Month: April 2024

Introduction: “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

“The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway, first published in 1936 in the collection The Snows of Kilimanjaro and Other Stories, demonstrates Hemingway’s masterful storytelling and distinctive writing style, which explores themes of mortality, regret, and the human condition. The narrative’s non-linear structure and use of symbolism, particularly the snow-capped Kilimanjaro, add depth and complexity to the tale. The story’s good qualities include its concise yet powerful prose, well-developed characters, and thought-provoking exploration of the human experience, making it a celebrated classic in American literature.

Main Events in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

1. Introduction to Kilimanjaro: Hemingway sets the scene of Kilimanjaro, Africa’s highest mountain, and introduces the theme of mortality through the image of a frozen leopard carcass.
2. Dialogue on Pain and Death: A conversation between two characters, one suffering from gangrene, reflects on pain, death, and the human condition.
3. Reflections on Writing: The protagonist reflects on his past, his unfulfilled writing aspirations, and his regrets about wasted talent.
4. Tension in the Relationship: Tension arises between the protagonist and his companion as they discuss their past decisions and relationship dynamics.
5. Themes of Love and Betrayal: The protagonist reflects on his relationships with women, the nature of love, and the compromises he made for comfort and security.
6. Facing Mortality: As the protagonist’s health deteriorates, he confronts his imminent death and reflects on the choices that led him to this point.
7. Resolution and Acceptance: Despite moments of bitterness and regret, the protagonist finds acceptance and appreciation for the kindness of his companion as he faces his final moments.
8. Reflecting on Relationship Dynamics: The protagonist contemplates the destructive nature of quarrels in relationships, acknowledging how past conflicts with loved ones led to the deterioration of their connections.
9. Solitude and Longing in Constantinople: Memories of loneliness in Constantinople resurface, prompting the protagonist to seek solace in fleeting encounters with women. A confrontation with a British gunner highlights his inner turmoil and search for connection.
10. Haunting Memories of War:
11. Recollections of wartime experiences, including witnessing shocking scenes of death and destruction, haunt the protagonist. These memories contribute to his difficulty in discussing his past with others.
12. Seeking Comfort in Paris: Returning to Paris, the protagonist finds comfort in the familiarity of his surroundings and his relationship with his wife. However, the specter of war still looms large, affecting his emotional well-being.
13. Unwritten Chapters of Life: The protagonist reflects on the stories left untold from various chapters of his life, including his experiences in Paris, on the ranch, and with the people he encountered. Regrets about not documenting these aspects of his life weigh heavily on him.
14. Confronting Mortality: As death draws nearer, the protagonist grapples with his mortality, feeling its presence grow stronger with each passing moment. Despite facing death, he maintains a sense of curiosity and introspection.
15. Final Moments of Reflection: In his last moments, the protagonist reflects on his life, acknowledging his regrets and desires. The impending end prompts a deeper introspection into his choices and experiences.
16. Symbolic Journey to Kilimanjaro: The story concludes with the protagonist being airlifted to safety, with the sight of Kilimanjaro representing his final journey towards death. This symbolic imagery encapsulates the protagonist’s acceptance of his fate and the closure of his narrative.

Literary Devices in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Allegory	The hyena’s cries symbolize impending death.	Hemingway uses the hyena as a symbolic representation of death, foreshadowing the protagonist’s demise.
Alliteration	“ with this woman, while with the women”	Alliteration creates rhythm and emphasizes the landscape’s vastness, contributing to the story’s vivid imagery such as “w” sound here.
Allusion	“Compton in slacks, a tweed jacket and a brown felt hat.”	Hemingway alludes to Compton’s British colonial background through his attire, adding depth to his character.
Anaphora	“The plain… And then… And then…”	Anaphora emphasizes the sequence of events, intensifying the narrative’s pacing and building anticipation.
Assonance	“Great, high, and unbelievably white…”	Assonance enhances the description of Kilimanjaro, creating a sense of awe and emphasizing its grandeur.
Consonance	“The rain so thick it seemed like flying through a waterfall.”	Consonance in the repetition of “th” reinforces the intensity of the storm, heightening the story’s tension.
Foreshadowing	The protagonist’s dialogue about death approaching.	Hemingway hints at the protagonist’s fate, building suspense and preparing readers for the story’s conclusion.
Hyperbole	“And then he knew that there was where he was going.”	Hyperbole exaggerates the protagonist’s realization of his impending death, intensifying the moment’s significance.
Imagery	“Clumps of trees… purple brown, bumpy with heat…”	Hemingway’s descriptive language paints vivid mental images, immersing readers in the story’s setting.
Irony	The protagonist’s longing to write but facing death.	Irony arises from the contrast between the protagonist’s desire to write and the reality of his impending demise.
Metaphor	“The party’s over and you are with your hostess now.”	This metaphor compares death to a hostess, implying a transition to a different phase or realm beyond life.
Onomatopoeia	“The hyena stopped whimpering in the night.”	Onomatopoeia replicates the sound of the hyena, enhancing the story’s auditory experience and mood.
Paradox	“How little a woman knows. What is that? Your intuition?”	This paradoxical statement highlights the complexity of human understanding and relationships.
Personification	“The rain so thick it seemed like flying through a waterfall.”	Personification attributes human characteristics to rain, creating a vivid and sensory description.
Repetition	“The plain… And then… And then…”	Repetition emphasizes the protagonist’s journey, creating a sense of rhythm and building anticipation.
Simile	“And in the air, like the first snow in a blizzard…”	This simile compares the locusts’ movement to snowfall, vividly capturing their swarm and its impact.
Symbolism	The hyena’s cries representing death.	The hyena serves as a symbol for death, conveying deeper meanings about mortality and the protagonist’s fate.
Synecdoche	“The boys had picked up the cot and carried it…”	Synecdoche refers to the boys’ action of carrying the cot, representing their involvement in the rescue effort.
Tone	The protagonist’s resigned acceptance of death.	The tone conveys the protagonist’s emotional state, characterized by acceptance and introspection.
Understatement	“Thanks. I’ll just have some tea.”	Understatement downplays Compton’s response, adding a touch of humor and highlighting his nonchalant demeanor.

Characterization in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

• Harry (Protagonist)
  • Harry is a writer who is dying from an infected wound while on safari in Africa.
  • He is depicted as regretful and reflective, contemplating his life choices and missed opportunities.
  • Hemingway portrays Harry’s inner conflict between his artistic ambitions and his indulgent lifestyle.
  • Through Harry’s memories and interactions with other characters, his complex personality and relationships are revealed.
• Helen (Harry’s wife)
  • Helen is portrayed as caring and supportive, attending to Harry’s needs as he lies dying.
  • She is depicted as loyal but also somewhat distant, hinting at underlying tensions in their marriage.
  • Hemingway explores Helen’s sense of resignation and sorrow as she confronts Harry’s impending death.
• Compton (Harry’s friend)
  • Compton is depicted as a fellow writer and friend who accompanies Harry on the safari.
  • He serves as a contrast to Harry, embodying discipline and dedication to his craft.
  • Hemingway highlights Compton’s practicality and resourcefulness in contrast to Harry’s disillusionment and self-pity.
• The Hyena
  • The hyena symbolizes death and decay throughout the story.
  • Its presence near Harry’s camp serves as a constant reminder of his mortality.
  • Hemingway uses the hyena to underscore the protagonist’s existential struggle and impending demise.
• Other Minor Characters
  • The presence of other minor characters, such as the porters and the pilot, adds depth to the story’s setting and atmosphere.
  • These characters provide glimpses into Harry’s past and present circumstances, contributing to his overall characterization.
  • Through brief interactions with these characters, Hemingway subtly reveals aspects of Harry’s personality and background.

Major Themes in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

1. Mortality and Regret: One of the central themes in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” is the inevitability of death and the accompanying sense of regret for unfulfilled potential. Harry, the protagonist, grapples with his impending death from an infected wound while reflecting on his past. He harbors deep regret for the choices he made in life, particularly his failure to pursue his artistic ambitions wholeheartedly. This theme is exemplified through Harry’s introspective musings on lost opportunities and the realization of his mortality as he confronts his imminent demise on the African safari.
2. The Conflict Between Art and Commerce: Hemingway explores the tension between artistic integrity and commercial success through Harry’s character. As a writer, Harry laments the compromises he made in his career for financial gain, sacrificing his artistic vision in the process. This conflict is evident in Harry’s memories of writing for profit rather than passion, as well as his regret for not producing meaningful work. The theme highlights the existential struggle of artists torn between the pursuit of their craft and the demands of society.
3. Isolation and Alienation: Another prominent theme in the story is the theme of isolation and alienation. Harry’s physical isolation in the African wilderness mirrors his emotional detachment from those around him. Despite being surrounded by people, Harry feels disconnected and estranged, unable to communicate his inner turmoil effectively. This sense of isolation is compounded by his impending death, which accentuates his existential loneliness. The theme of isolation underscores the existential nature of Harry’s struggle and emphasizes the human condition’s inherent solitude.
4. The Quest for Meaning and Redemption: Throughout the story, Harry grapples with questions of meaning and redemption as he confronts his mortality. He seeks to find significance in his life and come to terms with his past mistakes before it’s too late. This quest for meaning is exemplified through Harry’s reflections on his relationships, his career, and his personal values. As he faces death, Harry searches for redemption and a sense of closure, hoping to find solace in the face of his impending demise. The theme of the quest for meaning underscores the universal human desire to find purpose and reconcile with one’s past before the end.

Writing Style in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

• Minimalism and Sparse Language: Hemingway’s writing style in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” is characterized by minimalism and the use of sparse language. He employs simple, straightforward prose with concise descriptions and dialogue, allowing readers to infer deeper meanings and emotions. For example, Hemingway writes, “She looked at him with her well-known, well-loved face from Spur and Town and Country, only a little the worse for drink, only a little the worse for bed,” using minimal words to convey complex emotions and relationships.
• Stream-of-Consciousness Technique: Throughout the story, Hemingway utilizes the stream-of-consciousness technique to provide insights into the protagonist’s inner thoughts and reflections. The narrative often shifts seamlessly between present events and Harry’s memories, blurring the lines between past and present. This technique allows readers to delve into Harry’s psyche and experience his fragmented, introspective musings firsthand. For instance, Harry’s memories of his past experiences in Paris and Constantinople are interspersed with his current predicament, offering glimpses into his complex emotional landscape.
• Symbolism and Imagery: Hemingway employs rich symbolism and vivid imagery to evoke the story’s themes and atmosphere. The snows of Mount Kilimanjaro serve as a powerful symbol of death and the protagonist’s impending demise. Additionally, the African landscape and wildlife are depicted in vivid detail, contributing to the story’s immersive setting. For example, the image of the hyena lurking outside the tent symbolizes death’s presence and foreshadows Harry’s fate.
• Dialogue and Subtext: Hemingway’s dialogue is often characterized by its brevity and understatement, with much left unsaid and conveyed through subtext. The characters’ conversations are laden with tension and unspoken emotions, adding depth to their interactions. For instance, the exchanges between Harry and his wife, Helen, reveal underlying tensions and unresolved conflicts in their relationship. Hemingway’s skillful use of dialogue enhances the story’s realism and allows for nuanced character development.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

Literary Theory	Example from the Story	Explanation
Existentialism	Harry’s existential crisis and contemplation of mortality are central themes in the story. He grapples with the idea of facing death without having fulfilled his potential as a writer. For example, he reflects on the wasted opportunities in his life and regrets not pursuing his true artistic calling. This existential dilemma is epitomized in his final moments as he confronts the inevitability of death on the slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro.	Through an existential lens, “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” explores themes of alienation, mortality, and the search for meaning in an indifferent universe. Harry’s internal struggles mirror the existentialist notion of confronting the absurdity of existence and the individual’s responsibility to create their own purpose. His journey serves as a poignant portrayal of the human condition and the quest for authenticity in the face of mortality.
Modernism	Hemingway’s narrative style and structure in the story align with modernist literary principles. The fragmented narrative, nonlinear timeline, and use of stream-of-consciousness technique reflect the modernist approach to representing the complexity of human experience. For instance, Harry’s memories are interspersed with present events, blurring the distinction between past and present. This narrative technique mirrors the fractured nature of memory and subjective perception.	“The Snows of Kilimanjaro” embodies modernist aesthetics by challenging traditional narrative conventions and experimenting with form and structure. Hemingway’s innovative storytelling techniques invite readers to engage with the text on multiple levels and encourage active interpretation. The fragmented narrative mirrors the fragmented nature of reality and highlights the subjective nature of human consciousness.
Feminist Literary Criticism	While “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” primarily centers on Harry’s existential crisis, feminist literary criticism can offer insights into the portrayal of female characters in the story. Helen, Harry’s wife, is depicted as a supportive but ultimately passive figure, whose role revolves around caring for Harry and tending to his needs. For example, she tends to Harry’s wounds and tries to comfort him in his final moments. However, her character lacks agency and is overshadowed by Harry’s narrative arc.	From a feminist perspective, Helen’s portrayal reflects traditional gender roles and the marginalization of women’s voices in male-dominated narratives. Her character serves as a reflection of the limitations imposed on women within patriarchal society, where their identities are often defined in relation to men. By examining Helen’s role through a feminist lens, readers can explore the dynamics of power and gender within the story and uncover underlying themes of oppression and inequality.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

Topic	Questions	Thesis Statements
Existential Crisis	1. How does Harry’s confrontation with mortality shape his existential crisis?	Harry’s existential crisis in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” is a reflection of the human condition, highlighting the struggle to find meaning and purpose in the face of mortality and the inevitability of death.
	2. What role do Harry’s regrets and unfulfilled aspirations play in his existential dilemma?	Harry’s regrets and unfulfilled aspirations serve as catalysts for his existential crisis, prompting him to confront the disparity between his idealized self-image and the reality of his life choices.
Nature vs. Civilization	1. How does the natural setting of Mount Kilimanjaro contrast with the civilized world inhabited by Harry and Helen?	The juxtaposition of nature and civilization in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” underscores the tension between the pristine, untamed wilderness of Africa and the corrupting influence of human civilization.
	2. What symbolic significance does the snow-covered summit of Kilimanjaro hold in relation to Harry’s existential journey?	The snow-covered summit of Kilimanjaro serves as a symbolic threshold between life and death, representing both the pinnacle of human aspiration and the ultimate reckoning with mortality.
Gender Roles and Relationships	1. How are gender roles portrayed in the relationship between Harry and Helen?	The portrayal of gender roles in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” reflects the traditional dynamics of male dominance and female subordination, highlighting the constraints imposed by societal expectations on individual agency and fulfillment.
	2. What insights can be gained from examining Helen’s character in the context of feminist literary criticism?	Through a feminist lens, Helen’s character in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” can be seen as a reflection of the patriarchal norms that limit women’s autonomy and perpetuate unequal power dynamics within relationships.
Artistic Integrity and Authenticity	1. How does Harry’s struggle with artistic integrity and authenticity contribute to his existential crisis?	Harry’s internal conflict between commercial success and artistic integrity in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” reflects the tension between conforming to societal expectations and staying true to one’s creative vision.
	2. What commentary does the story offer on the commercialization of art and its impact on the artist’s pursuit of authenticity?	Hemingway’s exploration of the commercialization of art in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” underscores the compromises artists face in a capitalist society, highlighting the tension between artistic integrity and commercial success.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

• Question: How does Hemingway use the motif of the hyena in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro”?
•  Answer: Hemingway employs the hyena as a symbol of death and decay, lurking in the periphery of Harry’s consciousness, representing his impending demise and the vultures of regret that encircle his life.
• Question: What is the significance of the leopard carcass in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro”?
• Answer: The leopard carcass symbolizes Harry’s wasted potential and the decay of his creative spirit. It serves as a poignant reminder of the consequences of squandered opportunities and unfulfilled aspirations.
• Question: How does Hemingway explore the theme of cultural alienation in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro”?
• Answer: Hemingway depicts Harry’s sense of cultural alienation through his disconnection from the African landscape and its indigenous inhabitants. This alienation reflects Harry’s existential isolation and his inability to find solace or meaning in his surroundings.
• Question: In what ways does “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” challenge conventional narrative structure?
• Answer: Hemingway’s nonlinear narrative structure in “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” disrupts traditional storytelling conventions, mimicking the fragmented nature of memory and consciousness. This unconventional approach invites readers to piece together Harry’s fragmented recollections and introspections, mirroring his disjointed mental state.

Literary Works Similar to “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

1. “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place” by Ernest Hemingway: Like “The Snows of Kilimanjaro,” this short story by Hemingway explores themes of existentialism, isolation, and the search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent world.
2. “The Dead” by James Joyce: Similar to Hemingway’s work, Joyce’s short story delves into themes of mortality, regret, and the passage of time, as the protagonist confronts the emptiness of his life during a holiday gathering.
3. “The Swimmer” by John Cheever: In this short story, Cheever examines the disintegration of suburban American life and the protagonist’s journey of self-discovery, paralleling the introspective elements found in Hemingway’s work.
4. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Like “The Snows of Kilimanjaro,” this short story delves into the psychological unraveling of the protagonist, exploring themes of confinement, mental illness, and the struggle for autonomy.
5. “Babylon Revisited” by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Fitzgerald’s short story shares thematic similarities with Hemingway’s work, as it explores the consequences of past actions, the search for redemption, and the fleeting nature of happiness in the aftermath of the Jazz Age.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

• Hemingway, Ernest, and Stacy Keach. The snows of Kilimanjaro. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1936.
• Hemingway, Ernest. The short stories of Ernest Hemingway. Simon and Schuster, 1995.
• Benson, Jackson J., ed. New critical approaches to the short stories of Ernest Hemingway. Duke University Press, 2013.
• Simpson, Paul. “Teaching stylistics: analysing cohesion and narrative structure in a short story by Ernest Hemingway.” Language and Literature 1.1 (1992): 47-67.
• Hemingway, Leicester. My Brother, Ernest Hemingway. Crossroad Press, 2016.
• https://daily.jstor.org/hollywoods-version-of-the-snows-of-kilimanjaro/
• https://americanliterature.com/author/ernest-hemingway/short-story/the-snows-of-kilimanjaro-summary

Representative Quotations from “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” by Ernest Hemingway

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Kilimanjaro is a snow-covered mountain 19,710 feet high, and is said to be the highest mountain in Africa…”	This opening passage sets the scene, introducing the titular snow-capped mountain and its mysterious allure.	The description of Kilimanjaro as both a physical and symbolic presence foreshadows the themes of mortality and existential reflection that permeate the story.
“The marvellous thing is that it’s painless,” he said. “That’s how you know when it starts.”	The protagonist reflects on the onset of death, remarking on its painless nature.	Hemingway’s portrayal of death as a tranquil, almost indifferent process underscores his existentialist themes, emphasizing the inevitability and acceptance of mortality.
“He lay then and was quiet for a while and looked across the heat shimmer of the plain to the edge of the bush…”	The protagonist reflects on his surroundings, observing the African landscape.	Through vivid descriptions of the natural world, Hemingway contrasts the protagonist’s internal turmoil with the serene beauty of the external environment, highlighting the theme of man’s relationship with nature.
“It was not her fault that when he went to her he was already over. How could a woman know that you meant nothing that you said; that you spoke only from habit and to be comfortable?”	The protagonist reflects on his relationship with his companion, acknowledging his emotional detachment.	Hemingway explores themes of love, disillusionment, and emotional alienation, revealing the complexity of human relationships and the consequences of emotional dishonesty.
“He had traded it for security, for comfort too, there was no denying that, and for what else? He did not know.”	The protagonist reflects on his decision to sacrifice his artistic ambitions for a life of material comfort.	This quotation encapsulates Hemingway’s critique of materialism and the consequences of forsaking one’s true calling for the sake of security, highlighting the existential dilemma faced by the protagonist.
“It was strange, too, wasn’t it, that when he fell in love with another woman, that woman should always have more money than the last one?”	The protagonist reflects on his romantic relationships and their financial implications.	Hemingway delves into themes of love, desire, and wealth, exploring the protagonist’s complex motivations and the role of money in his romantic pursuits.
“Suddenly, she had been acutely frightened of being alone.”	The narrator reflects on the motivations behind the woman’s pursuit of the protagonist.	Hemingway explores themes of fear, loneliness, and the quest for companionship, revealing the woman’s vulnerability and the human desire for connection and security.
“It came with a rush; not as a rush of water nor of wind; but of a sudden evil-smelling emptiness and the odd thing was that the hyena slipped lightly along the edge of it.”	The protagonist experiences a sudden realization of his impending death.	Hemingway employs vivid imagery and symbolism to depict the protagonist’s existential crisis and the ominous presence of death, underscoring the story’s themes of mortality and existential despair.

Introduction: “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

“The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston was first published in 1950 in the collection “The Ebony and Topaz: A Collectanea” edited by Charles S. Johnson. This thought-provoking short story showcases Hurston’s masterful storytelling and explores themes of justice, morality, and the human condition. The good qualities of the story include its well-crafted characters, particularly the protagonist, Laura Lee Kimble, a strong and independent Black woman who challenges the status quo. The narrative also raises important questions about the criminal justice system and its treatment of marginalized communities, making it a timely and impactful read even today.

Main Events in “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Devices in “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Imagery	“A husky officer beside her.”	This creates a clear mental image of the policeman standing next to Laura Lee, emphasizing his physical presence.
Personification	“The hostility in the room reached her without her seeking to find it.”	Assigning human characteristics (hostility) to an abstract concept (the room) enhances the tense atmosphere of the courtroom.
Foreshadowing	“Unpleasant things were ahead of Laura Lee Kimble.”	This hints at the challenges and hardships Laura Lee will face in the upcoming trial, building anticipation for the events to come.
Hyperbole	“It might be the electric chair or the rest of her life in some big lonesome jailhouse.”	Exaggerating the potential consequences amplifies the gravity of Laura Lee’s situation and the fear associated with it.
Irony	“She could turn her face to the wall and feel neither fear nor anguish.”	Despite facing serious charges, Laura Lee remains composed, which is ironic given the gravity of the situation.
Metaphor	“She was a challenge to him somehow or other.”	Comparing Laura Lee to a challenge emphasizes the judge’s intrigue and the complexity of understanding her character.
Simile	“He flushed slowly and deeply.”	The judge’s embarrassment is likened to the gradual reddening of his face, enhancing the reader’s understanding of his emotional state.
Alliteration	“The brisk cynicism offended the judge.”	The repetition of the “c” sound emphasizes the prosecutor’s attitude and its effect on the judge, creating a sense of disapproval.
Symbolism	“The silence shouted that her goose was cooked.”	The silence symbolizes the overwhelming sense of defeat and impending doom that Laura Lee perceives, enhancing the tension in the scene.
Allusion	“His fascination and awe as a professor traced the more than two thousand years of growth…”	Reference to the judge’s past as a professor alludes to his intellectual background and adds depth to his character, highlighting his knowledge and experience.
Onomatopoeia	“He heard twelve names called…”	The word “called” imitates the sound of names being announced in the courtroom, making the scene more vivid and realistic.
Repetition	“You jury-gentlemens, they asked me if I was guilty or no…”	Repeating “gentlemens” emphasizes Laura Lee’s attempt to connect with the jury and adds a colloquial tone to her speech.
Anaphora	“Miz’ Celestine was there sitting right along by my side all the time.”	The repetition of “Miz’ Celestine” at the beginning of consecutive sentences highlights her importance and reinforces Laura Lee’s testimony.
Juxtaposition	“Mrs. Clairborne didn’t run off to keep from paying nobody.”	Contrasting the accusation with Laura Lee’s defense creates a stark comparison, emphasizing the disparity between perception and reality.
Parallelism	“Claimed that I always placed other folks’s cares in front of my own, and more expecially Miz’ Celestine.”	Parallel structure emphasizes the consistency of Laura Lee’s behavior and highlights her devotion to Mrs. Clairborne.
Euphemism	“Without even a ‘Good morning’ he says for me to git out of his way…”	Using “git” instead of “get” softens the tone of the dialogue, reflecting the character’s informal speech pattern.
Antithesis	“I stretched out my arm and he hit the floor on a prone.”	The contrast between “stretched out” and “hit the floor” highlights the suddenness and force of the action, creating a dramatic effect.
Paradox	“He just laid there like a log.”	Describing someone as both inert and inanimate presents a paradoxical image, emphasizing the lack of response and passivity.
Metonymy	“The tall, lean, black-haired prosecutor…”	Referring to the prosecutor by his physical attributes (“tall, lean, black-haired”) instead of his name substitutes the part for the whole, adding detail to the description.
Oxymoron	“I figgered I done right not to leave him come in there and haul off Miz’ Celestine’s things…”	The phrase “done right not to leave” combines contradictory ideas (right and not to leave), creating a paradoxical statement.

Characterization in “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Major Characters:

1. Clement Beasley:
   • Description: Clement Beasley is the plaintiff in the trial against Laura Lee Kimble. He is portrayed as a deceitful and manipulative character.
   • Example: Beasley’s false testimony about the loan and the events leading to the altercation with Laura Lee Kimble demonstrates his deceptive nature.
   • Details: Beasley’s actions and lies serve to frame Laura Lee and protect his own interests. He is willing to manipulate the truth to achieve his goals.
2. Judge:
   • Description: The judge presiding over Laura Lee Kimble’s trial. He is depicted as fair-minded and empathetic.
   • Example: The judge’s gentle approach in trying to understand Laura Lee’s perspective and offering her a chance to speak demonstrates his fairness.
   • Details: Despite the seriousness of the charges, the judge shows compassion towards Laura Lee and emphasizes the importance of hearing both sides of the story.
3. Laura Lee Kimble:
   • Description: The defendant in the trial, Laura Lee Kimble is portrayed as a strong and resilient woman.
   • Example: Laura Lee’s refusal to accept a court-appointed lawyer and her decision to speak for herself demonstrate her independence and self-reliance.
   • Details: Laura Lee’s testimony reveals her loyalty to Miz’ Celestine and her willingness to protect her employer’s belongings. Her actions reflect her sense of duty and integrity.
4. Miz’ Celestine:
   • Description: Miz’ Celestine is Laura Lee’s employer, mentioned throughout the trial.
   • Example: Laura Lee’s testimony about Miz’ Celestine’s character and her explanation of why Miz’ Celestine went to Miami Beach serve to defend her employer’s reputation.
   • Details: Miz’ Celestine’s absence and Laura Lee’s loyalty to her highlight the importance of their relationship and Laura Lee’s commitment to fulfilling her duties.

Minor Characters:

1. Arresting Officers:
   • Description: The officers involved in Laura Lee’s arrest and the witnesses called to testify against her.
   • Example: Their testimonies describe the events leading to Laura Lee’s arrest and paint her in a negative light.
   • Details: The officers’ accounts contribute to the prosecution’s case against Laura Lee and shape the perception of her character in the courtroom.
2. Prosecutor:
   • Description: The prosecutor handling Laura Lee’s case.
   • Example: The prosecutor’s brisk cynicism and swift handling of the trial reflect his adversarial role in the proceedings.
   • Details: The prosecutor’s actions contribute to the tension in the courtroom and highlight the antagonistic nature of the legal process.
3. Tom (Laura Lee’s husband):
   • Description: Laura Lee’s husband, mentioned in her testimony.
   • Example: Laura Lee’s recollection of her husband’s advice and his perspective on her actions provide insight into their relationship dynamics.
   • Details: Tom’s absence and Laura Lee’s memories of him underscore the theme of loneliness and the challenges faced by Laura Lee as a widow.

Major Themes in “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Loyalty and Selflessness: Laura Lee demonstrates unwavering loyalty to her employer, Celestine. She prioritizes Celestine’s well-being above her own happiness, even letting go of her own opportunities. This is evident throughout the story. For instance, Laura Lee raises Celestine as a child, forming a strong bond. Later, she gives up her chance to move away with her husband Tom in order to stay with Celestine.
• Justice and Fairness: Laura Lee fights for what she believes is right. She feels justified in protecting Celestine’s property from Clement Beasley, whom she believes lied about the value of the furniture and acted unfairly by attempting to seize it without proper authorization. This is shown when Laura Lee clarifies the sequence of events, stating, “I never tackled the plaintive just as soon as he mounted the porch like he said.” She recounts how Beasley arrived unexpectedly, demanded entry without manners, and insulted her before resorting to physical violence.
• Race and Social Class: The story explores the complexities of race and social class in the Southern United States. Laura Lee, a Black woman, works for a white family, the Beauforts. She grapples with the limitations placed on her due to her race and social status. This is evident when Laura Lee mentions her lack of formal education, saying, “I ain’t never rubbed the hair off of my head against no college walls and schooled out nowhere at all.” This implies the racial inequalities of the time that limited educational opportunities for African Americans.
• Family and Commitment: Laura Lee views Celestine as family and feels a deep sense of commitment to her. She prioritizes Celestine’s well-being above her own. This is a recurring theme throughout the story. From raising Celestine as a child to her decision to move to Florida with Celestine, Laura Lee demonstrates unwavering dedication. She even relays a promise made by Celestine: if Laura Lee remained by her side, Celestine would ensure Tom received a proper burial near her if he predeceased them, highlighting the reciprocal nature of their bond.

Writing Style in “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Lyrical prose: Hurston’s writing is known for its poetic and musical quality, which adds depth and emotion to the narrative.
• Folkloric influences: As a prominent figure of the Harlem Renaissance, Hurston’s work often incorporates elements of African American folklore and culture, which is reflected in the story’s language and themes.
• Vivid dialogue: The characters’ conversations are rich in dialect and vernacular, which brings the story to life and adds to its sense of place and time.
• Symbolism and metaphor: Hurston uses symbols and metaphors to convey complex ideas and themes, such as the courtroom as a symbol of justice and morality.
• Strong narrative voice: The story is told through a third-person omniscient narrator, who provides insight into the characters’ thoughts and feelings, creating a sense of intimacy and immediacy.
• Social commentary: Hurston’s writing often critiques societal norms and injustices, and “The Conscience of the Court” is no exception, offering a powerful commentary on race, gender, and the criminal justice system.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example
Feminist Literary Theory	Laura Lee Kimble’s character can be analyzed through a feminist lens, highlighting the themes of gender roles, power dynamics, and agency. Her actions and experiences reflect the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society.	Laura Lee’s refusal to conform to traditional gender roles, her assertiveness in defending Miz’ Celestine’s belongings, and her resilience in facing the legal system demonstrate her agency and autonomy as a woman.
Marxist Literary Theory	A Marxist interpretation of the story focuses on social class and economic inequality. The conflict between Laura Lee Kimble and Clement Beasley can be seen as a struggle between the working class and the bourgeoisie, highlighting issues of exploitation and oppression.	The dispute over the loan and the value of Miz’ Celestine’s belongings symbolizes the economic disparities between Laura Lee, a working-class woman, and Beasley, who represents the privileged class exploiting her.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Laura Lee Kimble’s internal conflicts and motivations can be analyzed through a psychoanalytic lens, exploring her subconscious desires, fears, and defense mechanisms. The story’s events can be interpreted as manifestations of her psyche’s struggles.	Laura Lee’s memories of her husband, her loyalty to Miz’ Celestine, and her defiance against authority can be seen as expressions of her unconscious desires for security, belonging, and autonomy, respectively.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Topic	Relevant Questions	Thesis Statement
Gender Roles and Power Dynamics	1. How do gender roles influence the characters’ actions and interactions in the story? 2. What power dynamics are at play between Laura Lee Kimble and the other characters?	In “The Conscience of the Court,” Zora Neale Hurston explores the impact of gender roles and power dynamics on characters’ behaviors, highlighting the challenges faced by women in asserting their agency.
Social Class and Economic Inequality	1. How does social class affect the characters’ relationships and conflicts? 2. What role does economic inequality play in shaping the story’s events?	Zora Neale Hurston’s “The Conscience of the Court” examines the tensions arising from social class and economic inequality, revealing the struggles of the working class against the exploitation of the bourgeoisie.
Justice and Legal Systems	1. How is the theme of justice portrayed in the story? 2. What commentary does the story offer on the effectiveness of the legal system?	Through “The Conscience of the Court,” Zora Neale Hurston critiques the shortcomings of the legal system and raises questions about the nature of justice, highlighting its complexities and limitations.
Identity and Self-Perception	1. How do the characters’ identities shape their actions and decisions? 2. How do perceptions of self and others influence character relationships?	Zora Neale Hurston’s “The Conscience of the Court” delves into the themes of identity and self-perception, illustrating how characters’ understanding of themselves and others impacts their behavior and relationships.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. What is the central conflict in “The Conscience of the Court”? The central conflict lies in Laura Lee Kimble’s trial for assaulting Clement Beasley. Beyond the courtroom drama, it exposes deeper societal tensions regarding justice, racial dynamics, and power struggles.
2. How does Hurston characterize Laura Lee Kimble? Hurston portrays Laura Lee Kimble as a formidable woman, resilient in the face of adversity. Her unyielding demeanor and refusal to conform to societal norms make her a symbol of strength and defiance against injustice.
3. What role does gender play in the story? Gender serves as a crucial lens through which power dynamics and societal expectations are examined. Laura Lee Kimble’s trial highlights the challenges women face in asserting their agency and confronting traditional gender roles entrenched in the justice system and society at large.
4. What is the significance of the title “The Conscience of the Court”? The title underscores a dichotomy between the formal legal proceedings of the court and the underlying moral conscience of its participants. It prompts readers to question the integrity and fairness of legal judgments, suggesting that true justice transcends mere legalities and requires a deeper ethical consideration.

Literary Works Similar to “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. “Sweat” (1926) by Alice Dunbar-Nelson: Strong Black female protagonist fights for what’s right.
2. “How the García Girls Lost Their Accents” (1991) by Julia Alvarez: Explores race, class, and identity like Laura Lee.
3. “The Lottery” (1941) by Shirley Jackson: Questions tradition vs. justice like Laura Lee.
4. “The Necklace” (1884) by Guy de Maupassant: Loyalty and sacrifice themes like Laura Lee.
5. “The Jilting of Granny Weatherall” (1930) by Katherine Anne Porter: Resilience and facing mortality like Laura Lee.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. Hurston, Zora Neale. “The Conscience of the Court.” The Complete Stories. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 1996, pp. 125-146.
2. Carby, Hazel. “The politics of fiction, anthropology, and the folk: Zora Neale Hurston.” Bloom’s Modern Critical Interpretations: Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes were Watching God. Harold Bloom, ed. New York, NY: InfoBase Publishing (2008): 23-40.
3. Davis, Doris. “” De Talkin’Game”: The Creation of Psychic Space in Selected Short Fiction of Zora Neale Hurston.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 26.2 (2007): 269-286.
4. Champion, Laurie. “Socioeconomics in Selected Short Stories of Zora Neale Hurston.” Zora Neale Hurston (2008): 181-97.
5. Walker, Alice. “Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Pioneer.” The New York Times, 16 May 2023, www.nytimes.com/zora-neale-hurston-literary-pioneer.

Representative Quotations from “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“The hostility in the room reached her without her seeking to find it.”	Laura Lee Kimble, the defendant, is portrayed as being acutely aware of the animosity directed toward her in the courtroom. Despite her readiness for the trial’s outcome, she cannot escape the palpable hostility surrounding her.	This quotation underscores the oppressive atmosphere of the courtroom and sets the tone for Laura Lee’s experience throughout the trial. It highlights the social dynamics and prejudices at play, suggesting that justice may not be entirely impartial.
“Somehow this woman did not look fierce to him at all. Yet she had beaten a man within an inch of his life. Here was a riddle to solve.”	The judge reflects on Laura Lee’s demeanor and appearance, finding it incongruent with the violent act she is accused of committing. He is intrigued by the contradiction between her outward demeanor and the crime she is alleged to have committed.	This quotation invites readers to question stereotypes and preconceived notions about individuals based on their appearance. It hints at the complexity of human behavior and the limitations of snap judgments.
“The implications penetrated instantly and the judge flushed.”	Laura Lee’s refusal of legal representation prompts the judge to reflect on his own ideals and dedication to the principles of justice. Her response challenges his assumptions about the legal system and his role within it.	This quotation highlights the judge’s internal struggle between upholding procedural norms and recognizing the limitations of the legal system in providing fair representation to marginalized individuals. It suggests that Laura Lee’s defiance disrupts the status quo and forces the judge to confront uncomfortable truths about the legal process.
“The silence shouted that her goose was cooked.”	Laura Lee perceives the ominous silence in the courtroom as a sign of her impending conviction. Despite her resignation to the outcome, she reflects on her sense of abandonment and betrayal by those she once trusted.	This quotation captures Laura Lee’s emotional state as she faces the prospect of a guilty verdict. It conveys her feelings of isolation and disillusionment, highlighting the personal stakes involved in the trial beyond mere legal consequences.
“‘Believe it or not, Laura Lee, this is a court of law.'”	The judge appeals to Laura Lee’s sense of cooperation and duty to participate in the legal process by telling her story. He emphasizes the importance of hearing both sides of the case to arrive at a just conclusion.	This quotation showcases the judge’s attempt to balance the formalities of the legal system with empathy towards Laura Lee’s unfamiliarity with courtroom procedures. It underscores the judge’s role as a mediator between legal norms and individual experiences of justice.
“The prosecutor shot up like a striking trout and waved his long arm.”	The prosecutor interrupts Laura Lee’s testimony, attempting to assert control over the courtroom and enforce strict procedural rules. His reaction reflects his frustration with Laura Lee’s unorthodox narrative style.	This quotation highlights the tension between the prosecutor’s adherence to legal formalities and the judge’s leniency towards Laura Lee’s testimony. It underscores the clash between institutional norms and individual agency within the legal system.
“‘I don’t mean that her mama and papa throwed her away. You know how it used to be the style when a baby was born to place it under the special care of a older brother or sister, or somebody that had worked on the place for a long time and was apt to stay. That’s what I mean by Celestine was give to me.'”	Laura Lee reflects on her upbringing and her deep bond with Celestine, revealing the complexities of their relationship and Laura Lee’s sense of duty towards her. She contextualizes Celestine’s role in her life within the broader cultural and social dynamics of their community.	This quotation provides insight into Laura Lee’s character and motivations, highlighting her loyalty to Celestine despite their current estrangement. It underscores the importance of familial and communal ties in shaping individual identities and experiences of justice.

Introduction: “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

“That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner, first published in 1931 in the collection “These 13,” demonstrates Faulkner’s mastery of narrative technique and his ability to write haunting and poignant tale. The story’s non-linear structure, clear imagery, and exploration of themes such as racism, class, and the decline of the Old South are just a few of its good qualities. Additionally, the story’s use of multiple narrators and its exploration of the complexities of human relationships and morality make it a rich and thought-provoking read. Overall, “That Evening Sun” is a standout work of American literature that continues to captivate readers with its beauty and depth.

Main Events in “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Literary Devices in “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Allusion	“If Jesus is hid here, he can see us, can’t he?”	An indirect reference to Jesus, implying a sense of divine presence or protection, contrasting with the characters’ fear.
Anaphora	“I don’t know,” Nancy said. “I can’t do nothing.”	Repetition of the phrase “I don’t know” emphasizes Nancy’s uncertainty and helplessness in the situation.
Characterization	“Caddy made us come down here,” Jason said.	Reveals character traits of Caddy as assertive or possibly manipulative, contrasting with Jason’s reluctance.
Foreshadowing	“I’m scared for it to happen in the dark.”	Nancy’s fear of darkness foreshadows impending danger or tragedy, hinting at the ominous events to come.
Hyperbole	“against the sky it looked like father had two heads”	Exaggeration to emphasize the speaker’s perception, adding a surreal or comical element to the description.
Imagery	“From some distance down the lane we could look back…”	Vivid description of the scene, allowing readers to visualize the setting and feel the characters’ emotions as they leave Nancy behind.
Irony	“You’ll see what you’ll see, I reckon.”	Nancy’s response to the father’s assurance ironically hints at uncertainty and fatalism, contrasting with the father’s attempt to reassure.
Metaphor	“He’s not there… He went away a long time ago.”	The absence of Jesus is metaphorically compared to his physical absence, suggesting a loss of faith or guidance among the characters.
Onomatopoeia	“the sound that was not singing and not unsinging”	The use of sound words like “singing” and “unsinging” creates auditory imagery, describing an eerie and unsettling noise heard by the characters.
Paradox	“I just a nigger. It ain’t no fault of mine.”	Nancy’s resigned acceptance of her fate as a Black woman in a racist society reflects the paradox of being blamed for circumstances beyond her control.
Personification	“I got the sign… laying by the lamp.”	Giving human attributes to an inanimate object (the hogbone) implies a sense of agency or intention, contributing to the story’s atmosphere of dread and superstition.
Repetition	“Nonsense,” father said.	Repetition of the word “nonsense” emphasizes the father’s dismissal of Nancy’s fears, highlighting his skepticism and frustration.
Simile	“it looked like father had two heads”	A comparison using “like” to describe the father’s appearance, highlighting the surreal or bizarre nature of the scene.
Symbolism	“the sound that was not singing and not unsinging”	The mysterious sound symbolizes Nancy’s fear and the ominous presence of danger, adding to the story’s atmosphere of tension and foreboding.
Tone	“Ah, damnation,” father said.	The father’s exclamation conveys a tone of frustration or resignation, reflecting his attempt to manage a difficult and unsettling situation.
Alliteration	“from the cabins or the kitchens every Saturday morning”	Repetition of the “k” sound emphasizes the regularity and routine of Mr. Lovelady’s visits, adding to the sense of familiarity in the community.
Assonance	“I’m scared for it to happen in the dark.”	Repetition of the long “a” sound creates a sense of unease or apprehension, mirroring Nancy’s fear of darkness.
Dialogue	“Come along, chillen. It’s past bedtime.”	Conversation between characters, providing insight into their relationships, personalities, and the unfolding events of the story.
Flashback	“We would see him going along the lanes… Saturday mornings.”	Reflection on past events, recalling Mr. Lovelady’s routine visits, which adds context to the characters’ current circumstances.
Foil	“You’re worse,” Caddy said, “you are a tattletale.”	Jason’s fearfulness contrasts with Caddy’s assertiveness, highlighting their different personalities and roles within the story.

Characterization in “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Major Characters:

• Quentin Compson: The young narrator of the story, Quentin is a member of the Compson family. He is sensitive and observant, often struggling to make sense of the racial dynamics and tensions around him. Through Quentin’s perspective, readers gain insight into the complexities of race and privilege in the American South.
• Nancy: A black woman who works for the Compson family as a domestic servant. Nancy is at the center of the narrative, grappling with the fear of her estranged husband, Jesus, who she believes may harm her. Her vulnerability and the indifference she faces from those around her shed light on the harsh realities faced by African Americans in the segregated South.
• Jason Compson III: Quentin’s father and a member of the Compson family. Jason represents the white, privileged class in the story. His interactions with Nancy and Jesus reveal the deep-seated racial prejudices and power dynamics that pervade Southern society. Jason’s indifference to Nancy’s fears underscores the systemic racism and lack of empathy prevalent among the white elite.

Minor Characters:

• Jesus: Nancy’s estranged husband, whose reputation for violence and abuse instills fear in Nancy and those around her. Though he never appears directly in the story, Jesus’s presence looms large, serving as a symbol of the physical and emotional threats faced by African Americans in the Jim Crow South.
• Mrs. Compson: Jason’s wife and Quentin’s mother, Mrs. Compson epitomizes the privileged class’s detachment from the struggles of African Americans. Her lack of concern for Nancy’s safety reflects the prevailing attitudes of racial superiority and indifference among the white elite.
• Dilsey: The Compsons’ loyal black servant, Dilsey offers a contrasting perspective to the white characters in the story. Through her interactions with Quentin and Nancy, Dilsey provides insight into the experiences of African Americans navigating the oppressive social structures of the South. Her resilience and compassion highlight the strength and humanity of marginalized communities in the face of adversity.
• Luster: Dilsey’s grandson and a member of the Compson household staff, Luster accompanies Quentin on his journey to deliver a note to Nancy. Luster’s youthful innocence and curiosity offer a glimpse into the next generation’s potential for change and progress in the fight against racial injustice.

Major Themes in “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

1. Race and Racial Tensions: Faulkner’s exploration of race and racial tensions is central to the story. Set in the Jim Crow South, “That Evening Sun” vividly depicts the pervasive racial hierarchy and discrimination faced by African Americans. The character of Nancy, a black woman who fears for her life at the hands of her abusive husband, symbolizes the vulnerability and oppression experienced by marginalized communities. Faulkner highlights the systemic racism ingrained in Southern society, exposing the brutality and injustice perpetuated against African Americans.
2. Fear and Paranoia: Fear permeates the narrative, driving the actions and perceptions of the characters. Nancy’s palpable fear of her estranged husband, Jesus, underscores the constant threat of violence and danger faced by African Americans in the South. The Compson family’s fear of becoming entangled in Nancy’s troubles reflects the pervasive anxiety surrounding racial tensions and the consequences of crossing societal boundaries. Faulkner skillfully explores the psychological impact of fear on individuals and communities, illuminating its corrosive effects on relationships and perceptions.
3. Power and Privilege: Power dynamics and privilege play a significant role in shaping the interactions and attitudes of the characters in “That Evening Sun.” The Compson family, as members of the white elite, wield social and economic power over their black servants, reinforcing racial hierarchies and inequalities. Jason Compson III’s indifference to Nancy’s plight highlights the callousness and entitlement of the privileged class, emphasizing their complicity in perpetuating injustice. Faulkner exposes the inherent injustices of a society built on racial oppression, challenging readers to confront their own privilege and complicity.
4. Moral Ambiguity and Complicity: Faulkner explores the moral ambiguity and complicity of individuals in the face of injustice and suffering. Through characters like Quentin, who grapples with his own complicity in Nancy’s plight, Faulkner reveals the complexities of moral decision-making in a deeply flawed society. The moral ambiguity of the Compson family, torn between self-preservation and empathy, reflects the moral dilemmas inherent in navigating systems of oppression. Faulkner’s nuanced portrayal of characters wrestling with their own moral culpability invites readers to reflect on their own ethical responsibilities in the face of injustice.

Writing Style in “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

1. Stream-of-Consciousness Technique: Faulkner employs a stream-of-consciousness narrative technique, particularly through the perspective of the young narrator, Quentin Compson. This technique allows Faulkner to delve deeply into Quentin’s thoughts, emotions, and perceptions, providing readers with a vivid portrayal of his inner world. Quentin’s stream of consciousness reveals his internal conflicts, anxieties, and attempts to make sense of the racial tensions and moral complexities surrounding him.
2. Multiple Perspectives: Faulkner often shifts between different narrative perspectives, offering insights into the minds of various characters. Through these multiple perspectives, Faulkner creates a multifaceted depiction of the story’s events, highlighting the subjective nature of truth and perception. This technique adds depth to the narrative, allowing readers to see the same events from different angles and understand the complexities of each character’s motivations and experiences.
3. Symbolism and Imagery: Faulkner’s writing is rich in symbolism and imagery, which imbue the narrative with layers of meaning and emotion. From the evocative descriptions of the Mississippi landscape to the symbolic significance of objects like the sun and shadows, Faulkner’s imagery serves to enhance the thematic resonance of the story. Through his use of symbolism and imagery, Faulkner creates a sensory experience for readers, immersing them in the world of the story and inviting deeper reflection on its themes and motifs.
4. Unconventional Narrative Structure: Faulkner often employs unconventional narrative structures, such as nonlinear storytelling and fragmented chronology, to convey the complexities of his characters’ experiences and the interconnectedness of past and present. In “That Evening Sun,” Faulkner weaves together different temporal strands, blending memories, reflections, and present-day events to create a mosaic-like narrative that mirrors the fractured nature of human consciousness and memory.
5. Southern Dialect and Vernacular: Faulkner captures the rhythms and cadences of Southern speech through his use of dialect and vernacular dialogue. The characters in “That Evening Sun” speak in a distinctively Southern idiom, with its own unique syntax, vocabulary, and colloquialisms. Faulkner’s attention to dialect adds authenticity to the narrative, grounding it in the cultural and linguistic milieu of the American South.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example from the Text
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Focuses on the psychological motivations and unconscious desires of characters, exploring themes of repression, trauma, and identity.	Faulkner’s portrayal of Quentin’s inner turmoil and conflicted emotions reflects the psychological complexities of his character. For instance, Quentin’s stream-of-consciousness narration reveals his anxieties about race, sexuality, and morality, offering insight into his subconscious fears and desires.
Feminist Criticism	Examines the representation of gender roles, power dynamics, and female agency within the text, often highlighting instances of sexism, patriarchy, and marginalization.	Nancy’s character embodies the vulnerability and oppression faced by black women in the Jim Crow South. Her fear of her abusive husband, Jesus, and the Compson family’s indifference to her plight underscore the intersecting forces of racism and misogyny that shape her experiences. Faulkner’s portrayal of Nancy’s struggles exposes the systemic injustices endured by women of color in a patriarchal society.
Marxist Criticism	Analyzes social class structures, economic inequalities, and power dynamics within the text, exploring themes of exploitation, alienation, and resistance.	The Compson family’s privileged position within Southern society highlights the economic disparities and class divisions inherent in the Jim Crow South. Their indifference to Nancy’s suffering reflects the callousness of the ruling class towards the plight of the working poor. Through characters like Dilsey and Nancy, Faulkner exposes the exploitation and marginalization faced by African Americans and the working class, inviting readers to question the legitimacy of the existing social order.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Topic	Questions	Thesis Statements
Racial Tensions and Injustice	1. How does Faulkner depict the racial hierarchy and discrimination in the story?	Faulkner’s “That Evening Sun” explores the pervasive racial tensions and injustices faced by African Americans in the Jim Crow South, revealing the systemic racism and violence that permeated Southern society.
	2. What role do fear and power play in perpetuating racial oppression?	Through characters like Nancy and the Compson family, Faulkner illustrates how fear, power, and privilege intersect to reinforce racial inequalities and perpetuate injustice.
Gender Dynamics and Marginalization	1. How are gender roles and power dynamics portrayed in the narrative?	Faulkner’s portrayal of characters like Nancy and Mrs. Compson highlights the intersecting forces of racism and misogyny, shedding light on the marginalization and vulnerability experienced by women in the Jim Crow South.
	2. What insights does the story offer into the experiences of black women?	“That Evening Sun” provides a poignant depiction of the struggles faced by black women in the segregated South, exposing the intersectional oppression they endure and the resilience they exhibit in the face of adversity.
Moral Ambiguity and Complicity	1. How do characters navigate moral dilemmas and ethical responsibilities?	Faulkner’s narrative explores the moral ambiguity and complicity of individuals in the face of injustice, prompting readers to reflect on their own ethical responsibilities and complicity within oppressive systems.
	2. What does the story reveal about the complexities of morality and culpability?	Through characters like Quentin and the Compson family, Faulkner confronts readers with the complexities of moral decision-making in a society marked by racism, fear, and inequality, challenging simplistic notions of right and wrong.
Symbolism and Imagery	1. How does Faulkner use symbolism and imagery to convey thematic motifs?	Faulkner employs rich symbolism and evocative imagery throughout “That Evening Sun” to deepen thematic resonance and enhance readers’ understanding of the story’s complexities and implications.
	2. What are some key symbols in the narrative, and what do they represent?	Symbols like the evening sun, shadows, and the dilapidated cabin serve as potent metaphors for themes of fear, oppression, and resilience, inviting readers to contemplate their symbolic significance and thematic implications.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

1. What is the central conflict in “That Evening Sun”? The central conflict revolves around Nancy’s fear of her estranged husband, Jesus, who she believes may harm her. Nancy’s terror permeates the narrative, driving much of the tension and apprehension felt by the characters. This conflict highlights the pervasive fear and violence experienced by African Americans in the Jim Crow South, as well as the indifference and complicity of those in positions of privilege.
2. How does Faulkner explore the theme of racial inequality in “That Evening Sun”? Faulkner vividly portrays the racial hierarchy and discrimination prevalent in the Jim Crow South through the experiences of characters like Nancy and the Compson family. The story exposes the systemic racism ingrained in Southern society, revealing the stark disparities in power, privilege, and justice along racial lines. Through nuanced characterizations and evocative imagery, Faulkner confronts readers with the harsh realities of racial injustice and oppression.
3. What role does the setting play in “That Evening Sun”? The setting of the story, a small town in the American South during the early 20th century, serves as a potent backdrop for Faulkner’s exploration of race, fear, and morality. The oppressive atmosphere of the segregated South permeates the narrative, heightening the sense of tension and unease. The dilapidated cabin where Nancy resides becomes a symbol of her vulnerability and isolation, reflecting the harsh realities faced by African Americans in a society marked by racial prejudice and violence.
4. How does Quentin’s perspective shape the reader’s understanding of “That Evening Sun”? As the narrator, Quentin Compson provides readers with a lens through which to view the events of the story. His youthful innocence and sensitivity offer a poignant contrast to the dark and complex themes explored in the narrative. Through Quentin’s perspective, readers gain insight into the psychological and emotional impact of the racial tensions and moral dilemmas faced by the characters. Faulkner’s use of Quentin’s stream-of-consciousness narration invites readers to empathize with his struggles to comprehend the complexities of race, fear, and morality in the Jim Crow South.

Literary Works Similar to “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

1. “A Worn Path” by Eudora Welty: Explores race and resilience in the rural South through the journey of an elderly African American woman.
2. “The Life You Save May Be Your Own” by Flannery O’Connor: Examines morality and human relationships in the Southern Gothic tradition.
3. “The Flowering Judas” by Katherine Anne Porter: Explores betrayal and cultural conflict in post-revolutionary Mexico.
4. “Blood-Burning Moon” by Jean Toomer: Tackles race, desire, and violence in the Jim Crow South through interconnected lives.
5. “The Gilded Six-Bits” by Zora Neale Hurston: Delves into love, betrayal, and forgiveness in a vibrant African American community in Florida.

Suggested Readings about/on “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

• Books:
• Faulkner, William. The Complete Stories of William Faulkner. Vintage, 1995.
• Brooks, Cleanth. William Faulkner: The Yoknapatawpha Country. Louisiana State University Press, 1963.
• Articles:
• Abadie, Ann J., editor. “Faulkner and the Southern Renaissance.” University Press of Mississippi, 1982.
• Hiles, Randolph. “Faulkner and the Natural World.” University of Alabama Press, 2018.
• Web Links:
• Bickham, Scott. “Race and the Public Sphere in William Faulkner’s ‘That Evening Sun.'” Southern Literary Journal, vol. 44, no. 2, 2012, pp. 1-21. www.jstor.org/stable/23347267
• Miller, Gavin James. “Dark Laughter and Haunting Melodies: Faulkner’s ‘That Evening Sun.'” The Mississippi Quarterly, vol. 59, no. 1/2, 2005, pp. 231-244. www.jstor.org/stable/20172689.

Representative Quotations from “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Monday is no different from any other weekday in Jefferson now…”	In this passage, Faulkner describes the changes in Jefferson over time, reflecting the increasing urbanization and modernization of the town. The once quaint and bustling streets are now characterized by the intrusion of technology and the loss of traditional ways of life.	This quote exemplifies Faulkner’s exploration of the theme of societal change and its impact on individuals and communities, reflecting broader shifts in Southern society during the early 20th century.
“Nancy would set her bundle on the top of her head, then upon the bundle in turn she would set the black straw sailor hat which she wore winter and summer…”	Faulkner vividly describes Nancy, a central character in the story, and her daily routine of carrying laundry. Nancy’s appearance and actions symbolize her resilience and stoicism in the face of adversity, as well as the burdens she carries as a black woman in the Jim Crow South.	This quotation highlights Faulkner’s use of imagery and symbolism to convey the experiences and inner life of his characters, underscoring the themes of race, gender, and socioeconomic inequality.
“So after a while we quit chunking the cabin and went back home…”	The narrator recounts a childhood memory of taunting Nancy’s cabin until she emerges. This passage illustrates the casual racism and cruelty of the white children towards Nancy, emphasizing the racial divide and power dynamics within the community.	Faulkner employs this scene to explore the theme of racial prejudice and its psychological and emotional effects on both the victims and perpetrators, shedding light on the pervasive racism ingrained in Southern society.
“That was how she lost her teeth, and all that day they told about Nancy and Mr Stovall…”	This passage describes the violent altercation between Nancy and Mr. Stovall, a white man who refuses to pay her. The incident highlights the systemic racism and economic exploitation faced by African Americans, as well as the physical and psychological toll of racial violence and injustice.	Through this quotation, Faulkner exposes the brutal realities of racial violence and economic exploitation in the Jim Crow South, underscoring the intersecting forces of racism, sexism, and classism that shape the lives of marginalized individuals.
“It never come off of your vine, though,” Nancy said…	Nancy and Jesus exchange heated words, revealing the tensions and power struggles within their relationship. Nancy’s retort challenges Jesus’ authority and asserts her agency, while also highlighting the gendered dynamics and patriarchal norms that govern their interactions.	Faulkner uses this dialogue to explore the complexities of gender and power within African American communities, highlighting the ways in which individuals negotiate and resist social hierarchies and expectations in the face of oppression.
“I ain’t nothing but a nigger,” Nancy said. “It ain’t none of my fault.”	Nancy expresses resignation and despair in response to her marginalized status and the injustices she faces. Her words reflect the internalized racism and powerlessness experienced by many African Americans in the Jim Crow South, as well as the dehumanizing effects of systemic oppression.	This quotation underscores Faulkner’s exploration of the psychological and emotional toll of racial discrimination and societal marginalization, highlighting the ways in which individuals grapple with their own identity and agency within oppressive systems.
“He quit me,” Nancy said. “Done gone to Memphis, I reckon. Dodging them city police for a while, I reckon.”	Nancy reveals Jesus’ departure and her fears of his return, underscoring the cycle of violence and instability in her life. Her resignation to Jesus’ absence reflects the pervasive fear and vulnerability experienced by African American women in the face of male violence and abandonment.	Through Nancy’s words, Faulkner portrays the cyclical nature of trauma and instability within marginalized communities, highlighting the ways in which individuals navigate and endure systemic oppression and interpersonal violence in their everyday lives.

Introduction: “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

“Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston, published in 1925 in the collection The New Negro, ispowerful short story showcases his masterful storytelling and her ability to capture the essence of African American culture and dialect. The tale of Spunk, a charismatic and fearless railroad worker, explores themes of masculinity, community, and the consequences of one’s actions. Through its vivid characters, rich dialogue, and poignant themes, “Spunk” exemplifies Hurston’s unique literary style and her contribution to the Harlem Renaissance.

Main Events in “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Devices in “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Allegory	Joe Kanty’s death symbolizes the consequences of jealousy and cowardice.	Allegory is a narrative in which characters, events, and settings symbolize abstract ideas, often with a moral or political message.
Alliteration	“He rides that log down at saw-mill jus’ like he struts ’round wid another man’s wife-jus’ don’t give a kitty.”	Alliteration is the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in neighboring words.
Foreshadowing	Spunk’s prediction that Joe will come back to confront him foreshadows the final confrontation.	Foreshadowing hints at future events in the story, building suspense and adding depth to the narrative.
Hyperbole	“Spunk died too wicket-died cussin’ he did.”	Hyperbole is an exaggeration used for emphasis or effect.
Imagery	“Dusk crept in from the woods.”	Imagery uses sensory details to create vivid mental images for the reader.
Irony	Joe Kanty’s bravery in confronting Spunk contrasts with his eventual demise.	Irony is when the opposite of what is expected occurs, often leading to humor, surprise, or a deeper understanding of the story’s themes.
Metaphor	“Spunk came walking leisurely, with his big black Stetson set at the same rakish angle.”	Metaphor is a figure of speech that suggests a resemblance between two unlike things, without using “like” or “as”.
Onomatopoeia	“a big black bob-cat, black all over, you hear me, black, walked round and round that house and howled like forty”	Onomatopoeia is the use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or actions they refer to.
Personification	“a big black bob-cat, black all over, you hear me, black, walked round and round that house and howled like forty”	Personification attributes human qualities or characteristics to non-human entities, often to create vivid imagery or enhance the narrative.
Repetition	“An’ Ah b’leeve Joe pushed ‘im mahself.”	Repetition is the deliberate use of the same words, phrases, or structures to create emphasis or reinforce an idea.
Simile	“like he wants to say somethin’ an’ can’t.”	Simile is a figure of speech that compares two different things using “like” or “as”.
Symbolism	The bob-cat symbolizes Joe Kanty’s presence and revenge from beyond the grave.	Symbolism is the use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities beyond their literal meaning, often adding depth and layers of meaning to the story.
Allusion	“A clear case of self-defense, the trial was a short one, and Spunk walked out of the court house to freedom again.”	Allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, event, or work of art, often used to add depth or convey a certain meaning to the reader.
Flashback	Spunk’s recollection of Joe Kanty’s initial encounter with Lena recalls events from the past.	Flashback is a device that interrupts the chronological sequence of a narrative to provide information about events that happened earlier.
Foil	Joe Kanty’s timidity contrasts with Spunk’s fearlessness.	A foil is a character who contrasts with another character in order to highlight particular qualities of the other character.
Oxymoron	“Spunk came walking leisurely, with his big black Stetson set at the same rakish angle.”	An oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory terms for emphasis or rhetorical effect.
Parallelism	“Me an’ Skint Miller got him off but it was too late.Anybody could see that.The fust thing he said wuz: ‘He pushed me, ‘Lige-the dirty hound pushed me in the back!’-He was spittin’ blood at ev’ry breath.”	Parallelism is the use of similar grammatical structures or phrases to express related ideas, often creating rhythm and balance in the text.
Synecdoche	“The cooling board consisted of three sixteen-inch boards on saw horses, a dingy sheet was his shroud.”	Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or vice versa.
Tone	The somber tone of the men as they discuss Spunk’s death contrasts with their earlier levity.	Tone is the author’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, conveyed through the language and style of the writing.
Metonymy	“Elijah did not answer until they had left the lighted store and were strolling down the dark street.”	Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is substituted with another closely related word or phrase, often used to convey a broader meaning or association.

Characterization in “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Major Characters:

• Spunk Banks: Spunk Banks is depicted as a larger-than-life figure in the village, exuding an aura of fearlessness and confidence. His physical presence and bold demeanor command attention from those around him. When faced with challenges or danger, Spunk confronts them head-on without hesitation, earning him the admiration of some and the envy of others. For instance, when Spunk rides the dangerous log-carriage at the sawmill despite others’ fear, it demonstrates his courage and disregard for danger. His actions throughout the story showcase a man unafraid to assert himself, even in the face of adversity.
• Lena Kanty: Lena Kanty is portrayed as a woman caught in the middle of a tumultuous situation. Her loving demeanor towards Spunk contrasts with the tension between him and her husband, Joe Kanty. Lena’s emotions fluctuate between fear, love, and confusion as she navigates the complexities of her relationships. Her tears and lamentations serve as a reflection of the turmoil within her, torn between loyalty to her husband and her affection for Spunk. Lena’s character represents the emotional heart of the story, embodying the consequences of passion and betrayal.
• Joe Kanty: Joe Kanty is characterized as a man consumed by jealousy and insecurity. Despite his physical stature, Joe is portrayed as timid and hesitant, especially when it comes to confronting Spunk. His attempts to assert dominance over his wife, Lena, are feeble and ultimately futile. Joe’s actions, such as brandishing a razor in a failed attempt to intimidate Spunk, highlight his lack of courage and resolve. Even in death, Joe’s presence looms large over the narrative, serving as a cautionary tale of the destructive power of jealousy and pride.

Minor Characters:

• Elijah Mosley: Elijah Mosley serves as a bystander and commentator on the events unfolding in the village. His gleeful observations and casual interactions with other characters add depth to the story’s setting. Elijah’s mocking tone towards Joe Kanty and his playful banter with other villagers provide insight into the community’s dynamics and attitudes towards Spunk and Lena’s relationship.
• Walter Thomas: Walter Thomas is depicted as a voice of reason and skepticism amidst the village gossip. His reluctance to fully embrace Spunk’s actions and intentions reflects a more cautious perspective. Walter’s questioning of Spunk’s motives and the potential consequences of his behavior offer a counterbalance to the admiration and awe that others express towards Spunk’s boldness.
• Skint Miller: Skint Miller’s brief appearance in the story highlights the camaraderie among the men in the village. His presence during Joe Kanty’s confrontation with Spunk underscores the community’s reaction to the unfolding drama. Skint’s involvement in attempting to assist Joe after his altercation with Spunk illustrates the interconnectedness of the villagers and their willingness to come to each other’s aid, even in times of strife.

Major Themes in “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Writing Style in “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. Folkloric and Vernacular Language: Hurston uses folkloric and vernacular language to create a sense of authenticity and to capture the dialect and culture of the African American community in the rural South.
2. Third-Person Narrative: The story is told in the third person, which allows for an objective perspective and creates a sense of detachment, highlighting the tragic events that unfold.
3. Stream-of-Consciousness: Hurston employs stream-of-consciousness narration, which creates a sense of immediacy and intimacy, drawing the reader into the thoughts and feelings of the characters.
4. Imagery and Symbolism: The story is rich in imagery and symbolism, with vivid descriptions of nature, animals, and supernatural elements, which add depth and meaning to the narrative.
5. Dialogue and Dialect: Hurston uses dialogue and dialect to bring the characters to life, capturing the unique voice and language of the African American community in the rural South.
6. Irony and Foreshadowing: The story employs irony and foreshadowing, creating a sense of tension and suspense, as the reader is aware of the impending doom that awaits the characters.
7. Concise and Direct Prose: Hurston’s writing is concise and direct, with a focus on action and dialogue, which creates a sense of pace and momentum, propelling the story forward.
8. Use of African American Culture and Folklore: The story incorporates elements of African American culture and folklore, such as the supernatural and the use of dialect, which adds depth and richness to the narrative.
9. Critique of Toxic Masculinity: The story critiques toxic masculinity, highlighting the destructive consequences of patriarchal power and dominance.
10. Exploration of Human Nature: The story explores human nature, delving into themes of love, jealousy, revenge, and redemption, creating a nuanced and complex portrayal of humanity.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theory	Interpretation	References
1. Feminist Theory	Interpretation: Feminist theory focuses on the portrayal and treatment of women in literature, examining power dynamics, gender roles, and the representation of female characters. In “Spunk,” Lena Kanty’s character can be analyzed through a feminist lens. Her agency and autonomy are challenged by the expectations and actions of the male characters, particularly her husband, Joe Kanty, and Spunk Banks. Lena’s journey reflects the struggle of women in a patriarchal society, torn between societal norms and personal desires.*	Hooks, Bell. “Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center.” South End Press, 1984.<br> Showalter, Elaine. “The New Feminist Criticism: Essays on Women, Literature and Theory.” Pantheon Books, 1985.
2. Marxist Theory	Interpretation: Marxist theory examines literature through the lens of social class, economic relations, and power structures. In “Spunk,” the dynamics between the characters can be analyzed in terms of class struggle and economic disparity. Spunk Banks, as a confident and assertive character, can be seen as representing the proletariat, while Joe Kanty, who feels threatened by Spunk’s actions, symbolizes the bourgeoisie. The story explores themes of exploitation, labor, and the impact of socioeconomic factors on individual agency and relationships.*	Eagleton, Terry. “Marxism and Literary Criticism.” Routledge, 1976.<br> Jameson, Fredric. “Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature.” Princeton University Press, 1971.
3. Psychoanalytic Theory	Interpretation: Psychoanalytic theory delves into the unconscious mind, desires, and motivations of characters, exploring themes of repression, sexuality, and identity. In “Spunk,” the interactions between the characters can be analyzed through a psychoanalytic lens, particularly the love triangle involving Spunk Banks, Lena Kanty, and Joe Kanty. Each character’s actions and emotions can be interpreted as manifestations of their unconscious desires and conflicts. The story’s resolution, with Spunk’s death and Lena’s grief, can be seen as a result of unresolved psychological tensions within the characters.*	Freud, Sigmund. “The Interpretation of Dreams.” Basic Books, 1913.<br> Lacan, Jacques. “Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English.” W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Topic	Questions	Thesis Statements
1. Power Dynamics and Gender Roles	– How do power dynamics and gender roles influence the relationships between the characters in “Spunk”? – How does Zora Neale Hurston portray the struggles of women in a patriarchal society? – In what ways do the male characters exert control over Lena Kanty’s agency and autonomy?	In “Spunk,” Zora Neale Hurston explores power dynamics and gender roles, depicting the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society through the characters of Lena Kanty and her interactions with Spunk Banks and Joe Kanty. Through the portrayal of these characters, Hurston highlights the ways in which societal norms and expectations impact individual agency and relationships, shedding light on the complexities of gender dynamics in the early 20th-century South.
2. Conflict and Betrayal	– How does the conflict between Spunk Banks and Joe Kanty drive the narrative of “Spunk”? – What role does betrayal play in shaping the relationships between the characters? – How does Zora Neale Hurston depict the consequences of jealousy and revenge in the story?	“Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston explores themes of conflict and betrayal, depicting the repercussions of jealousy and revenge in a small Southern community. Through the tumultuous relationships between Spunk Banks, Lena Kanty, and Joe Kanty, Hurston illustrates the destructive power of envy and the consequences of betrayal. The story serves as a cautionary tale, highlighting the complexities of human emotions and the moral ambiguity of seeking retribution.
3. Social Class and Economic Struggle	– How do social class and economic disparities influence the characters’ interactions and decisions in “Spunk”? – In what ways does Zora Neale Hurston depict the struggles of the working class in the story? – How does Spunk Banks represent resilience and agency in the face of socioeconomic challenges?	In “Spunk,” Zora Neale Hurston explores the impact of social class and economic struggle on the lives of characters in a small Southern community. Through the portrayal of Spunk Banks and other working-class individuals, Hurston sheds light on the resilience and agency of those marginalized by society. The story highlights the complexities of socioeconomic factors and their influence on individual agency, relationships, and community dynamics.
4. Psychological Conflicts and Desires	– What psychological conflicts and desires drive the actions of the characters in “Spunk”? – How do unconscious motivations and repressed emotions shape the narrative? – In what ways does Zora Neale Hurston explore themes of identity, desire, and repression in the story?	“Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston delves into the psychological conflicts and desires of its characters, exploring themes of identity, desire, and repression. Through the interactions between Spunk Banks, Lena Kanty, and Joe Kanty, Hurston examines the complexities of human emotions and the unconscious motivations that drive individuals to act in unexpected ways. The story serves as a psychological study, revealing the inner workings of the human psyche and the complexities of human relationships.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Q1: What is the central conflict in “Spunk”?
• The central conflict in “Spunk” is the love triangle between Spunk, Lena, and Joe Kanty. Spunk, a powerful and dominant man, takes Lena from Joe, leading to a confrontation that ends in Joe’s death. This conflict drives the plot and explores themes of toxic masculinity, power dynamics, and the consequences of actions. For example, when Spunk takes Lena’s arm and walks off with her, Joe is left standing alone, highlighting the power imbalance and foreshadowing the tragic events that follow.
• Q2: How does Hurston use supernatural elements in the story?
• Hurston uses supernatural elements, such as the black bob-cat and Joe’s ghost, to add a layer of tension and foreshadowing to the story. The black bob-cat, a bad omen, appears before Spunk’s death, while Joe’s ghost haunts Spunk, symbolizing the consequences of his actions. These elements also highlight the blurred lines between reality and the supernatural in African American folklore. For example, when the black bob-cat appears, Spunk is unable to shoot it, showing his vulnerability and the supernatural forces at work.
• Q3: What role do gender dynamics play in the story?
• Gender dynamics play a significant role in “Spunk”, particularly in the portrayal of toxic masculinity and the objectification of women. Spunk’s dominance over Lena and Joe is evident, and the other men in the village admire his strength and courage. Lena, on the other hand, is caught between her love for Spunk and her loyalty to Joe, highlighting the powerlessness of women in a patriarchal society. For example, when Spunk takes Lena from Joe, she is unable to resist, showcasing the limited agency women have in the story.
• Q4: How does the story critique toxic masculinity?
• The story critiques toxic masculinity through Spunk’s character, who embodies the destructive consequences of patriarchal power and dominance. Spunk’s actions lead to Joe’s death and ultimately his own demise, highlighting the devastating effects of toxic masculinity. The story also shows how the other men in the village perpetuate this culture by admiring Spunk’s strength and courage. For example, when Spunk kills Joe, the men gather around, seemingly impressed by his actions, demonstrating how toxic masculinity is condoned and encouraged in their community.

Literary Works Similar to “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. “The Eatonville Anthology” by Zora Neale Hurston: A collection of short stories by Hurston set in Eatonville, Florida, offering vivid portraits of African American life in the early 20th century with themes of community, resilience, and everyday struggles.
2. “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt: This short story explores themes of race, identity, and deception as a young slave attempts to escape to freedom with the help of his white master’s son.
3. “Drenched in Light” by Zora Neale Hurston: In this story, Hurston explores themes of identity, ambition, and self-discovery as a young woman navigates her aspirations in the face of societal expectations and familial obligations.
4. “The Comet” by W.E.B. Du Bois: Du Bois’s short story delves into themes of existential crisis, racial inequality, and human connection as two survivors of a catastrophic event grapple with their differences and shared humanity.
5. “The Conjure-Man Dies” by Rudolph Fisher: Set in Harlem, this detective story features Dr. John Archer, the first African American detective in literature, as he investigates a murder intertwined with themes of magic, superstition, and social commentary.

Suggested Readings about/on “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

• Redling, Erik. “The Making of Lists: Zora Neale Hurston’s Literary Experiments with Glossaries of Southern Rural and Northern Urban African American Terms and Expressions.” Journal of the Short Story in English. Les Cahiers de la nouvelle 73 (2019): 97-120.
• Davis, Doris. “” De Talkin’Game”: The Creation of Psychic Space in Selected Short Fiction of Zora Neale Hurston.” Tulsa Studies in Women’s Literature 26.2 (2007): 269-286.
• Kaplan, Carla. “Zora Neale Hurston (1891–1960).” The Columbia Companion to the Twentieth-Century American Short Story. Columbia University Press, 2004. 305-310.
• Zaidman, Laura M. “Zora Neale Hurston.” American Short-Story Writers, 1910-1945 (1988).
• Zaidman, Laura M. “Zora Neale Hurston.” American Short-Story Writers, 1910-1945: First Series, edited by Bobby Ellen Kimbel, Gale, 1989. Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 86. Gale Literature Resource Center, link.gale.com/apps/doc/H1200000288/LitRC?u=anon~c68c50c7&sid=googleScholar&xid=692694b5. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zora-Neale-Hurston

Representative Quotations from “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“A GIANT of a brown-skinned man sauntered up the one street of the Village and out into the palmetto thickets with a small pretty woman clinging lovingly to his arm.”	This quotation introduces the character of Spunk Banks, portraying him as a physically imposing figure. His presence commands attention and sets the stage for the unfolding drama involving him, Lena, and Joe Kanty.	From a psychoanalytical perspective, Spunk’s physical stature and confidence may symbolize his dominance and assertiveness in the community. His ability to attract Lena despite her marriage to Joe reflects deeper desires and power dynamics within the social context.
“But that’s one thing Ah likes about Spunk Banks-he ain’t skeered of nothin’ on God’s green footstoo1-nothin)!”	This statement by Walter Thomas highlights Spunk’s fearless nature, exemplified by his willingness to take risks such as riding the dangerous log-carriage at the sawmill. Spunk’s bravery earns him respect and admiration from the other men in the community.	From a feminist perspective, Spunk’s fearlessness might be viewed as a manifestation of traditional masculine ideals of strength and courage. His defiance of societal norms and expectations reflects a form of resistance against oppressive structures, although it also perpetuates harmful gender stereotypes.
“Joe Kanty laid down a nickel and stumbled out into the street.”	This quotation occurs after Elijah Mosley teases Joe about his wife’s whereabouts, causing Joe visible distress. Joe’s reaction suggests feelings of humiliation and insecurity regarding his relationship with Lena, exacerbated by Spunk’s overt displays of affection towards her.	Through a sociological lens, Joe’s behavior can be interpreted as a response to social pressure and expectations regarding masculinity and honor. His inability to assert himself against Spunk’s advances reflects broader power dynamics within the community, where individuals like Spunk wield influence based on their perceived dominance and authority.
“He didn’t bang it, just eased it out of his hand silently and fiddled with his suspender buckle.”	This description captures Joe’s reaction to Elijah’s taunting, revealing his internal turmoil and sense of emasculation. Joe’s silent resignation and physical gestures convey his feelings of powerlessness and defeat in the face of Spunk’s perceived superiority.	Through a Marxist lens, Joe’s predicament can be understood as a consequence of economic and social inequalities within the community. His lack of agency and self-worth stem from his marginalized position in society, where individuals like Spunk hold disproportionate power and privilege. Joe’s struggle to assert himself reflects broader themes of class struggle and exploitation inherent in the socio-economic structure.
“Spunk turned on his heel and sauntered away to where he knew his love wept in fear for him and no man stopped him.”	This moment underscores Spunk’s confidence and autonomy, as he defies societal expectations and takes control of the situation. Despite the potential consequences of his actions, Spunk remains resolute in his pursuit of Lena, demonstrating his disregard for social norms and authority figures.	Through a postcolonial lens, Spunk’s defiance can be interpreted as a form of resistance against hegemonic power structures and cultural norms imposed by the dominant group. His rejection of conventional morality and assertion of individual agency challenge the status quo, echoing broader themes of resistance and cultural identity within marginalized communities.
“If spirits kin fight, there’s a powerful tussle goin’ on some where ovah Jordan ’cause Ah b’leeve Joe’s ready for Spunk an’ ain’t skeered any more-yas, Ah b’leeve Joe pushed ‘im mahself.”	This statement by Elijah Mosley reflects the villagers’ superstitions and beliefs surrounding Joe’s death. Elijah suggests that Joe’s spirit may seek revenge against Spunk, implying a supernatural explanation for Spunk’s demise. The quotation underscores the community’s reliance on folklore and spirituality to make sense of tragic events.	From a cultural studies perspective, Elijah’s words highlight the role of folklore and superstition in shaping collective identity and understanding within the community. Beliefs in the supernatural serve as a means of coping with uncertainty and trauma, providing a framework for interpreting and attributing meaning to inexplicable phenomena.

Introduction: “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

“The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt first appeared in print in 1899 and later it appeared in Chesnutt’s collection, The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line. Employing satire and humor as its narrative tools, the story confronts the harsh realities of American slavery and the ingrained prejudices of the antebellum South. It delves into complex themes such as the struggle for identity, the yearning for freedom, and the unexpected ways in which power dynamics can be challenged within the master-slave relationship.

Main Events in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Devices in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Device	Example from Story	Explanation
Allusion	Reference to Scott’s novels	Chesnutt alludes to the works of Sir Walter Scott to create a sense of familiarity and literary depth.
Characterization	Description of Dick Owens as reckless	Chesnutt characterizes Dick Owens by highlighting his reckless behavior, which drives the plot forward.
Conflict	The tension between Dick and Grandison	Conflict arises between Dick and Grandison due to their opposing desires and actions.
Foreshadowing	Grandison’s reluctance to leave Dick	Grandison’s reluctance foreshadows his eventual decision to stay loyal to Dick despite opportunities.
Hyperbole	“You could have knocked me down with a feather.”	Chesnutt uses exaggeration for emphasis, indicating the colonel’s surprise at encountering Grandison.
Imagery	Description of Niagara Falls	Chesnutt uses vivid imagery to evoke the grandeur and power of Niagara Falls, enhancing the setting.
Irony	Dick’s failed attempts to free Grandison	The irony lies in Dick’s efforts to free Grandison, which ultimately result in reinforcing his loyalty.
Metaphor	“Faithfulness was like a rock on which he leaned.”	Chesnutt compares Grandison’s faithfulness to a rock, emphasizing its stability and reliability.
Motif	The pursuit of freedom	The motif of freedom recurs throughout the story, driving the actions of both Grandison and Dick.
Personification	“The desperation of those fanatics knew no bounds.”	Chesnutt personifies desperation, attributing human qualities to an abstract concept.
Plot Twist	Grandison’s return after being kidnapped	The unexpected return of Grandison adds a twist to the plot, shifting the narrative in a new direction.
Repetition	Grandison’s repeated loyalty to Dick	Chesnutt employs repetition to emphasize Grandison’s unwavering loyalty to Dick throughout the story.
Satire	Depiction of abolitionists’ actions	Chesnutt satirizes abolitionists by portraying their actions as misguided and hypocritical.
Setting	New York, Boston, and Niagara Falls	The settings provide context and atmosphere, influencing the characters’ actions and interactions.
Simile	“His fame spread throughout the county, like wildfire.”	Chesnutt uses a simile to illustrate the rapid spread of Grandison’s fame among the local community.
Symbolism	Grandison’s escape to Canada symbolizing freedom	Grandison’s escape to Canada symbolizes freedom from slavery and the pursuit of liberty.
Theme	Loyalty and betrayal	The story explores themes of loyalty and betrayal through the relationships between characters.
Tone	Satirical and ironic	Chesnutt’s tone is satirical and ironic, conveying a critical perspective on social issues and norms.
Understatement	“The colonel shook his fist impotently.”	Chesnutt uses understatement to downplay the colonel’s frustration and powerlessness in the situation.
Verbal Irony	“It’s as good as one of Scott’s novels!”	The statement is verbally ironic, as the colonel compares Grandison’s story to a literary

Characterization in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

I. Major Characters

Dick Owens

• Description: Young, intelligent, handsome, and amiable, but extremely indolent. He is the heir presumptive to a large estate and lacks ambition.
• Actions: Attends the trial of a slave-stealer, where he becomes inspired to do something heroic to win the affection of Charity Lomax.
• Example: Initiates a plan to run off one of his father’s slaves to Canada to prove his worth to Charity.

Charity Lomax

• Description: Strong-willed, compassionate, and principled. She is a driving force behind Dick’s actions, challenging him to prove his worth through heroic deeds.
• Actions: Encourages Dick to do something significant to demonstrate his qualities as a man.
• Example: Expresses admiration for the slave-stealer’s attempted act of heroism and challenges Dick to do something similar.

Colonel Owens

• Description: Wealthy, paternalistic, and deeply entrenched in Southern values. He values his social status and possessions, including his slaves, above all else.
• Actions: Asserts control over his son’s actions and dictates the course of events regarding the slaves on his plantation.
• Example: Decides to send Grandison with Dick on his trip North, viewing it as an opportunity to strengthen the bond between master and servant.

II. Minor Characters

Tom

• Description: Dick’s personal attendant, a bright young mulatto with aspirations of freedom.
• Actions: Initially hesitant to express his desire for freedom but shows interest when presented with the opportunity to travel North.
• Example: Agrees to accompany Dick on his trip under the guise of loyalty, but secretly harbors thoughts of escape.

Grandison

• Description: A loyal and devoted servant on Colonel Owens’ plantation, seemingly content with his position as a slave.
• Actions: Follows his master’s orders dutifully, demonstrating loyalty and obedience.
• Example: Accompanies Dick on his trip North, despite being targeted by abolitionists, and remains faithful to his master’s wishes, even when given the chance for freedom.

Abolitionists

• Description: Long-haired, sharp-featured individuals dedicated to the cause of freeing slaves.
• Actions: Attempt to persuade Grandison to run away and join the abolitionist movement.
• Example: Engage Grandison in conversation and try to convince him to escape from his master’s control.

Clergyman

• Description: A young white man in clerical garb who interacts with Grandison.
• Actions: Possibly sympathetic to the abolitionist cause, engages in conversation with Grandison.
• Example: Grandison seeks refuge with his master when approached by the clergyman, indicating discomfort with discussions about freedom.

Major Themes in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

• Complexities of Race and Identity: Chesnutt’s story delves into the intricacies of racial identity, particularly through the character of Grandison. Grandison strategically navigates between the roles of a subservient slave and a cunning individual seeking freedom. For instance, he maintains the facade of loyalty to his master while secretly plotting his escape to freedom, showcasing the complexity of racial identity and the different masks individuals may wear in society.
• Pursuit of Freedom: A central theme in the story is the relentless pursuit of freedom, as Grandison courageously seeks to break free from the shackles of slavery. Despite the risks and challenges he faces, Grandison remains determined to secure his liberty. His eventual success in outsmarting his master and escaping to freedom highlights the resilience and perseverance of those seeking liberation from oppression.
• Manipulation of Power Dynamics: Chesnutt explores the manipulation of power dynamics, particularly through the character of Dick Owens. As a slave owner, Dick attempts to exert control over Grandison for his own benefit. However, it is ultimately Grandison who holds the power to determine his own fate. Through Grandison’s clever tactics and strategic maneuvering, he subverts the power dynamics imposed upon him by his master, showcasing the inherent instability of hierarchical power structures.
• Moral Ambiguity of Human Nature: The story also delves into the moral ambiguity inherent in human nature, as characters grapple with conflicting motivations and values. Dick Owens’ duplicitous actions exemplify this theme, as he presents himself as both a benefactor of freedom and a manipulative oppressor. Despite his outward facade of benevolence, Dick’s true intentions are driven by self-interest and a desire to maintain control. This moral complexity underscores the inherent tension between individual ambition and ethical responsibility in a society characterized by systemic oppression and inequality.

Writing Style in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. Narration Style

• Objective Narration: The story is narrated from an objective standpoint, providing a straightforward account of events without delving into characters’ internal thoughts or emotions.
  • Example: The narrator describes characters’ actions and dialogues without offering subjective interpretations, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions about the characters’ motivations.

2. Language and Dialogue

• Southern Dialect: Chesnutt incorporates Southern dialect and colloquialisms to authentically portray the characters and setting.
  • Example: “Yas, marster,” “Y-a-s, marster,” and “I ‘s seen some of ’em” reflect the dialect spoken by characters like Grandison.
• Formal and Informal Dialogue: The dialogue varies between formal exchanges, particularly between characters of higher social status, and informal conversations that reveal the characters’ personalities.
  • Example: The conversation between Dick and his father is formal and respectful, while Dick’s interactions with Charity Lomax are more casual and playful.

3. Use of Irony

• Situational Irony: Chesnutt employs situational irony to highlight the contrasts between characters’ expectations and outcomes.
  • Example: Despite Dick’s attempts to encourage Grandison to seek freedom, Grandison remains loyal to his master, frustrating Dick’s efforts to prove his worth to Charity Lomax.

4. Themes and Social Commentary

• Exploration of Slavery and Freedom: Chesnutt uses the story to explore themes of slavery and freedom, offering commentary on the complexities of power dynamics and social hierarchies.
  • Example: The interactions between Dick, Grandison, and the abolitionists raise questions about agency, loyalty, and the pursuit of freedom in a society built on slavery.

5. Narrative Structure

• Linear Narrative: The story follows a linear narrative structure, progressing chronologically from the initial setup to the resolution of the central conflict.
  • Example: The story begins with Dick’s desire to prove himself to Charity Lomax and unfolds as he devises a plan involving Grandison’s role in his quest for validation.

6. Characterization Through Action

• Character Development Through Actions: Chesnutt develops characters primarily through their actions and interactions with others, allowing readers to infer their motivations and personalities.
  • Example: Dick’s laziness is evident through his reluctance to exert effort in his pursuits, while Grandison’s loyalty to his master is demonstrated through his unwavering obedience and refusal to pursue freedom.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Theory	Interpretation of “The Passing of Grandison”	Example and Reference
Marxist Criticism	The story can be interpreted through the lens of Marxist criticism, which focuses on social class, power dynamics, and economic systems. “The Passing of Grandison” highlights the exploitation of labor and the oppressive structures of slavery. It explores the relationship between the wealthy plantation owner (Colonel Owens) and his enslaved workers, illustrating how the economic interests of the ruling class perpetuate systems of inequality and control.	Dick Owens, as the heir to a large estate, represents the bourgeoisie, while Grandison and other slaves represent the proletariat. The exploitation of Grandison’s labor for the benefit of the Owens family reflects the unequal power dynamics inherent in the capitalist system.
Feminist Criticism	Through a feminist lens, the story can be analyzed in terms of gender roles, power dynamics, and agency. Charity Lomax’s character challenges traditional gender norms by expressing strong opinions and agency, contrasting with the passive nature of Dick Owens. The story also highlights the limited agency of enslaved women, such as Betty, who are subject to the whims of their masters.	Charity Lomax’s refusal to accept Dick’s courtship until he proves himself demonstrates her agency and refusal to conform to traditional gender roles. Betty’s desire to marry Grandison reflects her limited agency within the confines of slavery, as she relies on her master’s permission.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial theory offers insights into the power dynamics and cultural imperialism depicted in the story. “The Passing of Grandison” explores the legacy of colonialism and its impact on race relations in the American South. The abolitionist movement is portrayed as a challenge to colonial ideologies of superiority and domination, as it seeks to dismantle systems of oppression and assert the humanity and rights of enslaved individuals.	The interaction between Dick and Grandison can be seen as a microcosm of colonial power dynamics, with Dick representing the colonizer and Grandison the colonized. Grandison’s resistance to Dick’s attempts to manipulate him reflects a subversion of colonial authority, challenging the notion of white supremacy.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Topic	Questions	Thesis Statements
Power Dynamics in Slave Ownership	– How does Chesnutt depict the power dynamics between slave owners and enslaved individuals in “The Passing of Grandison”? – What role does economic power play in shaping relationships between the Owens family and their enslaved workers?	In “The Passing of Grandison,” Chesnutt explores the power dynamics inherent in slave ownership, revealing how economic privilege and social status empower the Owens family while perpetuating oppression and exploitation among their enslaved workers.
Agency and Resistance	– How do characters like Grandison and Charity Lomax demonstrate agency and resistance within the constraints of their societal roles? – What forms of resistance are depicted in the story, and how effective are they in challenging the status quo of slavery?	Through acts of agency and resistance, characters like Grandison and Charity Lomax challenge the oppressive structures of slavery in “The Passing of Grandison,” demonstrating the resilience and resourcefulness of individuals striving for autonomy and freedom within a system of institutionalized oppression.
Irony and Satire	– How does Chesnutt employ irony and satire to critique societal attitudes toward slavery and freedom? – What instances of irony can be found in the story, and how do they contribute to its overall message?	Through the use of irony and satire, Chesnutt critiques societal norms and perceptions surrounding slavery and freedom in “The Passing of Grandison,” exposing the hypocrisy and absurdity inherent in systems of oppression while highlighting the resilience and agency of marginalized individuals striving for liberation.
Race, Class, and Social Hierarchy	– How are race, class, and social hierarchy depicted in “The Passing of Grandison,” and how do they intersect to shape characters’ experiences and interactions? – What commentary does Chesnutt offer on the intersections of race, class, and power dynamics in the antebellum South?	Chesnutt explores the intersections of race, class, and social hierarchy in “The Passing of Grandison,” revealing how these intersecting systems of oppression perpetuate inequality and exploitation while highlighting the complexities of identity and agency among individuals navigating the fraught landscape of the antebellum South.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. How does Dick Owens attempt to prove himself to Charity Lomax? Dick Owens endeavors to impress Charity Lomax by proposing a daring act: running off one of his father’s slaves to Canada. He sees this as a way to demonstrate his courage and heroism, hoping it will earn him Charity’s admiration. However, Charity dismisses the idea as absurd, highlighting Dick’s privileged position and his lack of understanding of the gravity of such an action. This exchange illustrates Dick’s misguided attempts to gain validation through superficial displays of bravery.
2. What role does Grandison play in the narrative, and how does he demonstrate loyalty to his master? Grandison serves as Dick Owens’s loyal servant and is entrusted by Colonel Owens to accompany Dick on his trip North. Despite opportunities to seek freedom, Grandison remains steadfastly loyal to his master and the Owens family. For example, when Dick attempts to manipulate Grandison into running away, Grandison resists, expressing his contentment with his current situation and his commitment to serving his master faithfully. His unwavering loyalty underscores the complexities of the master-slave relationship and challenges conventional narratives of resistance.
3. How does Charles W. Chesnutt critique the institution of slavery in “The Passing of Grandison”? Chesnutt critiques the institution of slavery by highlighting its dehumanizing effects on both the enslaved individuals and the slave owners. Through characters like Dick Owens and Colonel Owens, Chesnutt exposes the moral bankruptcy of a system that commodifies human beings for economic gain. For instance, Dick’s cavalier attitude toward running off a slave to prove his worth reflects the callous disregard for human life that slavery engenders. Similarly, Colonel Owens’s paternalistic justifications for slavery reveal the delusion of benevolence that often accompanied the brutal reality of owning human beings.
4. What themes of irony are present in “The Passing of Grandison”? Irony pervades the narrative of “The Passing of Grandison,” particularly in the juxtaposition between characters’ intentions and outcomes. One notable instance of irony is Dick’s failed attempts to manipulate Grandison into seeking freedom. Despite Dick’s belief that Grandison will readily seize the opportunity to escape, Grandison remains loyal to his master, thwarting Dick’s plans and ultimately reinforcing the status quo of slavery. This irony underscores the complexity of power dynamics and the resilience of individuals within oppressive systems.

Literary Works Similar to “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. “Desiree’s Baby” by Kate Chopin: This short story explores themes of race, identity, and social class in the antebellum South. Similar to “The Passing of Grandison,” it delves into the complexities of racial passing and the consequences of societal expectations and prejudices.
2. “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright: This story examines the quest for individual identity and agency in the face of systemic oppression. Like Chesnutt’s work, it portrays the struggles of African American characters within the context of racism and power dynamics in the American South.
3. “The Wife of His Youth” by Charles W. Chesnutt: Another story by Chesnutt, this narrative explores themes of racial identity, passing, and social mobility. It shares similarities with “The Passing of Grandison” in its exploration of the complexities of racial identity and the challenges faced by individuals navigating societal expectations.
4. “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin: While focusing more on gender roles and societal expectations, this short story resonates with Chesnutt’s exploration of freedom, agency, and liberation. It delves into the inner thoughts and desires of the protagonist, Mrs. Mallard, highlighting the constraints of marriage and societal norms.
5. “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston: This story addresses themes of power, control, and resistance within the context of an abusive marriage. While not directly related to slavery, it shares thematic resonance with “The Passing of Grandison” in its portrayal of individuals asserting agency and seeking liberation in oppressive circumstances.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Books:

• Chesnutt, Charles W. “The Passing of Grandison.” The wife of his youth and other stories of the color line (1899): 1968-168.
• Andrews, William L., editor. Critical Essays on Charles W. Chesnutt. G. K. Hall & Co., 1999.
• Andrews, William L. The Literary Career of Charles W. Chesnutt. LSU Press, 1999.
• Wilson, Matthew. Whiteness in the Novels of Charles W. Chesnutt. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2004.

Articles:

• Duncan, Charles. “The Absent Man: The Narrative Craft of Charles W. Chesnutt.” (1998).
• Ames, Russell. “Social Realism in Charles W. Chesnutt.” Phylon (1940-1956) 14.2 (1953): 199-206.

Weblinks:

• “Charles W. Chesnutt – ‘The Passing of Grandison’ Analysis.” Gradesaver, www.gradesaver.com/the-passing-of-grandison/study-guide/summary.
• https://americanliterature.com/author/charles-w-chesnutt/short-story/the-passing-of-grandison

Representative Quotations from “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“When it is said that it was done to please a woman, there ought perhaps to be enough said to explain anything…”	The story begins by introducing the main character, Dick Owens, who seeks to prove himself to Charity Lomax, a woman he desires.	This quotation sets the stage for the protagonist’s motivation, highlighting the theme of societal expectations and gender dynamics.
“I ‘ve always hated old Sam Briggs,” she said emphatically… “Personally I wish that all Sam Briggs’s negroes would run away.”	Charity expresses her disdain for cruelty towards slaves and her support for abolitionism, aligning with her Quaker heritage.	This quotation illustrates the moral compass of Charity and her sympathy towards the plight of slaves, foreshadowing later events.
“I don’t know, Grandison,” replied the colonel, lighting a fresh cigar… “But if you stick close to your young master…”	The colonel lectures Grandison on the dangers of abolitionists, emphasizing loyalty to the family and the consequences of disloyalty.	This quotation showcases the paternalistic attitude of slaveholders and the manipulation used to maintain control over enslaved individuals.
“I don’t know, Grandison,” replied the colonel, lighting a fresh cigar… “But if you stick close to your young master…”	The colonel lectures Grandison on the dangers of abolitionists, emphasizing loyalty to the family and the consequences of disloyalty.	This quotation showcases the paternalistic attitude of slaveholders and the manipulation used to maintain control over enslaved individuals.
“When he came back a couple of days later and found the faithful Grandison at his post, and the hundred dollars intact…”	Despite being given the opportunity for freedom and financial reward, Grandison remains loyal to Dick, his young master.	This quotation highlights the complexity of loyalty and the internal conflict experienced by enslaved individuals in oppressive systems.

Introduction: “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

“The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte, first published in 1869 in the collection The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches, features a group of outcasts who are forced to leave a small Californian town called Poker Flat, and embark on a perilous journey to a nearby settlement. The story is set during the California Gold Rush era and explores themes of morality, redemption, and the American frontier spirit. The collection “The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches” is considered a classic of American literature and offers a glimpse into the lives of individuals living on the margins of society during the Gold Rush era.

Main Events in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. Expulsion from Poker Flat: Mr. Oakhurst, the Duchess, Mother Shipton, and Uncle Billy are expelled from the town of Poker Flat due to their perceived immorality and undesirable behavior, despite some objections.
2. Journey into the Mountains: The group, accompanied by armed men, embarks on a journey towards Sandy Bar but finds themselves stranded in the Sierras due to harsh weather conditions.
3. Struggle for Survival: As the group’s provisions dwindle, they rely on alcohol for sustenance, which leads to further complications in their already dire situation.
4. Encounter with Tom Simson and Piney Woods: Tom Simson, also known as “The Innocent,” and his companion Piney Woods stumble upon the group and offer assistance, revealing their own reasons for fleeing Poker Flat.
5. Formation of a Makeshift Community: Despite the odds, the group forms a bond and attempts to make the best of their situation, with Tom and Piney contributing their resources to the collective survival effort.
6. Betrayal and Loss: Uncle Billy’s betrayal, stealing the group’s mules and provisions, highlights the fragility of their circumstances and leads to further hardship.
7. Camaraderie and Resilience: Despite the betrayal, the group remains resilient, finding solace in each other’s company and seeking diversion through storytelling and music.
8. Enduring the Harsh Winter: As the snowfall intensifies, the group becomes increasingly isolated, relying on dwindling resources and each other for support.
9. Sacrifice and Compassion: Mother Shipton sacrifices her own rations for the sake of Piney, demonstrating an act of compassion amidst their dire circumstances.
10. Decline and Death: Mother Shipton’s health deteriorates, symbolizing the group’s gradual decline, and she passes away quietly, urging Mr. Oakhurst to keep her sacrifice a secret.
11. Isolation and Despair: The relentless snowfall and dwindling provisions heighten the group’s sense of isolation and despair, emphasizing their dire predicament.
12. Resignation to Fate: Mr. Oakhurst accepts the inevitability of their situation, maintaining his stoic demeanor even as their chances of survival diminish.
13. Lasting Bonds: Despite their ultimate fate, the group’s bond and solidarity endure, providing some comfort in their final moments.
14. Reflection on Luck and Fate: Mr. Oakhurst reflects on the unpredictability of luck and fate, recognizing the transient nature of both and the inevitability of change.
15. Closure: The story closes with the group’s fate uncertain, leaving readers to ponder the harsh realities of life and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

Literary Devices in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Allusion	“Tom Simson, otherwise known as the ‘Innocent’ of Sandy Bar.”	Reference to a previous event or character (Tom Simson) known to the narrator or characters.
Foreshadowing	“Mr. Oakhurst alone remained silent.”	Hints at future events, suggesting that Mr. Oakhurst may have a significant role to play.
Imagery	“A wooded amphitheater, surrounded on three sides by precipitous cliffs of naked granite.”	Vivid description using sensory details to create a mental image of the setting.
Irony	“It was certain that, in Mother Shipton’s words, he ‘didn’t say cards once’ during that evening.”	The irony lies in the fact that Mr. Oakhurst, known for his gambling, refrains from playing cards, despite the opportunity.
Metaphor	“Through the marvelously clear air the smoke of the pastoral village of Poker Flat rose miles away.”	A comparison between the smoke and the village using “like” or “as” is implied but not stated explicitly.
Personification	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities (the wind), enhancing the atmosphere of quiet and peace.
Repetition	“‘I’m proud to live in the service of the Lord, And I’m bound to die in His army.'”	Repeated phrase used to emphasize a particular theme or idea, in this case, the characters’ resolve and faith.
Simile	“Feathery drifts of snow, shaken from the long pine boughs, flew like white-winged birds.”	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as,” enhancing the imagery of snow drifting gently in the wind.
Symbolism	“And so reclining, the younger and purer pillowing the head of her soiled sister upon her virgin breast.”	The actions symbolize forgiveness, acceptance, and compassion between the two characters, transcending social judgment.
Flashback	“Some months before he had chanced upon a stray copy of Mr. Pope’s ingenious translation of the ILIAD.”	A narrative device where the story temporarily moves backward in time, recalling events that happened earlier.
Hyperbole	“There’s one chance in a hundred to save her yet.”	Deliberate exaggeration used to emphasize the slim possibility of saving Piney, adding tension to the situation.
Mood	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	The atmosphere or emotional tone established by the narrative, here conveying a sense of peace and tranquility despite the harsh conditions.
Parallelism	“He did not waken the sleepers. The Innocent slumbered peacefully.”	The repetition of similar grammatical structures (subject-verb-object) for rhetorical effect, highlighting Mr. Oakhurst’s actions.
Suspense	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	A feeling of anticipation or tension created by the uncertain outcome of the characters’ situation, leaving readers eager to know what happens next.
Tone	“He returned to his pocket the handkerchief with which he had been whipping away the red dust of Poker Flat from his neat boots.”	The author’s attitude or perspective toward the subject matter, here conveying Mr. Oakhurst’s fastidiousness and detachment from his surroundings.
Juxtaposition	“As the embers slowly blackened, the Duchess crept closer to Piney.”	Placing two contrasting elements or ideas side by side, here highlighting the intimacy and closeness between the characters amidst the fading fire.
Foil	“The Duchess, more cheerful than she had been, assumed the care of Piney.”	A character who contrasts with another character, often highlighting certain traits or qualities through comparison, as the Duchess contrasts with Mother Shipton.
Paradox	“All human stain, all trace of earthly travail, was hidden beneath the spotless mantle mercifully flung from above.”	A statement that seems self-contradictory or absurd but may reveal a deeper truth, here suggesting that death has brought purity and peace to the characters.
Anaphora	“Neither spoke; but Piney, accepting the position of the stronger, drew near and placed her arm around the Duchess’s waist.”	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, here emphasizing the silence followed by Piney’s action.
Climax	“And pulseless and cold, with a Derringer by his side and a bullet in his heart, though still calm as in life, beneath the snow lay he who was at once the strongest and yet the weakest of the outcasts of Poker Flat.”	The turning point or most intense moment in the narrative, where the fate of a character is revealed in a significant and dramatic manner.

Characterization in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Major Characters:

• Mr. Oakhurst: A professional gambler known for his coolness and composure under pressure. ([Impassiveness and presence of mind] described by the narrator). Despite his profession, which is often looked down upon in the Old West, he possesses a strong moral compass. This is evident in his initial refusal to join the hanging and his later sacrifice for Piney. He exhibits surprising compassion throughout the ordeal, ([Refuses to drink as it hinders his calmness] hinting at a sense of responsibility), especially towards Piney, ([Kisses the Duchess goodbye, leaving her stunned]). However, he remains somewhat of an enigma. The reasons for his stoicism and his past are left unexplored. Mr. Oakhurst’s complex personality challenges the stereotypical image of a gambler in the Wild West.
• The Innocent (Tom Simson): A young and trusting prospector, easily manipulated by others due to his naivete. ([Remembers returning money he won from Tom], showing a surprising honesty in his profession). He represents innocence and unwavering optimism in the face of adversity. ([Cheerful gaiety infects the others]) His genuine affection for Piney and his willingness to help Mr. Oakhurst highlight his inherent goodness. Tom’s character serves as a foil to the more jaded characters like Uncle Billy and Mother Shipton.
• Piney Woods: A young woman with a sweet and simple nature. She is vulnerable and dependent on others due to her age and inexperience ([The frail Duchess and the malevolent Mother Shipton were probably too stunned to remark upon this last evidence of simplicity]). However, she also possesses inner strength ([Piney, a stout, comely damsel of fifteen]) and compassion, as seen in her willingness to help the Duchess. Piney’s presence emphasizes the harsh realities of the frontier, where women often have limited options.
• The Duchess: A former dance hall performer with a hardened exterior, likely due to the profession and the judgmental society she lives in ([Thet used to wait on the table at the Temperance House]). Despite her past, she shows moments of tenderness and maternal instinct, especially towards Piney ([The Duchess turned away sharply to conceal something that reddened her cheeks through its professional tint, and Mother Shipton requested Piney not to “chatter”]). The story hints at a hidden vulnerability beneath her facade ([Her cheeks flushed through its professional tint]). The Duchess challenges societal stereotypes about women in the West.
• Mother Shipton: A cynical and bitter woman, initially portrayed as the strongest of the outcasts due to her world-weariness. ([Mother Shipton eyed the possessor of “Five Spot” with malevolence]). However, she eventually succumbs to the harsh conditions, both physically and emotionally ([Seemed to sicken and fade]). Her final act of selflessness in giving her rations to Piney suggests a flicker of humanity beneath her gruff exterior. Mother Shipton represents the toll that a harsh life can take on even the strongest individuals.

Minor Characters:

• Uncle Billy: A drunken gambler and thief who exemplifies the ruthlessness of the frontier. ([Suspected sluice-robber and confirmed drunkard]). His actions, like stealing the mules and provisions, highlight the desperation and moral ambiguity that can exist in such an unforgiving environment. Uncle Billy serves as a negative contrast to Mr. Oakhurst, another gambler who displays a surprising moral compass.
• The Committee of Poker Flat: A group of vigilantes who take justice into their own hands, banishing those they deem unfit from their town ([A secret committee had determined to rid the town of all improper persons]). Their actions raise questions about mob justice, prejudice, and the nature of true law.

Characterization and Theme:

The development of the characters is intricately woven into the story’s themes. As the outcasts face hardship and isolation, their true colors emerge. Mr. Oakhurst, initially perceived as an outsider and morally suspect, shows surprising humanity. The Duchess, hardened by experience, reveals a maternal side. The story questions the concept of “good” and “bad” in a morally ambiguous setting. Even the outcasts of Poker Flat, deemed unfit by society, possess unexpected depths of compassion and resilience.

Major Themes in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. Societal Judgment and Exclusion: Bret Harte’s “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” delves into the consequences of societal condemnation and exclusion, as characters deemed morally questionable face expulsion from the town. For instance, Mr. Oakhurst is banished due to his gambling habits, reflecting the town’s rigid moral standards. This societal judgment ultimately leads to tragic outcomes for the outcasts, highlighting the destructive nature of prejudice and collective punishment.
2. Complexities of Morality: The narrative explores the intricate nature of morality, as characters grapple with ethical dilemmas and confront their own flaws and virtues. Despite being labeled as “improper” by Poker Flat, characters like Mr. Oakhurst display acts of kindness and sacrifice that challenge conventional notions of virtue.
3. Resilience of the Human Spirit: Amidst adversity, the characters demonstrate remarkable resilience and dignity, defying societal expectations. Piney and the Duchess, despite their dire circumstances, find solace in their companionship and exhibit compassion towards each other, showcasing the strength of human connection even in the bleakest of situations.
4. Redemptive Power of Compassion: “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” underscores the transformative potential of compassion, as acts of kindness and empathy offer redemption and hope amidst judgment and exile. Piney and the Duchess’s bond serves as a testament to the enduring strength of human connection, suggesting that compassion has the power to heal even the most marginalized individuals.

Writing Style in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

• Sardonic Humor:
• Harte employs a dry, ironic wit that permeates the narrative. He uses it to highlight the absurdity of the situation and the characters’ flaws. Here are some examples:
• Description of the committee: “A spasm of virtuous reaction, quite as lawless and ungovernable as any of the acts that had provoked it.” This sentence uses humor to expose the hypocrisy of the vigilantes who banish the outcasts.
• Mr. Oakhurst’s response to his sentence: “He received his sentence with philosophic calmness, none the less coolly that he was aware of the hesitation of his judges.” This line highlights the gambler’s composure while simultaneously hinting at the underlying threat posed by the vigilantes.
• Naming the outcasts: The characters’ nicknames, like “The Duchess” and “Mother Shipton,” are humorous yet hold a touch of mockery towards their past professions.
• Vivid Imagery:
• Harte paints a clear picture of the harsh environment and the characters’ struggles through evocative descriptions.
• Setting the scene: “A wooded amphitheater, surrounded on three sides by precipitous cliffs of naked granite, sloped gently toward the crest of another precipice that overlooked the valley.” This description not only sets the stage but also foreshadows the characters’ entrapment.
• The snowstorm: “The storm abated, the rolling clouds parted, and the stars glittered keenly above the sleeping camp.” This creates a stark contrast between the harshness of the snow and the peaceful night sky.
• The final scene: “But all human stain, all trace of earthly travail, was hidden beneath the spotless mantle mercifully flung from above.” This poetic description uses the snowfall to symbolize a sense of peace and finality.
• Understated Sentiment:
• While humor and vivid imagery are prominent, Harte also uses subtlety to convey emotional depth.
• Mr. Oakhurst’s sacrifice: His decision to stay behind with the dwindling food supplies speaks volumes about his unexpected compassion, but it’s presented without excessive sentimentality.
• The bond between Piney and the Duchess: Their silent embrace after Mother Shipton’s death speaks volumes about their newfound connection, but it’s described simply.
• The ending: The discovery of the outcasts and the playing card pinned to the tree is a powerful image that evokes a sense of both tragedy and respect, but it’s presented with restraint.

Impact of the Style:

Harte’s unique blend of wit, imagery, and understated sentiment creates a compelling narrative that both entertains and makes us think. The humor allows him to explore serious themes like justice, prejudice, and human resilience in a way that is both engaging and thought-provoking. The vivid imagery transports us to the harsh realities of the Wild West, while the understated sentiment allows us to connect with the characters’ emotional journeys.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example from the Story
Historical Context	The story reflects the social and political climate of the California Gold Rush era, exploring themes of morality, justice, and redemption in a lawless frontier town.	The characters’ backstories and motivations are shaped by their experiences during the Gold Rush.
Realism	The story portrays a gritty, unromanticized view of life in a frontier town, emphasizing the harsh realities and moral ambiguities of the characters’ situations.	The character of John Oakhurst, a gambler and outcast, is a symbol of the harsh realities of frontier life.
Symbolism	The story uses characters, settings, and objects as symbols to convey deeper meanings and themes, such as the contrast between nature and society.	The snowstorm that traps the characters represents the harsh, unforgiving nature of the frontier, while the cabin represents the fragile, impermanent nature of human society.
Psychoanalytic	The characters’ actions and motivations are driven by unconscious desires, repressed emotions, and psychological complexes, such as guilt, shame, and redemption.	The character of Mother Shipton’s past and her relationship with Oakhurst are shaped by unconscious desires and repressed emotions.
Feminist	The story critiques the patriarchal society of the frontier era, highlighting the limited options and agency of women, as well as the gender roles and power dynamics that restrict their lives.	The character of Piney Woods, a young woman who disguises herself as a boy, challenges traditional gender roles and highlights the limited options available to women.
Marxist	The story explores the economic and class struggles of the frontier era, highlighting the exploitation and oppression of the working class by the wealthy elite.	The character of John Oakhurst, a gambler and outcast, represents the marginalized and exploited working class.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Morality and Redemption	How does the story explore the theme of morality and redemption in the characters of John Oakhurst and Mother Shipton?	“Through the characters of John Oakhurst and Mother Shipton, Bret Harte’s ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’ explores the theme of morality and redemption, highlighting the possibility of personal transformation and forgiveness in a harsh and unforgiving frontier society.”
Gender Roles and Identity	How does the story challenge or reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations through the characters of Piney Woods and Mother Shipton?	“In ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’, Bret Harte subverts traditional gender roles and expectations through the characters of Piney Woods and Mother Shipton, highlighting the limitations and constraints placed on women in a patriarchal frontier society.”
Social Class and Exploitation	How does the story critique the social and economic structures of the frontier era, particularly in regards to the exploitation of the working class?	“Through the character of John Oakhurst and the setting of Poker Flat, Bret Harte’s story critiques the social and economic structures of the frontier era, exposing the exploitation and oppression of the working class by the wealthy elite.”
Nature and the Frontier	How does the story use the natural environment to reflect the characters’ emotional and psychological states, as well as the harsh realities of frontier life?	“In ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’, Bret Harte uses the natural environment to symbolize the characters’ emotional and psychological states, as well as the harsh realities of frontier life, highlighting the contrast between the beauty and brutality of nature.”

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

• Why is John Oakhurst banished from Poker Flat?
  John Oakhurst, a gambler, is banished from Poker Flat because the town is experiencing a “spasm of virtuous reaction” and is trying to rid itself of all “improper persons.” The secret committee that governs the town is after Oakhurst because he won money from some of its members, and they want to take their money back from him.
• What happens to the outcasts on their journey to Sandy Bar?
  The outcasts – John Oakhurst, Uncle Billy, the Duchess, and Mother Shipton – are forced to stop on their journey to Sandy Bar because the Duchess is tired. They meet Tom Simson and Piney Woods, who are traveling to Poker Flat, and decide to camp together for the night. However, Uncle Billy steals their provisions and horses, leaving them stranded in the snow.
• How do the outcasts die?
  The outcasts die due to the harsh conditions and lack of provisions. Mother Shipton starves herself to save food for Piney, while Oakhurst builds snowshoes for Tom to go for help. Oakhurst then shoots himself so that the others can survive. The Duchess and Piney are found frozen to death, with the Duchess’s head on Piney’s lap.
• What is the theme of the story?
  The theme of the story is that there is good in the worst of people, and that even the outcasts of society can show compassion, generosity, and honor. The story also highlights the harsh realities of life in the Old West and the dangers of vigilantism and mob mentality.

Literary Works Similar to “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. “The Luck of Roaring Camp” by Bret Harte: Another classic by Harte, this story explores the lives of outcasts in a California mining camp and delves into themes of redemption, compassion, and the resilience of the human spirit.
2. “To Build a Fire” by Jack London: This gripping tale follows a man’s struggle for survival in the harsh Yukon wilderness, highlighting themes of isolation, human folly, and the power of nature.
3. “The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane: Crane’s story follows four men adrift at sea in a small boat, grappling with the indifferent forces of nature and their own mortality. It explores themes of existentialism, camaraderie, and the human condition.
4. “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” by Ambrose Bierce: Bierce’s haunting tale revolves around a Confederate sympathizer facing execution during the Civil War. Through its exploration of time, perception, and the illusory nature of reality, the story offers a thought-provoking examination of the human psyche.
5. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: This seminal work of feminist literature depicts a woman’s descent into madness as she grapples with confinement and patriarchal oppression. Through its exploration of gender roles, mental health, and autonomy, the story remains a powerful and relevant critique of societal norms.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Books:

• Bell, Michael Davitt. American Realism and the Frontier: Discourses in Form. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980.
• Branch, Michael P. Before the West Was West: Critical Essays on Pre-1800 Literature of the American Frontiers. U of Nebraska Press, 2014.
• Harte, Bret. The Outcasts of Poker Flat. Vol. 40. Dramatic Publishing, 1902.

Articles:

• Kolb, Harold H. “The Outcast of Literary Flat: Bret Harte as Humorist.” American literary realism, 1870-1910 23.2 (1991): 52-63.
• Scharnhorst, Gary. “Bret Harte and the Literary Construction of the American West.” A Companion to the Regional Literatures of America (2003): 479-495.
• Glover, Donald E. “A Reconsideration of Bret Harte’s Later Work.” Western American Literature 8.3 (1973): 143-151.

Web Link:

• The American Studies Association. https://www.theasa.net/. Accessed 28 April 2024.

Representative Quotations from “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“As Mr. John Oakhurst, gambler, stepped into the main street of Poker Flat on the morning of the twenty-third of November, 1850, he was conscious of a change in its moral atmosphere since the preceding night.”	This opening line sets the tone for the story, introducing the protagonist, Mr. Oakhurst, and the setting of Poker Flat. It foreshadows the moral judgment and societal changes that will affect the characters throughout the narrative.	This quotation highlights the theme of societal morality and its impact on individual characters, as well as the contrast between appearance and reality in a community’s judgment of its members.
“Mr. Oakhurst was right in supposing that he was included in this category. A few of the committee had urged hanging him as a possible example, and a sure method of reimbursing themselves from his pockets of the sums he had won from them.”	Here, the narrator reveals Mr. Oakhurst’s status as an outcast targeted by Poker Flat’s secret committee. Despite his calm acceptance of his fate, the injustice of the committee’s decision is evident.	This quotation illustrates the theme of justice versus injustice, highlighting the arbitrary nature of societal judgment and the persecution of individuals based on superficial criteria. It also explores the moral ambiguity surrounding the character of Mr. Oakhurst and challenges the reader to consider the ethics of his exile.
“Night came, but not Mr. Oakhurst. It brought the storm again and the whirling snow. Then the Duchess, feeding the fire, found that someone had quietly piled beside the hut enough fuel to last a few days longer.”	This passage occurs after Mr. Oakhurst decides to sacrifice himself for the survival of Piney and the Duchess. Despite his absence, his final act of kindness and selflessness is revealed through the provision of additional fuel.	This quotation exemplifies the theme of sacrifice and redemption, showcasing Mr. Oakhurst’s transformation from a morally ambiguous gambler to a compassionate and honorable figure. It also underscores the idea of redemption through selfless acts, even in the face of inevitable demise.
“But at the head of the gulch, on one of the largest pine trees, they found the deuce of clubs pinned to the bark with a bowie knife.”	The story concludes with this grim yet poignant scene, marking the death of Mr. Oakhurst. The presence of the deuce of clubs serves as a symbolic reminder of his gambling profession and the “bad luck” that ultimately led to his demise.	This quotation encapsulates the theme of fate and inevitability, suggesting that Mr. Oakhurst’s downfall was predetermined by his profession and the circumstances of Poker Flat. It also highlights the theme of mortality and the acceptance of one’s fate, as Mr. Oakhurst faces his end with calm resignation.

Introduction: “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

“Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston first appeared in print in 1926, a year that witnessed the publication of the groundbreaking Harlem Renaissance anthology, The New Negro. While not included within that specific collection, “Sweat” stands out for its unflinching portrayal of marital discord, gender roles, and the harsh realities faced by African Americans in the working class during the early 20th century. Hurston’s masterful prose and evocative imagery craft a narrative that is both brutally honest and deeply affecting.

Main Events in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Devices in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Device	Example from “Sweat”	Explanation
Allegory	Delia’s struggle with the snake allegorically represents her marital conflict with Sykes.	The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty and betrayal, while Delia’s fear and eventual triumph over the snake represent her confrontation with her abusive husband.
Alliteration	“She lay awake, gazing upon the debris that cluttered their matrimonial trail.”	The repetition of the “d” sound emphasizes the dismal state of Delia and Sykes’ marriage, highlighting the clutter and ruin that characterize their relationship.
Allusion	“Ah wantah cross Jurden in uh calm time.”	This alludes to crossing the River Jordan, a biblical reference often associated with spiritual trials and tribulations, suggesting Delia’s desire for peace and redemption in the face of her marital turmoil.
Conflict	The central conflict between Delia and Sykes drives the narrative forward, particularly their emotional and physical battles.	The conflict between Delia’s desire for peace and Sykes’ abusive behavior creates tension and drives the story’s progression as Delia seeks to assert her autonomy and confront her husband.
Foreshadowing	Delia’s reaction to the snake in the soapbox foreshadows the climactic event later in the story involving the snake and Sykes.	The intense fear and horror Delia experiences when encountering the snake foreshadows the danger that will later befall Sykes as a result of his own actions.
Imagery	“Grass withered, leaves browned, snakes went blind in shedding and men and dogs went mad.”	The vivid imagery paints a picture of the oppressive heat and desolation of the environment, evoking a sense of suffocation and chaos that mirrors the emotional turmoil of the characters.
Irony	Sykes’ use of the snake to torment Delia ultimately leads to his own demise when he is fatally bitten by the snake.	The irony lies in the reversal of roles, as Sykes, who intended to instill fear in Delia with the snake, becomes its victim instead, highlighting the consequences of his cruelty and the poetic justice of his fate.
Metaphor	“Delia’s work-worn knees crawled over the earth in Gethsemane and up the rocks of Calvary many, many times during these months.”	Delia’s struggles are metaphorically compared to the biblical journey of Jesus in Gethsemane and his crucifixion on Calvary, emphasizing the depth of her suffering and her journey towards redemption.
Motif	The motif of snakes recurs throughout the story, representing both Sykes’ cruelty and Delia’s eventual triumph over her fears.	The repeated appearance of snakes serves to underscore the theme of oppression and fear in Delia’s life, as well as her eventual empowerment and liberation from Sykes’ abusive influence.
Personification	“The sun crept on up, and he called.”	The sun is personified as it “creeps” and “calls,” attributing human-like qualities to it, which emphasizes the passage of time and the persistence of Sykes’ calls for Delia, despite the escalating events.
Repetition	“Sweat, sweat, sweat! Work and sweat, cry and sweat, pray and sweat!”	The repetition of “sweat” emphasizes the physical and emotional labor that Delia endures in her daily life, highlighting the repetitive nature of her struggles and the exhaustion that accompanies them.
Satire	The portrayal of Sykes as a self-absorbed and abusive husband satirizes the toxic masculinity and patriarchal attitudes prevalent in society at the time.	Through satire, Hurston critiques the societal norms that enable and perpetuate male dominance and mistreatment of women, exposing the absurdity and harmful consequences of such behavior.
Simile	“You looks jes’ lak de devvul’s doll-baby tuh me.”	Delia compares Sykes’ appearance to a doll possessed by the devil, using a simile to vividly illustrate her contempt and disdain for him, highlighting the extent of their marital discord and her disillusionment.
Symbolism	The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty, betrayal, and eventual downfall, while Delia’s fear and triumph over the snake symbolize her confrontation with her abusive husband and her journey towards liberation.	The snake serves as a powerful symbol of oppression and fear in Delia’s life, representing the threat posed by Sykes and her eventual triumph over him, as well as the cleansing and renewal that follows his demise.
Tone	The tone shifts between somber and defiant as Delia confronts her marital struggles with resilience and determination.	The shifting tone reflects Delia’s emotional journey as she navigates the challenges of her marriage, ranging from despair and fear to defiance and empowerment, highlighting her strength and resilience in the face of adversity.
Theme	Themes of oppression, resilience, empowerment, and poetic justice are prevalent throughout the story, reflecting the experiences of African American women in the early 20th century.	These themes explore the struggles and triumphs of marginalized individuals, particularly African American women, as they confront societal injustices and assert their autonomy and agency in the face of adversity.
Mood	The mood oscillates between tension, fear, and catharsis, reflecting the emotional turmoil of the characters and the oppressive atmosphere of the setting.	The mood creates a sense of unease and apprehension, punctuated by moments of relief and empowerment, as the characters grapple with their internal conflicts and external challenges, ultimately leading to a cathartic resolution.
Hyperbole	“Dat ol’ scratch is woke up now!”	The use of “ol’ scratch” as a hyperbolic term for the devil emphasizes Delia’s heightened emotional state and her belief in the malevolent forces at play in her life, highlighting the intensity of her fear and desperation.
Onomatopoeia	“A tremendous stir inside there, another series of animal screams, the intermittent whirr of the reptile.”	The use of onomatopoeia, such as “whirr,” “screams,” and “stir,” creates auditory imagery that heightens the suspense and tension of the scene, immersing the reader in the chaotic and terrifying events unfolding.
Paradox	Delia’s fear of the snake paradoxically empowers her to confront Sykes and assert her independence, despite her initial vulnerability.	The paradox lies in the transformative effect of fear, as Delia’s initial terror of the snake ultimately strengthens her resolve to defy Sykes and reclaim control of her life, highlighting the complex interplay of emotions and motivations.

Characterization in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Major Characters:

• Delia Jones:
  • Example: Delia is portrayed as a hardworking, resilient woman who endures physical and emotional abuse from her husband, Sykes. Despite her struggles, she remains steadfast in her commitment to her work and ultimately finds the strength to stand up to Sykes.
• Sykes Jones:
  • Example: Sykes is depicted as a cruel and abusive husband who takes pleasure in tormenting Delia. His mistreatment of her, including his affair and use of a venomous snake to terrorize her, ultimately leads to his own downfall.

Minor Characters:

• **Bertha:
  • Example: Bertha is Sykes’ mistress, whose presence exacerbates the tension in Delia and Sykes’ marriage. Her affair with Sykes adds another layer of betrayal and conflict to the story.
• Joe Clarke:
  • Example: Joe Clarke is the store owner and a central figure in the community. He serves as a mediator in Delia and Sykes’ marital disputes, offering advice and insight into their relationship dynamics.
• Elijah Moseley:
  • Example: Elijah Moseley is a friend of Sykes who serves as a witness to the deterioration of Delia and Sykes’ marriage. His presence highlights the interconnectedness of the community and provides perspective on Sykes’ character.
• The Snake:
  • Example: The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty and betrayal, as well as Delia’s eventual triumph over her fears. Its presence in the story catalyzes the climactic events that lead to Sykes’ demise.

Major Themes in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Writing Style in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example
Feminist Criticism	Analyzes gender dynamics and power structures, highlighting the oppression and resistance of women.	Delia’s character can be analyzed through a feminist lens, showcasing her resilience in the face of patriarchal oppression from her husband, Sykes.
		Example: Delia’s refusal to be intimidated by Sykes’ abuse and her eventual liberation from his control demonstrate her agency and strength as a woman.
Marxist Criticism	Focuses on class struggle and economic inequality, examining how social and economic factors shape characters and their interactions.	The exploitation of Delia’s labor by Sykes can be analyzed through a Marxist lens, highlighting the economic power dynamics within their marriage.
		Example: Delia’s work as a laundress symbolizes her economic independence and highlights Sykes’ dependence on her income, underscoring their unequal relationship.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores characters’ subconscious desires, fears, and motivations, often examining the impact of childhood experiences on adult behavior.	Sykes’ abusive behavior towards Delia may be interpreted through a psychoanalytic lens, revealing underlying psychological conflicts and insecurities.
		Example: Sykes’ mistreatment of Delia and his need to assert dominance over her may stem from deep-seated insecurities and feelings of inadequacy.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Gender Roles and Power Dynamics	How do gender roles influence the characters’ actions and relationships in “Sweat”?	In “Sweat,” Zora Neale Hurston explores the complexities of gender roles, depicting how societal expectations shape power dynamics within relationships.
	How does Delia challenge traditional gender norms in the face of her husband’s abuse?	Delia’s defiance of gender norms in “Sweat” serves as a powerful assertion of agency and resistance against patriarchal oppression.
Race and Identity	What role does race play in shaping the characters’ identities and experiences in the story?	Through the lens of race, “Sweat” delves into the intersectionality of identity and highlights the impact of racial prejudice on individual lives.
	How does Hurston portray the complexities of racial identity within the African American community?	Hurston’s portrayal of racial identity in “Sweat” reveals the multifaceted nature of the African American experience, challenging monolithic narratives.
Socioeconomic Inequality	How do socioeconomic factors contribute to the characters’ struggles and conflicts?	“Sweat” exposes the harsh realities of socioeconomic inequality, illustrating how poverty exacerbates power imbalances and interpersonal tensions.
	To what extent does economic dependence influence the characters’ behavior and choices?	Economic dependence emerges as a central theme in “Sweat,” underscoring the complexities of survival and autonomy in impoverished communities.
Domestic Abuse and Psychological Trauma	What are the psychological effects of domestic abuse on the characters, particularly Delia?	Delia’s journey in “Sweat” illuminates the psychological toll of domestic abuse, highlighting the resilience and inner strength required to break free from cycles of trauma.
	How does Hurston explore the cyclical nature of abuse and its impact on subsequent generations?	Through nuanced character portrayals, “Sweat” examines the intergenerational transmission of trauma and the potential for healing and resilience.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. “The Gilded Six-Bits” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • Another captivating work by Hurston, this story explores themes of infidelity, forgiveness, and resilience within a marriage tested by external influences. It offers a vivid portrayal of African American life in the rural South.
2. “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • Set in the rural South, this story by Hurston delves into themes of jealousy, revenge, and the supernatural. It centers around the consequences of challenging societal norms and the power dynamics within a small community.
3. “The Worn Path” by Eudora Welty
   • Welty’s poignant story follows an elderly African American woman on her journey to town to retrieve medicine for her grandson. Like “Sweat,” it explores themes of perseverance, sacrifice, and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.
4. “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • In this lesser-known gem by Hurston, themes of justice, racial prejudice, and the pursuit of truth are explored through the lens of a courtroom drama. It offers a compelling portrayal of the challenges faced by African Americans in the legal system.
5. “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner
   • Faulkner’s short story, set in the American South, examines themes of race, class, and morality through the eyes of a young boy witnessing the injustices faced by an African American woman in his community. It shares with “Sweat” a vivid depiction of Southern life and the complexities of human relationships.

Suggested Readings about/on “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Articles:

• Lindenberger, Laura. “” Sweat:” Through the Lens of Womanness.” The Corinthian 4.1 (2002): 6.

Books:

• Baker, Houston A., Jr. Long Black Song: Essays in Black Literature and Culture. Oxford Univ. Press, 2002.
• Gates, Henry Louis, and Evelyn Louise Brière. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Second Edition, W. W. Norton & Company, 2004.

Websites:

• https://www.amazon.com/Sweat-Written-Neale-Hurston-Writers/dp/081352315X

Representative Quotations from “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Course Ah knowed it! That’s how come Ah done it.”	Sykes throws a bull whip at Delia to scare her, knowing she is afraid of snakes.	This quote illustrates Sykes’ abusive behavior and his lack of empathy towards Delia’s fear. It also reflects his sadistic enjoyment in frightening her.
“Ah just come from taking sacrament at the church house.”	Delia explains she just came from church, hoping to avoid conflict.	Delia’s attempt to avoid confrontation highlights her desire for peace despite Sykes’ antagonistic behavior. It also emphasizes the conflict between her religious beliefs and her abusive marriage.
“What’s it got to do with you, Sykes? Mah tub of suds is filled yo’ belly with vittles more times than yo’ hands is filled it.”	Delia confronts Sykes about his lack of contribution to their household.	This quote reveals Delia’s frustration with Sykes’ laziness and irresponsibility. It also highlights the gendered division of labor and the unequal power dynamics in their marriage.
“Ah hates you, Sykes. Ah hates you tuh de same degree dat Ah useter love yuh.”	Delia expresses her hatred towards Sykes after enduring years of abuse.	Delia’s statement signifies her transformation from a submissive wife to a woman asserting her independence and self-worth. It marks a pivotal moment in her resistance against Sykes’ tyranny.
“Ah wants you tuh take dat snake ‘way fum heah.”	Delia demands Sykes to remove the snake he brought into their home.	Delia’s demand reflects her assertion of control over her environment and her refusal to tolerate Sykes’ abuse any longer. It also symbolizes her desire to rid herself of the threats and dangers he brings into her life.
“Delia. Delia!”	Sykes calls out to Delia in despair after being bitten by the snake.	Sykes’ desperate cries for help contrast with Delia’s indifference, symbolizing the reversal of power dynamics in their relationship. It also signifies the consequences of his abusive behavior finally catching up to him.
“Mah Gawd fum Heben!”	Sykes cries out in agony as he realizes his fate after being bitten by the snake.	This quote highlights Sykes’ realization of the consequences of his actions and his fear of impending death. It symbolizes the ultimate punishment for his cruelty towards Delia and reflects the theme of divine justice in the story.