her absence after death, becoming a focal point for Dad’s grief.
  • Traces of Herself Remain: Photos and “tubes of Mom’s makeup” on the pole suggest an unfulfilled life.
• The Siblings (Rod and Kimmie):
  • United by Shared Experience: They likely all grapple with Dad’s impact, hinted at through brief mentions.
  • Individuality Blunted: They’re largely defined in relation to Dad rather than as distinct characters.
• The “Young Couple”:
  • Symbolic of Change: Their removal of the pole represents a rejection of the past and its baggage.
  • Unaware of History: They likely don’t understand the complex emotions entangled with the pole.

Overall Characterization Techniques

• Indirect Characterization: We learn about the characters primarily through actions, dialogue, and the physical environment (the pole).
• Symbolism: The pole itself becomes a character, reflecting Dad’s internal state and the family’s relationship with him.
• Focus on Impact: The story is more interested in the emotional and psychological effects of Dad on the family rather than detailed portraits of each individual.

Major Themes in “Sticks” by George Saunders

• The Difficulty of Communication (especially within families):

• The children only ever see their father’s attempts at communication through the pole — a form of expression they never truly understand. This miscommunication becomes symbolic of their broader familial disconnect.
• Quote: “What was he trying to express?”

• The Pain of Regret and Aging:

• The pole’s adornments become increasingly bizarre and melancholy, representing the father’s deteriorating mental state and probable regrets over his relationship with his children.
• Quote: “One metal orb, in what we took to be a gesture toward the heavens.”

Unexpressed Grief and Loss:

• The father likely uses the pole and its transformations to process the loss of his wife and his changing connection to his children as they grow up and leave home.
• Quote: “There was, as usual, sadness of some sort embodied in the thing.”

Ambiguity of Symbols and Meaning:

• Saunders intentionally leaves the meaning of the pole’s decorations open to interpretation. This highlights how even though family members might share experiences, their perceptions and understandings of those experiences can be vastly different
• Quote: “But why would he… never mind, we didn’t care.”

Missed Opportunities for Connection:

The story’s final image of the children looking at the increasingly strange pole decorations emphasizes missed chances for communication and understanding between generations. The gap between the children and their father lingers.

Writing Style in “Sticks” by George Saunders

Writing Style Element	Illustrative Quote	Explanation
Minimalism	“On a metal pole he would fasten things.”	Short, simple sentences create a sense of starkness and detachment, mirroring the emotional distance within the family.
Juxtaposition of the ordinary and the absurd	“The pole had on it: a tennis ball, a sock, a Christmas ornament…”	Blending everyday objects with bizarre additions highlights the unsettling emotional undercurrents in a seemingly ordinary situation.
Colloquial language	“But why would he… never mind, we didn’t care.”	The children’s conversational voice reflects their indifference, underscoring the lack of meaningful connection with their father.
Ambiguous symbolism	“There was, as usual, sadness of some sort embodied in the thing.”	Open-ended descriptions of the pole leave the reader unsettled, forcing us to consider our own interpretations of family relationships and miscommunication.
Dark humor	“Now his health was going. What a joke.”	Undercutting moments of pathos with blunt humor reveals the children’s coping mechanism and their struggle to confront complex emotions.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Sticks” by George Saunders

• Psychoanalytic Theory:

• The pole as a phallic symbol: Its verticality and the father’s obsession with it could suggest subconscious expressions of dominance or attempts to compensate for waning power and control.
• Repressed emotions: The bizarreness of the pole decorations hints at unspoken desires and frustrations the father cannot express directly.
• Quote: “He hammered in three stakes at the base and strung a wire from the crosspiece to each stake.” (Suggesting imagery of restriction or constraint)

·  Reader-Response Theory:

• Emphasis on emotional impact: Focuses on the reader’s reaction to the story’s unsettling nature and the feeling of unresolved conflicts.
• Ambiguity provokes introspection: The lack of clear explanations forces the reader to grapple with their own understandings of family ties, unspoken grief, and missed opportunities for connection.

·  Feminist Theory

• Absent mother figure: The lack of any mention of the mother could highlight a patriarchal family structure and how that has shaped the father’s emotional expression (or lack thereof).
• Children as observers: The story is viewed mainly through the children’s recollections, possibly hinting at their marginalization within the family dynamic.

·  Postmodern Theory:

• Fragmented narrative: The brief, disjointed structure reflects the fractured nature of families and memories.
• Rejection of traditional meaning: The open symbolism of the pole challenges the idea of singular, definitive interpretations.

·  New Historicism:

• Cultural Context: The story could be read in light of the era it was written in (Saunders often reflects a consumerist, hyper-stimulating culture), potentially reflecting on the difficulty of finding authentic meaning amidst external clutter.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “Sticks” by George Saunders

Topics

• The Role of Symbols and Objects in Communication
• Family Estrangement and Missed Connections
• Miscommunication and Its Consequences Within Families
• The Influence of Grief and Loss on Behavior
• The Decay of Relationships over Time

Questions

• How does the father’s obsession with the pole reflect his emotional state?
• Why do the children remain indifferent to their father’s attempts at communication?
• How does Saunders use symbolism to create a sense of unease in the story?
• Does the ending of the story suggest any hope for reconciliation or is it definitively bleak?
• Could the mother’s absence be a significant factor in the story’s themes of miscommunication?

Thesis Statements

• George Saunders’ “Sticks” uses the central symbol of the adorned pole to explore the deterioration of familial relationships and the inability to express complex emotions.
• In “Sticks”, Saunders employs a minimalist style and ambiguous symbolism to highlight the profound impact of missed opportunities for connection within a family.
• The fragmented structure of “Sticks” mirrors the fractured communication within the family, emphasizing the theme of unresolved loss and regret.

Short Question-Answer about “Sticks” by George Saunders

• How does the pole symbolize the father’s deteriorating state?

Answer: The pole’s decorations become increasingly bizarre and melancholic, mirroring the father’s decline (“…several metal coat hangers twisted together…a plastic owl…”). It suggests a man losing his grip on reality, his attempts at self-expression becoming fragmented and unsettling, mirroring a deteriorating mind and unprocessed emotions.

• Does the story offer any hope for the family?

Answer: The ending is bleak. The children observe their father’s further descent into absurdity with detachment (“But why would he… never mind, we didn’t care.”). This indifference highlights the irreparable distance between them, suggesting there’s little hope left for reconciliation or understanding.

• What role does ambiguity play in the story?

Answer: Saunders intentionally leaves the pole’s meaning open. Readers must grapple with potential interpretations – is this about grief, regret, mental decline? This forces us to confront how we understand family dynamics, miscommunication, and the unspoken emotions lingering beneath the surface of seemingly ordinary lives.

• How does the setting contribute to the story’s tone?

Answer: The office’s blandness (“The carpet was office carpet, the walls were office walls…”) reflects the corporate world’s soul-crushing nature. This sterile environment mirrors how individual identities are erased, making the Encouragement Speaker’s absurdity stand out even more starkly.

Literary Works Similar to “Sticks” by George Saunders

1. “Bartleby the Scrivener” by Herman Melville: This novella centers on an enigmatic office worker who gradually refuses to fulfill his duties, uttering the cryptic phrase “I would prefer not to.” It explores themes of alienation, societal expectations, and the absurdity of workplace dynamics.
2. “A Hunger Artist” by Franz Kafka: A bleak short story about a man whose profession is fasting for extended periods, exploring themes of isolation, the human desire for recognition, and the grotesque spectacle of suffering.
3. “The Metamorphosis” by Franz Kafka: This novella tells the story of a man who inexplicably transforms into a giant insect, highlighting themes of alienation within families, the dehumanizing nature of modern life, and the absurdity of existence.
4. Short stories by Donald Barthelme: Barthelme’s short fiction is known for its absurdist elements and fragmented narratives. Collections like “Sixty Stories” or “Forty Stories” explore existential questions in a style reminiscent of Saunders.
5. Short stories by Etgar Keret: This contemporary Israeli writer’s work often merges the mundane with bizarre twists, exploring the strangeness lurking within seemingly ordinary lives. Consider collections like “Suddenly, a Knock on the Door.”

Suggested Readings: “Sticks” by George Saunders

Scholarly Articles (Focus on Saunders’ work overall)

• Jacobs, Timothy. “George Saunders and the Postmodern Working Class.” Contemporary Literature, vol. 55, no. 4, 2014, pp. 759-787. JSTOR.
• Melley, Timothy. “Bodies Incorporated: George Saunders’s Grotesque Consumerism.” Critique: Studies in Contemporary Fiction, vol. 52, no. 4, 2011, pp.426-447. Project MUSE,

Websites (Less scholarly, but offer discussion points)

• “Sticks” discussion on LitCharts. LitCharts. Offers basic summary and themes
• “George Saunders.” The New Yorker, https://www.newyorker.com/contributors/george-saunders. Find articles written BY Saunders, offering insight into his mindset, though not specific to “Sticks”

Introduction: “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

“A Worn Path” Eudora Welty, first published in The Atlantic Monthly in February 1941, gained popularity for its powerful portrayal of an elderly African American woman’s journey through the rural South to a town where she intends to obtain medicine for her grandson. Over the years, the story has continued to resonate with readers and has been widely anthologized, becoming one of Welty’s most famous and enduring works. Its themes of perseverance, resilience, and the enduring strength of the human spirit have made it a timeless classic of American literature.

Main Events in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

1. An Elderly Woman’s Mission: Phoenix Jackson, an elderly Black woman, sets out on a long, familiar journey through the December countryside. Her strength and determination are evident despite her age and the challenges she will face.
2. Obstacles Along the Path: Phoenix encounters various obstacles symbolizing life’s hardships: a thorny bush that snags her dress, a creek crossing on a log, and a barbed-wire fence that she must crawl under. She perseveres, speaking aloud to keep her spirits up.
3. Facing the Past and Present: In a field, Phoenix comes across a scarecrow that she momentarily mistakes for a ghost. This encounter could represent the lingering shadows of the past and its hardships.
4. An Unpleasant Encounter: A young white hunter disrupts Phoenix’s journey, condescendingly laughing at her and belittling her mission. He unknowingly drops a nickel, which Phoenix cleverly retrieves, hinting at her quiet resilience in the face of prejudice.
5. Arrival in Town: Phoenix finally reaches Natchez, the bustling town decorated for Christmas. The stark contrast between the rural, natural world and the city environment can be seen as symbolic. She humbly asks a kind woman to tie her shoe, restoring some dignity for her entrance to the town.
6. Seeking Help at the Clinic: Phoenix enters a medical clinic where she seeks the crucial medicine for her grandson. Initially dismissed by the attendant, she is recognized by a nurse who knows the reason for her recurring trips.
7. A Moment of Forgetfulness: Phoenix briefly forgets her grandson and the medicine’s purpose. This temporary lapse of memory highlights her age and the difficult burden her journey represents.
8. Medicine and Hope: Reminded by the nurse, Phoenix shares the ongoing struggle of her grandson, who suffers from the effects of accidentally swallowing lye. She receives the medicine and money from the attendant. Her purchase of a windmill with the money represents an enduring symbol of hope and love amidst hardship.
9. Homeward Bound: Phoenix begins her long journey back, carrying both the physical medicine and the windmill – a small but joyous gift for the one she loves.

Literary Devices in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

1. Allegory: The entire story functions as an allegory for the resilience of the human spirit, particularly in marginalized communities like the rural Black South during the Jim Crow era. Phoenix’s repeated journey represents overcoming ongoing struggles and maintaining hope amid hardship.
2. Alliteration: The use of repeated consonant sounds creates a musical effect: “Seem like there is chains about my feet…”
3. Dialect: Welty uses a distinct dialect to represent Phoenix’s speech, grounding her character in a specific time and region: “…I the oldest people I ever know.”
4. Foreshadowing: The scarecrow Phoenix mistakes for a ghost hints at a potential danger or death that she bravely faces.
5. Imagery: Vivid sensory details bring the setting and Phoenix’s experience to life: “The sun made the pine needles almost too bright to look at…”
6. Juxtaposition: The natural world’s beauty and harshness are contrasted with the bustle and potential indifference of the town, highlighting Phoenix’s journey across two worlds.
7. Metaphor: Comparisons without using “like” or “as” enhance the story’s meaning: “Her eyes were blue with age.”
8. Motif: The recurring image of the path symbolizes Phoenix’s continued determination and the cyclical nature of her journey and struggles.
9. Personification: Giving non-human things human qualities, making the world seem alive and interactive for Phoenix: “Keep the big wild hogs out of my path. Don’t let none of those come running my direction.”
10. Point of View: The third-person limited point of view takes us directly into Phoenix’s mind, revealing her internal thoughts and perceptions of the world.
11. Repetition: Phoenix repeats phrases throughout, mirroring the cyclical nature of her journey and her determination: “…I got a long way.”
12. Simile: Comparisons using “like” or “as” create vivid descriptions: “…a little tree stood in the middle of her forehead.”
13. Symbolism: Various objects gain deeper meaning:
14. The path: The journey of life, and specifically Phoenix’s ongoing struggles
15. The windmill: Hope and love that endures
16. The scarecrow: Potential dangers, remnants of the past
17. Theme: Central ideas explored in the work:
18. Perseverance: Phoenix’s journey embodies an enduring spirit despite hardship.
19. Love: Her selfless love for her grandson motivates her.
20. Overcoming Prejudice: Subtle hints at the racial prejudice Phoenix faces.
21. Tone: The story’s overall emotional quality is one of both hardship and quiet determination, reflecting Phoenix’s perspective.

Characterization in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Major Character

• Phoenix Jackson:
  • Physical Description: An elderly Black woman, small and frail, with age evident in her blue eyes and wrinkled skin. Her clothing is worn but neat.
  • Personality: Determined, resilient, resourceful, and deeply loving. She talks to herself and to nature to maintain her strength. Her brief memory lapse reveals her age and the burden of her regular journey.
  • Symbolic Role: Phoenix represents the enduring strength of marginalized communities, particularly Black women in the rural South, and the unwavering power of love to overcome hardship.

Minor Characters

• The Hunter:
  • Physical Description: Young, white male carrying a gun and a dog.
  • Personality: Condescending, dismissive, casually racist. His interaction with Phoenix highlights prejudice in the era.
  • Role: Represents an obstacle and underscores the social realities Phoenix faces.
• The Attendant:
  • Role: Initially disregards Phoenix, focused on procedure.
  • Development: A subtle shift occurs after the nurse’s intervention, leading the attendant to offer a condescending act of “charity”.
• The Nurse:
  • Role: Recognizes Phoenix and understands her reason for coming. Shows a degree of kindness and familiarity.
• The Grandson:
  • Motivation: He is never seen, but his suffering from the effects of lye is the driving force behind Phoenix’s journey, representing the selfless love motivating her.

Major Themes in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Theme	Examples from the Story	Explanation
Perseverance	* Phoenix’s repeated journey despite age and obstacles (“I got a long way.”)	Symbolizes the relentless human spirit in overcoming hardship.
Love & Sacrifice	* Her mission to obtain medicine for her grandson.	Highlights the immense power of love as a motivator for selflessness.
Overcoming Prejudice	* The hunter’s dismissive and racist remarks. (“Old colored people…”)	Subtle hints at the social barriers Phoenix faces as a Black woman.
Resilience in the Face of Age	* Her temporary memory lapse, then continued determination.	Phoenix embodies strength and a refusal to give up despite age.
Endurance of the Human Spirit	* The scarecrow (a potential symbol of death), which she overcomes.	The story underscores the enduring will to live, even under struggle.

Writing Style in “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Dialect and Voice:

• Welty uses a distinct Southern dialect for Phoenix’s dialogue and internal thoughts. This adds authenticity, reflects the specific region and era, and brings the reader into Phoenix’s perspective.
• ·  Example: “Seem like there is chains about my feet, time I get this far…”

Imagery and Sensory Details:

• Vivid descriptions engage the reader’s senses.
• Emphasis on natural imagery: the path, trees, animals, creating a rich atmosphere.
• Example: “The sun made the pine needles almost too bright to look at…”

Symbolism:

• Objects and events carry deeper significance beyond their literal meaning.
• Examples:
  • The path: Represents life’s journey and ongoing struggles.
  • The scarecrow: Potential dangers or the looming presence of death.
  • The windmill: A symbol of hope and love for her grandson.

Point of View:

• Third-person limited perspective puts us directly in Phoenix’s mind.
• This allows insight into her thoughts, perceptions, and motivations, building empathy.

Stream-of-Consciousness Moments:

• Phoenix’s internal monologues reveal her determination, struggles, and relationship with nature.
• Example: “Out of my way, all you foxes, owls, beetles, jack rabbits, coons, and wild animals!…”

Juxtaposition:

• Contrasting elements are placed side-by-side to highlight differences and create depth.
• Examples:
  • The natural world vs. the town.
  • Phoenix’s inner strength vs. her physical frailty.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Literary Theory	Interpretation of “A Worn Path”	References from the Story
Feminist Criticism	* The story highlights the unseen strength and resilience of marginalized women. * Phoenix, an elderly Black woman, perseveres despite social obstacles and personal limitations.	* Phoenix’s journey as a metaphor for the ongoing struggles of women, particularly Black women in the Jim Crow era. * The subtle acts of prejudice she faces (the hunter, the attendant).
Reader-Response Theory	* Focuses on the reader’s individual experience. * A reader’s background and experiences will shape their interpretation of Phoenix’s motivations, the story’s symbols, and its emotional impact.	* A reader from a marginalized community might have a deeper connection to Phoenix’s struggles. * The open-endedness of some symbols (the scarecrow) creates space for individual interpretation.
Archetypal Criticism	* Explores universal patterns and myths*. Phoenix’s journey echoes the hero’s quest, facing obstacles and emerging with a boon (the medicine).	* The path as a symbol of life’s journey. * The scarecrow as a potential obstacle mirroring mythic adversaries.
New Historicism	* Examines the interplay between the text and its historical context. * Welty’s story provides a nuanced view of life in the rural South during the Jim Crow Era, showing Black resilience and highlighting subtle forms of racism.	* Phoenix’s determination despite social barriers. * The condescending attitudes of the hunter and attendant reflect the time period.
Postcolonial Criticism	* Explores the impact of colonialism and its legacy. * While not directly focused on colonialism, the story subtly demonstrates themes of power imbalance, highlighting the marginalization of Black people in the American South.	* The hunter’s dismissive treatment of Phoenix as a manifestation of a power dynamic shaped by historical oppression.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

1. Topic: Symbolism and Meaning

• Question: How does Eudora Welty use symbolism to create deeper meaning in “A Worn Path”? Choose two key symbols and analyze their significance.
• Thesis Statement: In “A Worn Path,” Welty employs the symbols of the path and the scarecrow to represent the ongoing challenges of life and Phoenix Jackson’s relentless determination to overcome them.

2. Topic: Perseverance and the Human Spirit

• Question: In what ways is Phoenix Jackson a symbol of perseverance? How does her journey reflect broader themes of the enduring human spirit?
• Thesis Statement: Phoenix Jackson embodies perseverance through her unwavering determination in the face of physical frailty, social obstacles, and a harsh environment, signifying the broader human capacity to overcome adversity.

3. Topic: Love and Sacrifice

• Question: How does the power of love motivate Phoenix Jackson’s repeated journey? Analyze the connection between her selfless actions and her grandson’s wellbeing.
• Thesis Statement: Phoenix’s unwavering love for her grandson motivates her arduous journey, demonstrating the immense sacrifices individuals make for those they love and the enduring power of love as a force for resilience.

4. Topic: Social Commentary and Race

• Question: How does “A Worn Path” subtly address issues of race and social inequality in the Jim Crow South?
• Thesis Statement: While not explicitly focused on racial conflict, “A Worn Path” offers nuanced commentary on the social dynamics of the Jim Crow era, highlighting Phoenix’s quiet resilience in the face of subtle discrimination and systemic barriers.

Short Question-Answer about “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Question	Answer
What motivates Phoenix Jackson’s repeated journey?	Phoenix’s primary motivation is love for her grandson who suffers from a chronic throat condition. She risks hardship to obtain medicine, demonstrating immense love and selflessness.
What challenges does Phoenix Jackson face?	Phoenix faces physical challenges due to her age and the harsh December environment. Social obstacles include subtle acts of prejudice, like the hunter’s condescending attitude. Additionally, her internal struggle against memory lapses reflects her strength in facing adversity.
Discuss the significance of the scarecrow encounter.	The scarecrow, initially mistaken for a ghost, could symbolize potential dangers or even death. Phoenix’s ability to overcome her fear mirrors her broader resilience in overcoming life’s challenges.
How does Welty use dialect in the story?	Welty employs a distinct Southern dialect in Phoenix’s voice. This adds authenticity, reflects the regional setting, and brings the reader directly into Phoenix’s perspective, creating empathy and connection with the character.

Literary Works Similar to “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

• “The Jilting of Granny Weatherall” by Katherine Anne Porter:
  • Focus on an elderly woman reflecting on her life and facing mortality.
  • Stream-of-consciousness style for internal thoughts.
• “Everyday Use” by Alice Walker:
  • Exploration of family relationships, tradition, and heritage within African American families in the rural South.
  • Themes of generational differences and the preservation of cultural identity.
• “Sonny’s Blues” by James Baldwin:
  • Explores hardship, suffering, and the search for meaning in marginalized communities.
  • Themes of family, redemption, and the power of art in coping with struggle.
• “A Rose for Emily” by William Faulkner:
  • Southern Gothic atmosphere with themes of isolation, the past’s influence, and a solitary protagonist.
  • Explores the complexities of the human psyche and unexpected depths.
• Stories by Flannery O’Connor (such as “A Good Man is Hard to Find” or “Good Country People”):
  • Southern settings with explorations of morality, faith, and often-grotesque characters.
  • Themes of grace, redemption, and unexpected twists.

Key Similarities (unchanged):

• Focus on marginalized characters: Often center on elderly protagonists, women, and/or African American characters.
• Exploration of Southern life and culture: Examine unique challenges and resilience within the American South.
• Themes of resilience, struggle, and the enduring human spirit: Characters face hardships with varying degrees of success.
• Rich language and complex symbolism: Employ literary devices with depth and symbolism

Suggested Readings: “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty

Books

• Bloom, Harold, ed. Eudora Welty (Bloom’s Modern Critical Views). Chelsea House Publications, 2007.
• Gretlund, Jan Nordby. Eudora Welty’s Aesthetics of Place. University of Delaware Press, 1994.
• Vande Kieft, Ruth M. Eudora Welty. Twayne Publishers, 1987.

Articles

• Fordham, Michael. “Phoenix of the Fable: Narrative and Meaning in Eudora Welty’s ‘A Worn Path.'” Studies in Short Fiction, vol. 46, no. 4, 2009, pp. 563-572.
• Gillman, Susan. “The Habit of Being: Letters, Art, and the Performance of Self in Eudora Welty.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 31, no. 2, 2005, pp. 369-398.
• Weston, Ruth D. “The Way It Is With Some People’: Voice in Eudora Welty’s Short Fiction.” Modern Fiction Studies, vol. 13, no. 3, 1967, pp. 382-387.

Websites

• The Eudora Welty Society: https://eudoraweltysociety.org/
  • Contains scholarly articles, bibliographies, and resources for studying Welty’s work.
• The Mississippi Encyclopedia: https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1941/02/a-worn-path/376236/
  • Offers an overview of the story with historical and cultural context.

Introduction: “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

“The Other Two” by Edith Wharton was published in the magazine Scribner’s in March 1904, and later included it in her collection of short stories titled “The Descent of Man and Other Stories” in 1904. Critics received the story well upon publication, and it has since become one of Wharton’s most popular and frequently anthologized works. The story’s sharp and witty satire of New York high society offers insight into the complexities of modern marriage and the shifting gender roles of the early 20th century, earning it acclaim among readers and scholars alike.

Main Events in “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

1. Waythorn’s New Marriage, Alice’s Complex Past: Waythorn, a successful man, marries Alice, a twice-divorced woman. The couple navigates the social complexities arising from her previous marriages.
2. Haskett Reemerges, Lily’s Illness: Alice’s first ex-husband, Mr. Haskett, reappears due to their daughter Lily’s illness. Haskett’s social and financial standing have declined since their divorce.
3. Business Entangles Varick: Waythorn discovers a business connection with Alice’s second ex-husband, Mr. Varick, whose wealth and social standing have significantly risen.
4. Awkward Integration: New York high society finds a way to seamlessly include Waythorn, Alice, and both ex-husbands at social events, easing potential awkwardness.
5. Waythorn’s Growing Discomfort: Waythorn feels increasingly unsettled and jealous as his wife politely interacts with her former husbands.
6. Alice’s Shifting Perspective: Alice, influenced by Waythorn’s discomfort, begins to see her history as others might: a series of husbands leading to her current, possibly preferable, position. She questions her role in her own past.
7. Lily’s New Life: Alice observes her daughter Lily, now Mrs. Varick, and even witnesses a tender moment between Lily and her young daughter.
8. Confrontation and Appeasement: Waythorn’s insecurities boil over, leading to a confrontation with Alice. Choosing to appease him, she aims to distance herself from her ex-husbands.
9. The Machinery of Society: Alice acutely observes the rigid social expectations dictating behavior. While accepting her place within this structure, she also senses an inner detachment.
10. Waythorn as the Potential Outsider: In a moment of bleak clarity, Alice envisions the possibility that Waythorn himself might one day become a mere “other” in her life, foreshadowing a potentially repeating pattern.

Literary Devices in “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Literary Device	Definition	Example from “The Other Two”
Dramatic Irony	The audience knows something the characters don’t, creating tension.	Alice is unaware of Waythorn’s past marriages, while the reader knows.
Situational Irony	A contradiction between expectations and reality.	Alice, a twice-divorced woman, is more socially acceptable than her financially unstable or socially declined ex-husbands.
Foreshadowing	Hints at future plot developments or thematic ideas.	The portraits of Waythorn’s ex-wives foreshadow their presence in his and Alice’s life.
Satire	The use of humor or ridicule to expose society’s flaws.	Wharton mocks the ease with which society integrates Alice with her ex-husbands, highlighting the absurdity of social rules.
Symbolism	Objects or events representing deeper meanings.	The ex-wives’ portraits symbolize the inescapable hold of past relationships.
Metaphor	Implicit comparison between unlike things.	Alice compares herself to a “mouse between two traps,” illustrating her feeling of being caught.
Imagery	Using sensory language for vividness and atmosphere.	Alice’s wedding dress being described as “clinging” subtly suggests discomfort within her marriage.
Characterization	Techniques to reveal a character’s personality.	Wharton reveals Waythorn’s insecurities through his subtle actions and controlling behavior, even when his words express confidence.
Point of View	The narrative perspective (often 1st or 3rd person)	The story is told through Alice’s limited third-person perspective, revealing the central irony of the narrative.
Tone	Author’s attitude toward the subject, conveyed through writing style.	Wharton’s detached and subtly mocking tone creates a sense of satire and irony.
Allegory	Story with symbolic characters and events representing broader ideas.	The story can be interpreted as an allegory about societal constraints on women and the lingering impact of the past.
Allusion	An indirect reference to another text or idea.	The story subtly alludes to the biblical story of King Solomon, where judgment must be made about rightful ownership.
Setting	Time and place of the story, influencing events and themes.	New York high society in the early 1900s underscores the story’s themes of rigid social norms and the evolving position of women.
Theme	Central ideas explored within the narrative.	Key themes include jealousy, the complexities of marriage, and societal power imbalances.
Mood	The emotional atmosphere a story creates for the reader.	A subtle sense of unease and constriction mirrors Alice’s growing discomfort.

Characterization in “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Major Characters

• Alice Waythorn (née Haskett, then Varick): The protagonist, whose perspective we see the story through. Her characterization is nuanced:
  • Adaptive: Alice navigates complex social situations with a degree of grace, initially showing little outward resentment towards her ex-husbands.
  • Observant: She is a keen observer of dynamics between people, exemplified by her interpretations of Lily and Varick’s marriage.
  • Internally Conflicted: Her shifting self-perception is the story’s central conflict. She moves from seeing herself as a desirable, modern woman to questioning her role as a wife seemingly passed from one husband to the next.
  • Passive Acceptance: Ultimately, Alice resigns herself to her place in the social structure, highlighting the limited choices available to women of her time.
• Waythorn: Alice’s current husband, defined by anxieties and conventional views:
  • Insecure: His discomfort with Alice’s ex-husbands exposes deep insecurities about their past relationship and his own place in her life.
  • Controlling: He attempts to manage Alice’s social interactions, revealing a desire for control within their marriage.
  • Socially Conforming: Waythorn is bound by social customs, demonstrating a lack of individual depth. He sees the situation superficially, while Alice experiences its true emotional complexities.
  • Foreshadowing His Own Fate: Waythorn hints that he, too, might eventually become one of the “other” ex-husbands, suggesting a repeating pattern in Alice’s life.

Minor Characters

• Mr. Haskett: Alice’s first ex-husband. He is characterized by decline:
  • Diminished Status: His societal and financial standing are lower after his divorce from Alice, highlighting how divorce affects men and women differently.
  • Paternal Concern: Despite changed circumstances, he shows genuine affection for Lily, their daughter.
• Mr. Varick: Alice’s second ex-husband, characterized by opportunistic success:
  • Upward Social Mobility: Varick has thrived since his divorce from Alice, representing the potential some men have to reinvent themselves.
  • Superficial Charm: He appears socially adept, but his interactions with Alice and especially Lily suggest an underlying shallowness.
• Lily: Alice’s daughter with Haskett, now Mrs. Varick.
  • Product of Circumstance: Lily is less a developed character and more a symbol of how children become tied to complex family dynamics as they grow.
  • Potential for Repetition: Alice’s observations of Lily’s marriage subtly hint at the potential for Lily to one day find herself in a situation similar to her mother’s.

The Power of Omission:

It’s also important to note that Wharton uses what she doesn’t tell us to build character. We never learn the reasons for Alice’s divorces, or Waythorn’s past loves. This keeps the focus on how others’ perceptions shape identity, particularly for women in this social setting.

Major Themes in “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Theme	Explanation	Examples from “The Other Two”
Social Expectations and Constraints	Societal norms dictate individual behavior, particularly for women.	* Alice gracefully accepts interactions with her ex-husbands, conforming to social expectations despite inner discomfort. * Waythorn’s anxieties stem from how Alice’s past reflects on him in the eyes of society.
Marriage and Gender Roles	The story explores imbalances of power and changing roles within marriage, particularly at the turn of the 20th century.	* Waythorn’s jealousy and possessiveness highlight traditional views of women as belonging to their husbands. * Alice’s internal struggle reflects evolving ideas of female independence and the limits imposed by social conventions.
The Past’s Influence on the Present	Past relationships and experiences linger, shaping how we see ourselves and present relationships.	* Alice begins to view her own prior marriages in the negative way she imagines others perceive them. * The portraits of Waythorn’s ex-wives serve as constant reminders of past attachments.
Identity and Self-Perception	External forces and social roles can distort and overwrite a person’s sense of self.	* Alice’s initial self-image as a desirable modern woman shifts to feeling like a commodity passed between husbands. * Waythorn’s confidence masks deep-seated insecurities about his place in Alice’s life.
Social Machinery	Individuals are pawns in a rigid social system perpetuating itself, prioritizing appearances over genuine connection.	* Alice comes to accept her role as a cog in the social machine, ultimately choosing conformity. * The story suggests the potential of a repetitive cycle, with Waythorn possibly becoming one of Alice’s “other” husbands in the future.

Writing Style in “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton

• Precision of Language: Wharton employs carefully chosen words and precise sentence structures to convey nuanced meanings.
• Example: Note the contrasting descriptions of Haskett’s old tie held by a “worn elastic” versus Waythorn’s elegantly cut attire emphasizing class distinctions.
• Vivid Imagery: Wharton creates striking descriptions appealing to the senses, enhancing the setting and character portrayal.
• Example: Alice’s “clinging” wedding dress (instead of flowing) subtly foreshadows a less-than-ideal marital situation.
• Satire & Irony: Wharton uses humor, mockery, and contradiction to expose the hypocrisy of high society.
• Example: The social ease with which Alice, her ex-husbands, and Waythorn coexist highlights the absurdity of societal conventions.
• Insightful Commentary: Wharton’s observations about societal norms and human behavior are sharp and thought-provoking.
• Example: Waythorn’s discomfort reveals not just jealousy, but the male ego’s fragility when a woman’s past doesn’t disappear as society dictates it should.
• Complex Characterization: Wharton delves into the inner lives of characters, revealing motivations, contradictions, and the influence of social forces upon them.
• Example: Alice’s shifting self-perception is the story’s central conflict, not the outward tensions between her and Waythorn.
• Nuanced Thematic Exploration: Wharton’s style allows for subtle exploration of themes like societal expectations, power dynamics within marriage, and the impact of the past.
• Example: Alice isn’t actively rebellious, demonstrating how restrictions can be internalized, making her a more complex figure than a feminist manifesto would allow.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Literary Theory	Key Focus	Interpretation of “The Other Two”
Feminist Criticism	Gender roles, power imbalances, and how women are represented within literature.	* Alice’s internal struggle to reconcile her past with society’s expectations of a wife highlights constraints placed on women. * The contrasting portrayals of Alice’s ex-husbands (one declined, one risen) reveals the double-standard impact of divorce on men versus women.
Marxist Criticism	Class conflict, economic inequality, and how they shape social structures and relationships.	* Haskett’s decline in status compared to the wealthy Varick reveals the harsh economic realities faced by some men after divorce. * Wharton subtly critiques the materialism of high society, where appearances hold power over genuine connection.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Unconscious desires, motivations, and how repressed experiences influence behavior.	* Waythorn’s insecurities about Alice’s ex-husbands may stem from deeper anxieties about his own place in her affections. * Alice’s shifting self-perception suggests unconscious fears of never fully escaping her past and the roles society assigns her.
New Historicism	Examining literature in its historical context to understand cultural influences on the text and its interpretations.	* The story’s focus on marriage and social norms at the turn of the 20th century reflects changing gender roles and the anxieties this stirred at the time. * Acknowledging Wharton’s own complex position within upper-class society adds layers to her portrayal of its flaws.
Reader-Response Theory	The reader’s experiences and interpretations shape the text’s meaning.	* Modern readers may view Alice as either a victim of circumstances or a woman complicit in maintaining social constraints. * The story’s open-ended conclusion allows for multiple interpretations about Alice’s future and whether the cycle of “other” husbands will repeat.

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Broad Topics

• Social Expectations & Marriage: Marriage dynamics and societal pressure in Wharton’s era
• Gender & Power: How gender roles influence characters’ behavior and societal acceptance
• Past vs. Present: The lingering influence of past relationships on current identities and perceptions
• Satire & Social Critique: Wharton’s satirization of upper-class norms and values

Questions for Analysis

• Symbolism of the Portraits: How do the portraits of Waythorn’s ex-wives symbolize themes of the past and its influence?
• Alice as Observer: Does Alice’s role as a keen observer make her a passive or active participant in her own life?
• Ambiguous Ending: What does the final scene suggest about Alice’s future choices and potential repetitions within her life?
• Comparison to Other Wharton Works: How does “The Other Two” fit with Wharton’s broader themes (e.g., societal criticism, women’s constrained lives)?

Thesis Statement Examples

• Societal Constraints: Edith Wharton’s “The Other Two” reveals how rigid social expectations force Alice into a passive role, ultimately leading her to accept the limitations imposed on women.
• Marriage as a Transaction: In “The Other Two,” Wharton critiques early 20th-century marriage as a social and economic transaction focused on appearance, where past relationships continue to hold power.
• Power of Perspective: “The Other Two” highlights the dissonance between external appearances and internal turmoil, as Alice’s shifting perspective challenges the reader’s initial judgments of the characters.
• The Inescapability of the Past: Through symbolism and character interactions, Wharton’s “The Other Two” suggests that past experiences linger and inevitably shape our understanding of present relationships.

Short Question-Answer about “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Question	Answer
How does Alice initially view her past marriages?	Initially, Alice displays a sense of composure about her past marriages, masking any lingering emotional complexities. She demonstrates this through polite interactions with Haskett and Varick. Yet, subtle details like her discomfort upon encountering Haskett’s worn clothes or her unsettling scrutiny of Lily’s marriage to Varick hint at a deeper, unspoken impact.
Why does Waythorn feel insecure?	Waythorn’s insecurity stems from both societal expectations and a fear of being overshadowed by Alice’s past. Socially, his concern is how Alice’s prior husbands reflect on his position. This is seen in his need to navigate the business connections with Varick. His deeper personal fear is hinted at by his subtle fidgeting and controlling behavior, showcasing a vulnerability and an internalized sense of not being enough compared to the men Alice chose before him.
What is the significance of the story’s setting?	Wharton’s choice of New York high society during the turn of the 20th century intensifies the story’s exploration of rigid gender roles and social constraints. This setting highlights Alice’s limited options despite her modern outlook. Waythorn’s anxieties are amplified in the context where appearances and reputation matter deeply and where men traditionally hold more power within marriages.
How does the story’s ending create ambiguity?	The ending’s ambiguity lies in Alice’s uneasy acceptance of her situation. Her brief encounter with Waythorn reveals a strained detachment between them. Her final realization of being part of a relentless social mechanism could be interpreted as her embracing conformity or, more chillingly, surrendering to her lack of control over her own life. This uncertainty invites multiple reader interpretations about Alice’s ultimate fate.

Literary Works Similar to “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

• Novels by Edith Wharton:

• The Age of Innocence: Explores themes of social conformity, constrained romantic desires, and the disillusionment experienced within marriages.
• The House of Mirth: Critiques the materialism and hypocrisy of wealthy society, with a female protagonist trapped by social expectations and facing grim consequences.
• The Custom of the Country: Portrays a female social climber, highlighting manipulations within marriage and the pursuit of status.
• Other Authors with Similar Themes:

• Henry James: Novels like “The Portrait of a Lady” and “Washington Square” often depict women navigating complex social expectations and the limitations of traditional marriage roles.
• Jane Austen: While Austen’s tone is lighter, her novels like “Pride and Prejudice” and “Sense and Sensibility” also explore themes of marriage as a social and economic transaction, particularly for women.
• Theodore Dreiser: Novels like “Sister Carrie” examine the harsh realities of class and gender in America, sometimes showcasing the compromises women make for security or advancement.
• Beyond Novels:

• Short Stories: Authors like Kate Chopin (“The Story of an Hour”) or Charlotte Perkins Gilman (“The Yellow Wallpaper”) also wrote short fiction exploring women’s discontent and societal restrictions.
• Plays: Henrik Ibsen’s “A Doll’s House” famously depicts a woman confronting societal expectations within marriage, offering a possible parallel to the subtler conflicts in Alice’s situation.

Suggested Readings: “The Other Two” by Edith Wharton 

Scholarly Articles

• Ammons, Elizabeth. “Edith Wharton and the Issue of Race.” The Cambridge Companion to Edith Wharton. Ed. Millicent Bell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 68-86.
  • Offers a critical lens on racial and class dynamics within Wharton’s work. This can uncover additional layers to the social complexities depicted in “The Other Two.”
• Bendixen, Alfred, and Annette Zilversmit. “Edith Wharton and the Vulgarisation of Taste.” Edith Wharton: New Critical Essays. Ed. Alfred Bendixen and Annette Zilversmit. New York: Palgrave, 1992. 77-93.
  • Explores Wharton’s satirical treatment of status obsession within Gilded Age society, illuminating a central theme of the story.
• Singley, Carol J. “Edith Wharton: Matters of Mind and Spirit.” The Cambridge Companion to Edith Wharton. Ed. Millicent Bell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 110-134.
  • Provides a comprehensive analysis of recurring thematic preoccupations in Wharton’s writing, applicable to a nuanced reading of “The Other Two.”

Websites

• The Edith Wharton Society: https://edithwhartonsociety.wordpress.com/
  • A reputable resource hub with scholarly articles, news, and discussions on Wharton’s work.

Monographs (Books)

• Ammons, Elizabeth. Edith Wharton’s Argument with America. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1980.
  • A seminal work exploring Wharton’s critical stance towards American culture and values, relevant to the social critique embedded in “The Other Two.”
• Lewis, R.W.B. Edith Wharton: A Biography. New York: Harper and Row, 1975.
  • A foundational biographical work providing context and insight into Wharton’s life and the influences shaping her writing.

Introduction: “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

Published in 1926, “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence has become one of the author’s most popular and enduring short stories, exploring the themes of greed, materialism, and the corrupting influence of money. Set in England during the early 20th century, the story follows the tragic downfall of a young boy named Paul, who becomes obsessed with winning money to fulfill the unspoken desires of his mother and prove his own worth. With its vivid characterization, haunting imagery, and piercing critique of the social and economic systems of the time, “The Rocking Horse Winner” has become a staple of literary anthologies and a beloved classic of the modern short story.

Main Events in “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. Paul, a young boy, becomes obsessed with winning money after hearing his mother complain about their financial situation.
2. Paul discovers that he has a unique ability to predict the winners of horse races through riding his rocking horse.
3. Using his winnings, Paul secretly gifts his mother with thousands of pounds, hoping to finally earn her love and affection.
4. Despite his efforts, Paul’s mother remains distant and ungrateful for his gifts, leading him to become increasingly desperate.
5. Paul continues to ride his rocking horse in a frenzied state, determined to earn more money.
6. His obsession with winning becomes all-consuming, causing him to neglect his own health and well-being.
7. Paul’s uncle, Oscar, begins to worry about his nephew’s behavior and attempts to intervene.
8. Despite Oscar’s efforts, Paul refuses to stop his frantic horse riding, leading to a tragic accident.
9. In the aftermath of Paul’s death, his mother finally realizes the true cost of her greed and materialism.
10. The story ends with the chilling words of the house whispering “There must be more money!” as the cycle of greed and obsession continues.

Literary Devices in “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. Allusion – A reference to a well-known person, place, or event. In the story, Paul is described as “riding his rocking-horse until he gets a ‘winner,’ which is an allusion to horse racing.
2. Characterization – The process by which an author reveals the personality of a character. The story’s characters, such as Paul’s mother, are revealed through their actions and dialogue.
3. Foreshadowing – Hints or clues given by the author that suggest future events. In the story, the repeated mention of the phrase “There must be more money” foreshadows the tragedy that will occur.
4. Imagery – Descriptive language that creates a vivid sensory experience for the reader. For example, when Paul is riding his rocking-horse, the author uses imagery to describe his “flaming eyes” and “clenched little fists.”
5. Irony – A contrast between what is expected and what actually happens. In the story, Paul’s mother desires money and wealth, but her son’s quest for money leads to tragedy.
6. Metaphor – A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable. For example, the story’s title refers to the rocking horse, which is a metaphor for Paul’s quest for wealth.
7. Motif – A recurring theme or image in a work of literature. The phrase “There must be more money” is a motif in the story.
8. Narration – The act of telling a story. The story is narrated in the third person point of view.
9. Personification – Giving human qualities to non-human objects. In the story, the house is personified as “whispering” the phrase “There must be more money.”
10. Point of view – The perspective from which a story is told. The story is told from an omniscient third-person point of view.
11. Protagonist – The main character in a story. In the story, Paul is the protagonist.
12. Satire – A literary technique that uses humor and irony to criticize society or human behavior. The story is a satire on the culture of materialism and greed in early 20th century England.
13. Setting – The time and place in which a story takes place. The story is set in England in the early 20th century.
14. Symbolism – The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities. The rocking-horse is a symbol of Paul’s desire for wealth and his mother’s obsession with money.
15. Theme – The central idea or message of a story. The themes of the story include the corrupting influence of money, the dangers of greed and materialism, and the consequences of neglecting one’s loved ones.

Characterization in “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

Major Characters

• Paul: A sensitive young boy consumed by a desire to end his mother’s constant whispers of “There must be more money!” He exhibits an uncanny ability to intuit winning racehorses, riding his rocking horse into a frenzy to discover them. Paul’s motivation stems from a childlike desire to please and protect his mother, yet it also carries a tragic undercurrent of self-sacrifice.
• Paul’s Mother (Hester): More a symbol of greed and dissatisfaction than a fully fleshed character. She’s described as beautiful yet having “lost all her luck,” which drives her insatiable desire for wealth. While the narrative hints at genuine love for her children, her emotional distance is evident (“the children could not hear anything”). This neglect fuels Paul’s desperate attempts to fill the void with money.
• Paul’s Father: A shadowy figure, described as “handsome” yet ineffective as a provider of emotional support. His inability to understand his wife’s anxiety leaves the family feeling financially and emotionally vulnerable.

Minor Characters

• Paul’s Sisters: Their presence highlights the lack of a nurturing female presence in Paul’s life. They are largely oblivious to his struggles, further emphasizing his isolation.
• Uncle Oscar (Creswell): A worldly figure, Uncle Oscar is more attuned to Paul’s sensitivity and anxieties than his own parents. He plays along with Paul’s “luck,” unknowingly encouraging the boy’s dangerous obsession. Oscar’s ultimate financial success, in contrast to Paul’s fate, accentuates the story’s themes of chance, obsession, and the destructive allure of wealth.
• Bassett: The practical, working-class gardener forms a unique bond with Paul. He recognizes and facilitates Paul’s gift, becoming a co-conspirator in the quest for money. While Bassett benefits materially, his connection to Paul seems to possess a genuine element of care.

Major Themes in “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. The destructive nature of materialism: One of the major themes in “The Rocking Horse Winner” is the destructive power of materialism. The story highlights how the pursuit of wealth and status can lead to emotional neglect and ultimately, tragedy.
2. The search for identity and purpose: Another important theme in the story is the search for identity and purpose. Paul’s desire to win money is driven by a need to prove himself to his mother and find a sense of purpose in his life.
3. The impact of societal expectations: The story also explores the impact of societal expectations on individuals and families. Paul’s mother is driven by a desire to maintain her social status, and this puts immense pressure on her family to live up to those expectations.
4. The power of imagination: Finally, “The Rocking Horse Winner” highlights the power of imagination and the human desire to transcend reality. Paul’s ability to communicate with the rocking horse and his belief in its ability to predict winners is a testament to the power of the human imagination. However, it also underscores the danger of becoming lost in one’s own fantasies and losing touch with reality.

Writing Style in “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. Blending of Realism and Symbolism: Lawrence juxtaposes realistic details (“The children… were having such battles”) with symbolic elements like the rocking horse, representing both a childhood toy and a desperate vehicle for acquiring wealth.
2. Psychological Focus: The omniscient narrator delves into the characters’ inner thoughts, revealing Hester’s obsession (“There must be more money!”) and Paul’s frantic determination to uncover the “luck.”
3. Sensory Descriptions: Lawrence uses vivid imagery to create a tangible world (“the house came to feel hollow”) and convey emotional states (Paul’s riding reaching a “strange state, swinging, thrilling”).
4. Metaphorical Language – The whispers of the house (“There must be more money!”) embody a materialistic force consuming the family, while the frenzied riding foreshadows Paul’s self-destructive path.
5. Repetition and Foreshadowing: The repeated phrase “There must be more money!” highlights the relentless drive for wealth and foreshadows the story’s tragic conclusion.
6. Attention to Detail: Lawrence’s focus on small details, like the children’s eyes “blue with fear” or the “blazing fire,” heightens the emotional tension and paints a vivid picture of this dysfunctional family.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. Psychoanalytic Theory: One interpretation of “The Rocking Horse Winner” is through the lens of psychoanalytic theory. The story can be seen as a manifestation of the Oedipus complex, with Paul’s desire to win money representing his need to replace his absent father and prove himself to his mother. This interpretation is supported by the fact that Paul’s mother refers to him as her “little man” and that his desire to please her is linked to his sexual and emotional development (Freud, 1900).
2. Marxist Theory: Another interpretation of the story is through the lens of Marxist theory. The story can be seen as a critique of the capitalist system and the obsession with material wealth that it breeds. This interpretation is supported by the fact that the characters are all driven by a desire for money and social status, which ultimately leads to their downfall. The story can also be seen as a commentary on the inequality and exploitation inherent in the capitalist system (Marx, 1867).
3. Formalist Theory: A formalist interpretation of “The Rocking Horse Winner” would focus on the language and structure of the story. This approach emphasizes the way that the story is constructed, the use of literary devices such as foreshadowing and repetition, and the ways in which the language and imagery contribute to the overall effect of the story (Shklovsky, 1917).
4. Feminist Theory: A feminist interpretation of the story would focus on the portrayal of Paul’s mother and the gender roles that are enforced in the story. This approach emphasizes the way that the story reinforces traditional gender roles, with the mother being portrayed as a passive and dependent figure, while the male characters are seen as active and capable. The story can also be seen as a critique of the patriarchal society in which it is set, and the way that women are expected to sacrifice their own desires and ambitions for the sake of their families (de Beauvoir, 1949).
5. Reader-Response Theory: Finally, a reader-response interpretation of the story would focus on the way that individual readers respond to the story and the meanings that they derive from it. This approach emphasizes the subjective nature of interpretation and the way that readers bring their own experiences and perspectives to the text (Iser, 1978).

Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

Essay Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Materialism & Family	How does the story portray the destructive impact of greed and materialism on family relationships?	“The Rocking Horse Winner” depicts a family consumed by materialism; this insatiable desire for wealth leads to emotional neglect, isolation, and ultimately, tragedy.
The Role of Luck	To what extent are the characters in “The Rocking Horse Winner” driven by luck versus agency?	While seemingly governed by luck, “The Rocking Horse Winner” demonstrates how obsession and a distorted view of success can mask a desperate attempt to exert control within a chaotic world.
Symbolism & Meaning	How does D.H. Lawrence use the rocking horse as a central symbol in the story?	The rocking horse in “The Rocking Horse Winner” transforms from a childhood object into a complex symbol representing the desperate pursuit of wealth, the yearning for love, and ultimately, tragic self-sacrifice.
Childhood Perspective	How does the story’s use of a child protagonist shape the reader’s understanding of the events and themes?	Lawrence’s decision to tell “The Rocking Horse Winner” from a child’s perspective emphasizes the vulnerability, distorted perceptions, and tragic consequences of adult failures.
Social Critique	In what ways does “The Rocking Horse Winner” offer a critique of class and society?	“The Rocking Horse Winner” subtly indicts a society that prioritizes material wealth over emotional well-being, exposing the damaging consequences of this value system, particularly on the lives of children.

Short Question-Answer “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

• What is the significance of the title “The Rocking Horse Winner” in the story?

The title “The Rocking Horse Winner” is significant in the story because it introduces the central metaphor of the narrative. The rocking horse represents the characters’ desire for wealth and success, and the term “winner” suggests the theme of competition that pervades the story. The title also hints at the tragic consequences of the characters’ obsession with money, as the pursuit of wealth ultimately leads to Paul’s downfall. Overall, the title sets the tone for the story and prepares the reader for the haunting, surreal quality of the narrative.

• How does D.H. Lawrence use symbolism in “The Rocking Horse Winner” to convey the story’s themes?

D.H. Lawrence uses symbolism extensively in “The Rocking Horse Winner” to convey the story’s themes of greed, materialism, and the destructive power of obsession. The rocking horse, for example, serves as a metaphor for the characters’ desire for wealth and success, while the whispers that Paul hears in his home represent the voices of consumerism and societal pressure. The character of Paul himself can be seen as a symbol of the dangers of valuing material possessions over human relationships, while his mother represents the negative effects of consumerism on interpersonal dynamics. By using symbolism, Lawrence creates a rich, complex narrative that encourages the reader to think deeply about the story’s central themes.

• How does “The Rocking Horse Winner” reflect the societal pressures of its time?

“The Rocking Horse Winner” reflects the societal pressures of its time by highlighting the emphasis placed on wealth and status during the early 20th century. The characters in the story are driven by a desire for material possessions and social status, and their obsession with money leads to their downfall. The story can be seen as a critique of the consumerism and materialism that characterized the period, as well as a commentary on the destructive effects of societal pressure and conformity. By depicting the negative consequences of valuing wealth over human relationships, Lawrence encourages the reader to consider the priorities that truly matter in life.

• What is the significance of the ending of “The Rocking Horse Winner”?

The ending of “The Rocking Horse Winner” is significant because it highlights the tragic consequences of the characters’ obsession with money. Paul’s death and his mother’s eventual realization of the harm that her consumerist desires have caused create a haunting, surreal atmosphere that lingers long after the story has ended. The ending also underscores the theme of the destructive power of greed and materialism, as Paul’s attempts to win money and his mother’s desire for wealth ultimately lead to their downfall. The ambiguous, dream-like quality of the ending further emphasizes the story’s central metaphor of the rocking horse and encourages the reader to consider the deeper meanings and themes of the narrative.

Literary Works Similar to “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

1. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka: Gregor Samsa’s shocking transformation into a giant insect explores alienation, family burden, and the dehumanizing nature of modern society. Both stories center around a protagonist desperately trying to fulfill unobtainable expectations.
2. “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson: This short story’s chilling portrayal of a seemingly ordinary town harboring a dark ritual of sacrifice highlights how adherence to tradition and conformity can perpetuate cruelty. Its focus on chance and the power of societal forces resonate with themes in “The Rocking Horse Winner.”

3. Great Expectations by Charles Dickens: While more expansive in scope, this classic novel similarly explores the corrupting influence of wealth and social ambition. Pip’s journey from humble origins to a life of luxury mirrors Paul’s desperate desire to elevate his family’s status.
4. The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger: Holden Caulfield’s disillusionment with the adult world and his cynicism about societal norms resonate with the underlying critique of materialism in Lawrence’s story. Both protagonists are sensitive souls navigating hostile environments.
5. A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry: This play explores a family’s dreams and struggles for economic stability, offering a complex look at conflicting desires within a loving yet strained family dynamic. The Younger family’s aspirations for a better life echo the destructive desire for wealth in “The Rocking Horse Winner.”

Suggested Readings: “The Rocking Horse Winner” by D.H. Lawrence

Scholarly Articles

• Pinsker, Sanford. “Lawrence’s ‘The Rocking-Horse Winner’: A Reinterpretation.” D.H. Lawrence Review 30.2 (1999): 101-12. (Offers a more nuanced perspective on the motivations of Paul’s mother)
• Childs, Peter. Theories and Histories of Modernism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008. (Provides context for understanding Lawrence’s writing within the wider Modernist literary movement)
• Balbert, Peter. D.H. Lawrence and the Phallic Imagination. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001 (Includes in-depth analysis of “The Rocking Horse Winner” with a focus on psychoanalytic theory)

Websites and Resources

• The D.H. Lawrence Society of North America: Offers scholarly resources, articles, and information about upcoming conferences related to Lawrence’s work. ([invalid URL removed])
• The Literature Network: Features the full text of the story and a forum for discussion. (https://www.online-literature.com/)

Introduction: “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

“The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho, a renowned Japanese poet from the Edo period, captures a moment of simplicity and profundity in nature. The poem consists of just three lines, adhering to the traditional haiku structure.

Matsuo Basho’s iconic haiku, “The Old Pond,” masterfully utilizes spare imagery to evoke a profound sense of stillness and sudden vibrancy. The haiku’s three distinct elements create a dynamic interplay:

Text

The old pond–
a frog jumps in,
sound of water. (Translated by Robert Hass)

• The old pond: This image establishes a sense of timelessness, tranquility, and perhaps even a hint of the forgotten.
• A frog leaping: The frog’s action disrupts the pond’s stillness, introducing dynamic movement and a reminder of life’s inherent energy.
• The sound of water: This subtle auditory detail underscores the quietude of the scene, heightening the perception of the frog’s disruption.

Thematic Implications

The haiku’s simplicity belies its rich thematic depth. It invites interpretations exploring:

• Permanence and impermanence: The pond stands as a symbol of enduring presence, while the frog’s action and the water’s sound represent fleeting moments within the larger flow of time.
• Appreciation of the mundane: Basho finds significance and aesthetic resonance in a simple, quotidian event, encouraging a heightened awareness of the world around us.
• Zen Buddhist principles: The haiku’s minimalist structure and focus on a singular moment in nature align with Zen concepts of present-moment awareness and the impermanence of existence.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Literary/Poetic Device	Explanation	Example from the Haiku
Imagery	The use of vivid sensory language to create mental pictures.	“The old pond,” “a frog jumps in”
Kireji	A Japanese “cutting word”, used to divide a haiku into two parts and create a juxtaposition or pause.	The dash (–) serves as the kireji in this haiku.
Juxtaposition	The placement of contrasting elements next to each other to highlight differences.	The stillness of the pond vs. the sudden action of the frog.
Onomatopoeia	Words whose sounds imitate the thing they represent.	“sound of water”
Symbolism	The use of objects or images to represent larger ideas or concepts.	The old pond could symbolize tradition, stillness, or the past. The frog could represent change, spontaneity, or the awakening of consciousness.

Important Notes:

• Seasonality (Kigo): Haiku traditionally contain a kigo, a word indicating the season. While not explicitly present, the frog is often associated with springtime.
• Minimalism: The haiku form epitomizes minimalism, conveying profound meaning with very few words.

Functions of Literary Devices in “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Basho’s haiku demonstrates the use of language rich with literary devices to evoke a vivid scene and invite deeper contemplation. For example, the imagery of the “old pond” and “frog” creates a sense of stillness suddenly disrupted by life. The “kireji” (cutting word), on the other hand, introduces a pause, encouraging the reader to linger on this juxtaposition of motion and tranquility. While, onomatopoeia with the “sound of water” amplifies the contrast and underscores the profound silence broken by the frog’s movement, the poem also utilizes symbolism; the pond could represent the weight of tradition or the past, while the frog’s leap might symbolize a spark of change, an awakening, or a fleeting moment of awareness within the eternal flow of time.

Major Themes in “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Transience and Impermanence:

• ·  “a frog jumps in” – The frog’s action disrupts the stillness, emphasizing the fleeting nature of moments within the larger flow of time.
• “sound of water” – The water’s sound ripples out and then fades, highlighting the impermanent nature of even seemingly significant events.

Appreciation for the Present Moment:

• Focusing on a singular, ordinary scene – Basho directs attention to the beauty and significance found in a seemingly mundane event.
• “sound of water” – This auditory detail sharpens the focus on the present, fleeting moment.
• Interconnection of Nature:
• “The old pond” – The pond as an enduring element of the natural world.
• “a frog jumps in” – The creature disrupts the pond, emphasizing the dynamism and interconnectedness within seemingly static nature.

Zen Buddhist Undertones:

• Minimalist form – The haiku’s simplicity aligns with Zen’s emphasis on direct experience and uncluttered perception.
• Focus on present awareness – The haiku captures a single moment, a concept resonating with Zen’s attention to present-moment awareness.

Literary Theories and “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Literary Theory	Explanation of the Approach	How it Applies to “The Old Pond”	Reference from the Poem
Reader-Response	Focuses on the reader’s unique interpretation and emotional response.	Each reader might bring different experiences, influencing how they perceive the contrast between stillness and motion, or the themes of transience.	Individual interpretation
Structuralism	Examines the underlying structures and patterns within the text.	The poem’s structure with the kireji (cutting word) creates a juxtaposition, the haiku’s traditional form, and the interplay of symbols.	“The old pond” vs. “a frog jumps in”
New Criticism	Focuses on close reading, analyzing the text in isolation.	The interplay of imagery, symbolism, and word choice within the haiku itself.	“sound of water”
Ecocriticism	Explores the relationship between literature and the natural world.	The haiku’s depiction of nature, the interplay between the enduring pond and the fleeting frog’s action.	“The old pond”, “a frog jumps in”
Zen Buddhism	Considers the influence of Zen philosophy on the text.	The emphasis on present-moment awareness, minimalism, and the appreciation of the seemingly ordinary.	The haiku’s form, focus on a singular moment

Essays Questions and Thesis Statements about “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Essay Question 1: The Role of Contrast and Juxtaposition

• Thesis: Matsuo Basho’s “The Old Pond” utilizes contrasting imagery and juxtaposition to convey a profound sense of impermanence and the fleeting beauty of the present moment.

Essay Question 2: Symbolism and Interpretation

• Thesis: The seemingly simple elements in Basho’s haiku, “The Old Pond,” hold rich symbolic potential, inviting multiple layers of interpretation related to time, nature, and awareness.

Essay Question 3: Zen Influences

• Thesis: Matsuo Basho’s “The Old Pond” embodies key principles of Zen Buddhism, particularly in its focus on present-moment awareness, minimalism, and the interconnectedness of existence.

Essay Question 4: Influence and Legacy

• Thesis: Basho’s “The Old Pond” serves as a cornerstone of the haiku tradition, influencing poets across centuries with its simple yet profound depiction of nature and the human experience.

Short Question-Answer about “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

1. Q1: How does the poem use sound?

A1: The poem shifts from visual imagery (“the old pond”, “a frog jumps in”) to the auditory with the “sound of water.” This brief focus on sound intensifies the silence of the scene, emphasizing the momentary disruption caused by the frog.

• Q2: What role does the “kireji” play?

A2: The “kireji,” traditionally a cutting word, is represented by a dash (–) in translation. It divides the haiku, creating a pause and juxtaposition between the stillness of the “old pond” and the sudden action of the frog’s leap.

• Q3: What is the significance of the frog?

A3: The frog symbolizes movement and change within the still scene. Its jump could represent a fleeting moment of awareness, the unpredictability of life, or a disruption of established patterns.

• Q4: Why is this haiku so famous?

A4: The haiku’s fame lies in its masterful simplicity, evocative imagery, and the multiple themes it invites the reader to contemplate. It’s considered a pinnacle of the haiku form and a timeless example of Japanese poetry.

Literary Works Similar to “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

1. Other Haiku by Basho: Basho wrote many haiku throughout his life, all featuring his focus on nature, simplicity, and often a touch of Zen philosophy. Explore his other works to find similar themes and techniques.
2. Haiku by Issa, Buson, and Shiki: Kobayashi Issa, Yosa Buson, and Masaoka Shiki were also great Japanese haiku masters. Their works often focus on nature, and share a similar minimalist style and evocative imagery as Basho’s.
3. Nature Poetry (Wordsworth, Thoreau, etc.): Romantic poets like William Wordsworth and transcendentalist writers like Henry David Thoreau also celebrated nature and the insights that it can offer. Their works often share a focus on ordinary moments in nature and the connection between the natural world and the human spirit.
4. Minimalist Poetry: Minimalist poets throughout history have used spare language to evoke depth, similar to the haiku’s aesthetic. Examples include imagist poets like Ezra Pound and William Carlos Williams.
5. Zen-Influenced Literature: Works influenced by Zen philosophy, (such as those by Jack Kerouac or Alan Watts) may share a similar emphasis on mindfulness, appreciation of the present moment, and the fleeting nature of existence.

Suggested Readings about “The Old Pond” by Matsuo Basho

Books

• Barnhill, David L. Bashō’s Haiku: Selected Poems of Matsuo Bashō. State University of New York Press, 2004.
• Hass, Robert, translator. The Essential Haiku: Versions of Bashō, Buson, and Issa. Ecco Press, 1994.
• Ueda, Makoto. Matsuo Bashō. Twayne Publishers, 1970.

Articles

• Carter, Steven. “Three Poets, Three Journeys.” Frogpond: Journal of the Haiku Society of America, vol. 19, no. 3, 1996, pp. 53-56.
• Harries, Phillip. “Sound and Silence in Basho’s ‘Old Pond'” Philosophy East and West, vol. 30, no. 4, 1980, pp.521-530. JSTOR, [invalid URL removed].

Websites

• Haiku Society of America: https://www.hsa-haiku.org/
• The Academy of American Poets, Matsuo Bashō profile: https://poets.org/poet/matsuo-basho