Day: September 6, 2023

Parataxis: Creating and Critiquing It

Parataxis is a literary device characterized by the juxtaposition of independent clauses or phrases in a text without the use of coordinating conjunctions or subordinating elements.

Introduction to Parataxis

Parataxis is a literary device characterized by the juxtaposition of independent clauses or phrases in a text without the use of coordinating conjunctions or subordinating elements.

It creates a succinct and immediate narrative style, often emphasizing the equal importance of each component and conveying a sense of rapidity or urgency.

Parataxis can be employed to achieve various effects, such as highlighting fragmented thoughts, intensifying the emotional impact of a narrative, or conveying a sense of spontaneity in storytelling.

How to Create Parataxis
StepExplanationPractical Example
Identify Key ElementsDetermine the phrases, clauses, or ideas you want to convey independently within your writing.Identifying the characters’ emotions: “Joy, sorrow, anger.”
Remove ConjunctionsOmit coordinating conjunctions (e.g., “and,” “but,” “or”) and subordinating elements (e.g., relative pronouns) that typically connect these elements.Original: “She ran quickly and reached the door.” Paratactic: “She ran quickly, reached the door.”
Place Elements Side by SidePosition the identified elements or clauses directly next to each other, separated by punctuation marks or spaces.Original: “He read a book that was thick.” Paratactic: “He read a book, thick.”
Consider PunctuationUtilize punctuation marks (e.g., semicolons, commas, dashes) to signal the separation between elements and maintain clarity.“The sky darkened; the rain poured down.”
Vary Sentence LengthExperiment with varying the length of sentences or clauses to create rhythm and emphasis, as needed.Creating emphasis: “Love, loss. Life, death.”
Review for ClarityEnsure that the paratactic structure maintains clarity and coherence within the context of your writing.Checking for clarity: “She laughed, danced, and sang.”
Adjust for EffectDepending on your desired effect, consider the use of repetition, parallelism, or other stylistic choices to enhance the impact of your paratactic sentences.Creating parallelism: “He enjoys reading, writing, and exploring.”
Edit and ReviseCarefully edit and revise your writing to refine the use of parataxis, ensuring it serves your overall narrative or rhetorical goals.Reviewing for effectiveness: “The sun set; darkness enveloped the land.”

These steps and examples demonstrate how to apply parataxis in writing for various effects and how to ensure clarity and coherence in the resulting text.

Benefits of Using Parataxis in Writing:
  1. Clarity: Parataxis makes writing more clear and concise by using simple sentence structures that place phrases or clauses side by side without using conjunctions.
  2. Emphasis: Parataxis places elements side by side, creating emphasis on each individual element. This is useful for emphasizing the distinctness of different characters, settings, or events.
  3. Rhythm: Parataxis creates a sense of rhythm in writing by using repetition, varying the length of phrases or clauses, and playing with punctuation. This contributes to the overall tone and pacing of a piece.
  4. Immediacy: The use of parataxis creates a sense of immediacy or urgency in writing by creating short, direct sentences that convey action or emotion quickly.
  5. Efficiency: Parataxis is an efficient way to convey information without adding unnecessary words or phrases. This is especially useful in genres such as poetry or flash fiction where brevity is key.
Parataxis and Literary Theory
Literary TheoryCritique of ParataxisExample from Literature
Formalist PerspectiveParataxis can be seen as a way of emphasizing the form of a text, rather than its content. Formalists believe that the structure and style of a text are important in and of themselves, and that the use of parataxis can create specific effects that contribute to the overall meaning of the text.In “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot, the use of parataxis creates a fragmented structure that emphasizes the disintegration of post-war society, highlighting the form’s significance in conveying the chaos and disillusionment of the era: “April is the cruellest month, breeding / Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing / Memory and desire, stirring / Dull roots with spring rain.”
Reader-Response PerspectiveParataxis can be interpreted in terms of how readers respond to the text. The use of parataxis can create a specific tone or mood in a text, which can affect how readers interpret and respond to it.In The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner, the paratactic narrative style allows readers to experience the fragmented consciousness of the characters, evoking emotional and psychological responses as readers grapple with the disorienting effect of the narrative structure: “I give you the mausoleum of all hope and desire, I give it to you not only because you need it but because it smashes the dream of being immortal, and leaves you to make your way, where you can find some meaning, to your life.”
Feminist PerspectiveParataxis can be analyzed in terms of how it affects the representation of gender and power relations. Parataxis can be used to create a sense of fragmentation or disconnection, which can be used to critique dominant power structures.In Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, parataxis is employed to depict the inner thoughts and experiences of the female protagonist, challenging traditional narrative structures and giving voice to the inner lives of women, thereby critiquing societal expectations and power imbalances: “She always had the feeling that it was very, very dangerous to live even one day.”
Postcolonial PerspectiveParataxis can be seen as a way of challenging dominant discourses and power structures. By placing disparate elements side by side, parataxis can create a sense of disjuncture that disrupts dominant narratives and encourages alternative perspectives.In Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children, parataxis is used to weave together diverse stories, languages, and cultures, challenging the colonial legacy and emphasizing the richness of postcolonial identity, thus offering a postcolonial critique of dominant narratives and a celebration of multiplicity: “I am the sum of everything that went before me, of all I have been seen done, of everything done-to-me.”
Suggested Readings
  1. Deleuze, Gilles. Difference and Repetition. Translated by Paul Patton, Columbia University Press, 1994.
  2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1983.
  3. Johnson, Barbara. The Critical Difference: Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
  4. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. Routledge, 2003.
  5. Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

Parataxis: A Literary Device

Parataxis is a literary device that involves placing phrases or clauses side by side without using conjunctions or other connecting words.

Etymology of Parataxis

Parataxis is a linguistic term derived from the Greek words “para,” meaning “beside,” and “taxis,” meaning “arrangement.” In syntax, parataxis is a literary device used to connect clauses or phrases in a sentence without using conjunctions or subordinate clauses. This style creates a simple, direct, and concise sentence structure.

Meanings of Parataxis
ContextUsage of ParataxisEffect
LiteratureOften conveys immediacy, spontaneity, or fragmentation.Creates a list-like effect highlighting distinctness of each item.
Formal and Technical WritingUsed to present facts or arguments straightforwardly.Facilitates clarity and precision in conveying information.
Creating AmbiguityThe absence of conjunctions can lead to multiple meanings.Introduces ambiguity, allowing for various interpretations of the sentence’s meaning.
Parataxis in Grammar
Grammatical Structure of Parataxis:
  • Parataxis is a type of sentence structure that consists of coordinating clauses or phrases without any conjunctions or subordinating elements.
Characteristics of Paratactic Constructions:
  • In paratactic constructions, the clauses or phrases are placed side by side, creating a simple and direct relationship between them.
Contrast with Hypotaxis:
  • This type of syntax is in contrast to hypotaxis, where clauses are subordinated to each other with the use of conjunctions, relative pronouns, or other subordinating elements.
Effects of Parataxis:
  • Parataxis can be used to create a variety of effects, such as emphasizing the equal importance of each clause, creating a rapid and staccato rhythm, or conveying a sense of immediacy or spontaneity.
Definition of Parataxis

Parataxis is a literary device that involves placing phrases or clauses side by side without using conjunctions or other connecting words. This creates a simple and direct sentence structure.

Parataxis is often used in poetry or other forms of literature to create a sense of immediacy, spontaneity, or fragmentation, and to emphasize the distinctness and independence of each element.

Types of Parataxis

There are different types of parataxis that can be used in writing, each with its own purpose and effect. Here are some examples:

TypeExplanationExample
Asyndetic parataxisInvolves omitting conjunctions between clauses or phrases, creating a sense of rapidity or urgency.“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Polysyndetic parataxisInvolves using multiple conjunctions between clauses or phrases, creating a rhythm or a sense of accumulation.“I walked and talked and laughed and played.”
Elliptical parataxisInvolves omitting words or phrases that are implied but not stated, creating a sense of brevity or efficiency.“She went to the store, he to the bank.”
Cumulative Involves a list-like structure where clauses or phrases accumulate to create a sense of completeness or enumeration.“She had a dog, a cat, a bird, and a fish.”
Asymmetrical Involves placing clauses or phrases of unequal length or importance side by side, creating a sense of contrast or emphasis.“The sun rose, and the world changed forever.”
Common Examples of Parataxis

Parataxis is a common literary device used in various forms of writing, including poetry, fiction, and nonfiction. Here are some examples of parataxis:

  1. “It is what it is.”
  2. “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
  3. “The sun rose, the birds sang, the world began again.”
  4. “The sky was blue, the sun was hot, the water was cool.”
  5. “She laughed, she cried, she danced with joy.”
  6. “He ran, he jumped, he climbed to the top of the mountain.”
  7. “The wind blew, the trees swayed, the leaves rustled.”
  8. “He ate, he slept, he worked hard every day.”
  9. “She smiled, she waved, she said goodbye.”
  10. “The rain fell, the thunder roared, the lightning flashed.”
Literary Examples of Parataxis
ExampleExplanation as Parataxis
From Shakespeare’s Macbeth: “Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player That struts and frets his hour upon the stage And then is heard no more.”This quote is an example of polysyndetic parataxis, using multiple conjunctions to create a sense of accumulation.
From Walt Whitman’s Song of Myself: “I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.”This quote is an example of cumulative one, using a list-like structure to create a sense of enumeration.
From Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea: “The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his cheeks. The blotches ran well down the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords.”This quote is an example of elliptical parataxis, omitting words or phrases that are implied but not stated, creating a sense of brevity or efficiency.
From T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”: “The river’s tent is broken; the last fingers of leaf Clutch and sink into the wet bank.”This quote is an example of asymmetrical parataxis, placing clauses or phrases of unequal length or importance side by side, creating a sense of contrast or emphasis.
From Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl”: “I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked, dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn looking for an angry fix, angelheaded hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night.”This quote is an example of asyndetic parataxis, omitting conjunctions between clauses or phrases, creating a sense of rapidity or urgency.
Suggested Readings
  1. Deleuze, Gilles. Difference and Repetition. Translated by Paul Patton, Columbia University Press, 1994.
  2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1983.
  3. Johnson, Barbara. The Critical Difference: Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
  4. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. Routledge, 2003.
  5. Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

Absurdism in Literary Theory

Etymology of Absurdism

The term “absurdism” originated in the 1940s and is derived from the Latin word “absurdus,” which means “out of tune” or “discordant.”

It was first used by French philosopher Albert Camus to describe the philosophy behind his play “Caligula” (1944) and his novel The Stranger (1942).

Definition of Absurdism

Absurdism in literary theory is a philosophical and literary movement that asserts the inherent meaninglessness and irrationality of human existence. It often portrays characters and situations that confront the absurdity of life, emphasizing the lack of purpose or coherence in the world. Prominent absurdist works include Albert Camus’ The Stranger and Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot.”

Meanings of Absurdism
Key Meanings of AbsurdismDescription
Rejection of Traditional Beliefs and Systems of Thought– Challenges inherent meaning or purpose in life
– Often rejects traditional religious and philosophical systems
Emphasis on Individual Freedom and Responsibility– Highlights the importance of individual agency
– Argues individuals must create their own meaning in life
Use of Dark Humor and Satire– Employed to critique societal norms and conventions
– Reveals the absurdity of the human condition
Exploration of Existential Themes– Associated with existentialism
– Explores themes like freedom, choice, and authenticity
Portrayal of the World as Chaotic and Irrational– Depicts the world as chaotic and indifferent
– Emphasizes the futility of imposing order and meaning
Celebration of the Absurd– Recognizes the absurdity of human existence – Leads to a sense of liberation and freedom
Absurdism in Different Literary Theories
TheoryExplanationExample
Existentialism– Absurdism is linked to existentialism, focusing on the individual quest for meaning in a meaningless world.Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” (1953)
Postmodernism– Absurdism is seen as a precursor to postmodernism, challenging traditional narrative and meaning.Franz Kafka’s “The Trial” (1925)
Deconstructionism– Deconstructionists argue language is inherently absurd, incapable of fully representing reality.Samuel Beckett’s “Endgame” (1957)
Marxism– Some Marxists view absurdism as a critique of societal oppression.Eugene Ionesco’s “Rhinoceros” (1959)
Feminism– Absurdist worldview interpreted as a response to patriarchal structures, including gender role construction.Marguerite Duras’s “The Ravishing of Lol Stein” (1964)
Theorists on Absurdism
  1. Albert Camus:
    • Explanation: French philosopher and author known for his exploration of absurdism. His novel The Stranger (1942) delves into the concept of life’s inherent meaninglessness and the necessity of rebellion against the absurdity of existence.
    • Notable Quote: “The only way to deal with the absurdity of life is to rebel against it.”
  2. Samuel Beckett:
    • Explanation: An Irish playwright and novelist associated with the Theater of the Absurd. His works, such as “Waiting for Godot” (1953) and “Endgame” (1957), feature characters trapped in meaningless, repetitive routines, challenging traditional narratives.
    • Notable Quote: “Nothing is funnier than unhappiness.”
  3. Eugene Ionesco:
    • Explanation: Romanian-French playwright prominent in the Theater of the Absurd. His plays, including “Rhinoceros” (1959) and “The Bald Soprano” (1950), depict characters grappling with communication and meaning in an increasingly absurd world.
    • Notable Quote: “Cut off from his religious, metaphysical and transcendental roots, man is lost; all his actions become senseless, absurd, useless.
  4. Jean-Paul Sartre:
    • Explanation: A French philosopher and playwright, Sartre contributed to existentialism and absurdism. His play “No Exit” (1944) explores characters trapped in a room, confronting the meaninglessness of existence and emphasizing human freedom to create meaning.
    • Notable Quote: “Man is condemned to be free.”
  5. Franz Kafka:
    • Explanation: A Czech-German novelist and short story writer, Kafka’s works, including “The Trial” (1925) and The Metamorphosis (1915), feature characters ensnared in absurd situations, often highlighting the oppressive nature of bureaucracy and social structures.
    • Notable Quote: “In man’s struggle against the world, bet on the world.”

These figures played pivotal roles in the development of absurdism as a literary and philosophical movement, each contributing unique perspectives and ideas to the exploration of the absurd in human existence.

Absurdism Examples in Literature
Extract and ReferenceExplanation
“Waiting for Godot” by Samuel Beckett– Extract: Estragon: “Let’s go.” Vladimir: “We can’t.” Estragon: “Why not?” Vladimir: “We’re waiting for Godot.” – Explanation: The play illustrates the senselessness of Vladimir and Estragon’s lives as they wait for Godot, who may never arrive, highlighting the absurdity of their existence.
The Stranger by Albert Camus– Extract: “I opened myself to the gentle indifference of the world.”  – Explanation: The quote reflects the protagonist Meursault’s acceptance of life’s absurdity and the indifference of the universe toward human existence.
“Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead” by Tom Stoppard– Extract: Rosencrantz: “Do you think death could possibly be a boat?” Guildenstern: “No, no, no… Death is… not. Death isn’t. You take my meaning. Death is the ultimate negative. Not-being. You can’t not be on a boat.” – Explanation: This exchange highlights the characters’ confusion about their existence and the limitations of language in expressing the ineffable, emphasizing the absurdity of their situation.
The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka– Extract: “When Gregor Samsa woke up one morning from unsettling dreams, he found himself changed in his bed into a monstrous vermin.” – Explanation: Gregor’s transformation into an insect and the world’s treatment of him as if he were still human exemplify the absurdity in this novella.
Catch-22 by Joseph Heller– Extract: “There was only one catch and that was Catch-22, which specified that a concern for one’s safety in the face of dangers that were real and immediate was the process of a rational mind.” – Explanation: Yossarian’s Catch-22 situation emphasizes the irrationality and absurdity of war and bureaucracy, where avoiding danger requires claiming insanity, but doing so proves sanity.
Suggested Readings
  1. Beckett, Samuel. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Vintage, 1991.
  2. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. Vintage, 1989.
  3. Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. Vintage, 2004.
  4. Ionesco, Eugene. Notes and Counter Notes: Writings on the Theatre. Grove Press, 1964.
  5. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Schocken, 1995.
  6. Kierkegaard, Søren. The Concept of Irony: With Continual Reference to Socrates. Harper & Row, 1965.
  7. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Yale University Press, 2007.
  8. Taylor, Mark C. The Moment of Complexity: Emerging Network Culture. University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Absence / Presence in Literary Theory

“Absence” signifies elements deliberately omitted or left unexplored by the author, creating gaps or ambiguities that invite interpretation and engagement from the reader.

Etymology of Absence

The word “absence” comes from the Latin word absentia, which means “being away” or “not being present.” The Latin term is derived from the prefix “ab-,” meaning “away from,” and the verb “esse,” meaning “to be.”

In Old French, “absence” was spelled “absens,” and in Middle English, it was spelled “absens” or “absence.”

The concept of absence has been a part of human experience throughout history as people have long grappled with the absence of loved ones, the absence of things or ideas, and the absence of a sense of belonging or purpose.

The word “absence” is used to describe a state of being away or missing, and it has come to be associated with feelings of longing, emptiness, and loss.

Definition of Absence/Presence Concept

In literary theory, “absence” and “presence” refer to key concepts used to analyze the representation of characters, themes, or ideas in a narrative. “Absence” signifies elements deliberately omitted or left unexplored by the author, creating gaps or ambiguities that invite interpretation and engagement from the reader.

Conversely, “presence” indicates the deliberate inclusion and emphasis on certain elements within the text, often used to convey specific meanings or themes, thereby shaping the reader’s understanding of the work. These concepts help scholars analyze the deliberate choices authors make in crafting their narratives, shedding light on the complexities of textual interpretation and meaning-making.

Meanings of Theoretical Term “Absence / Presence”
DisciplineMeanings
InterdisciplinaryTheoretical term “Absence/Presence” occurs across various fields, including literature, philosophy, and cultural studies.
Literary StudiesIn literary studies, absence/presence shows how an author or text creates a sense of something that is not physically present but is still felt or implied. Examples include the absence of a character, an event, or an idea suggested through the use of language or symbolism.
PhilosophyIn philosophy, absence/presence relates to how objects or concepts are present in our consciousness or perception. It includes the idea that objects exist in our minds even when they are not physically present in our immediate environment. It also emphasizes that the absence of something can hold as much significance as its presence.
Cultural StudiesIn cultural studies, absence/presence describes the representation or exclusion of certain groups or ideas in popular culture or media. It addresses issues such as the absence of particular voices or perspectives in a film or television show, highlighting broader concerns related to representation and power dynamics.
Use of “Absence / Presence” in Literary Theories
  • Structuralism: Structuralist literary theory explores how absence and presence work in the structure of a text, including the relationship between the implicit or hidden meanings of a text and its explicit content.
  • Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic literary theory uses the concept of absence/presence to explore how unconscious desires, anxieties, and traumas are represented in literature, often through absences or gaps in a text.
  • Deconstruction: Deconstructionist literary theory focuses on language how it creates gaps in meaning, and how these absences can be explored to challenge traditional interpretations of a text.
  • Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial literary theory examines how the absence/presence of certain types of language, cultural traditions, or perspectives can reflect larger power dynamics and histories of colonization and oppression.
  • Feminist theory: Feminist literary theory uses the concept of absence/presence to explore the ways in which gender roles and identities are constructed through language and representation, often through the absence or marginalization of women’s voices and experiences.
  • Queer theory: Queer literary theory examines the ways in which absence/presence are used to construct sexual and gender identities in literature, including the ways in which non-normative sexualities and genders are excluded or marginalized in literary traditions.
Different Theorists on “Absence / Presence”
TheoristWork (Year)Explanation of Concept
Jacques Derrida“Différance” (1960s)Derrida’s concept of “différance” describes how meaning is deferred and deferred, never fully present or fully absent. He argues that the concept of presence is always haunted by absence, and that meaning is created through the interplay between the two.
Roland Barthes“The Death of the Author” (1967)Barthes explores how meaning is created through the absence/presence of the author. He argues that the author’s intentions are always present in the text, even if not explicitly stated, and that readers must negotiate between the author’s presence and absence to create meaning.
Michel Foucault“What is an Author?” (1969)Foucault’s concept of “the absent author” is related to Barthes’ idea of the author’s absence/presence. He argues that the author’s identity is irrelevant to a text’s meaning, which is instead shaped by the reader’s interpretation within its historical and cultural context.
Julia Kristeva“Powers of Horror” (1980)Kristeva’s theory of “abjection” explores how the body is simultaneously present and absent. She argues that the body exists on the threshold between self and other, and that meaning is formed through this liminal space of abjection.
Edward SaidOrientalism (1978)Said’s concept of “orientalism” examines how the East is present in the West through its absence. He argues that Western representations of the East are defined by what is missing from those representations, creating a sense of exoticism and otherness used to justify Western imperialism.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak“Can the Subaltern Speak?” (1988)Spivak’s concept of “strategic essentialism” explores how marginalized groups can use essentialist identity politics as a strategic tool to resist dominant power structures. She argues that these essentialisms are both present and absent simultaneously and must be used strategically for meaningful change.

These theorists have made significant contributions to our understanding of how meaning is constructed, often emphasizing the interplay between presence this concept in various contexts.Top of Form

Examples “Absence / Presence” from Literature
  1. Hamlet by William Shakespeare: The absence of Hamlet’s father, who has been murdered by his own brother, is a major theme in the play. Although the character of the ghost appears to Hamlet to reveal the truth about his father’s death, the audience never sees the ghost itself, and its presence is always felt as an absence.
  2. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: The poem is characterized by a sense of absence or emptiness, both in the speaker’s internal life and in his external environment. The presence of the city is felt as an overwhelming absence of meaningful human connection, and the speaker’s sense of self is defined by what is missing from his life.
  3. Beloved by Toni Morrison: The novel explores the concept of absence/presence through the character of Sethe’s deceased daughter, Beloved. Although Beloved is physically absent for much of the novel, her presence is felt throughout the story as a haunting presence that disrupts the lives of the characters.
  4. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: The character of Gatsby is defined by his absence as much as his presence. Although Gatsby is physically present throughout much of the novel, his true identity and history are shrouded in mystery, and his past is defined by its absence.
  5. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: The short story uses absence/presence to explore the mental state of the protagonist, who is confined to a room with yellow wallpaper. The wallpaper becomes a symbol of the protagonist’s mental state, and its presence is felt as an overwhelming absence of agency and control.
  6. “Waiting for Godot” by Samuel Beckett: The play is characterized by a sense of emptiness, both in the physical environment and in the characters’ internal lives. The characters wait for the arrival of Godot, who never appears, and their conversations are defined by what is missing from their lives. The play’s use of absence/presence reflects larger existential themes about the nature of human existence.
Literary Theories and Absence
Literary TheoryReferenceExplanation
DeconstructionismDerrida’s “Signature Event Context” (1972)In Deconstructionism, Jacques Derrida’s work introduces the concept of différance, which posits that meaning is inherently elusive and that the presence of meaning is always interwoven with its absence. This theory underscores the instability of language and text, emphasizing how language defers meaning and how absence and presence are inextricably linked. Deconstructionist analysis delves into the textual gaps, contradictions, and aporias that highlight how meaning emerges from what remains unsaid, unexamined, or deferred in a text.
StructuralismInfluenced by structuralist theoriesStructuralist literary theory, influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistics, reveals this concept through binary oppositions and structural elements in narratives. Meaning is derived from the relationships and contrasts between these binary pairs. Absence becomes significant as it shapes the text’s underlying structures, where what is excluded or omitted contributes to the overall meaning of the narrative.
Reader-Response TheoryIser’s “The Act of Reading” (1976)Reader-Response Theory, as expounded by Wolfgang Iser, recognizes the pivotal role of the reader in the construction of meaning. It posits that readers actively engage with a text, making sense of what is present and absent. The concept of absence in this theory is manifested in the spaces between the lines, where readers must interpret and fill in the gaps. The reader’s experience becomes an act of negotiation between what is explicitly stated and what remains implied, forming a dynamic process of meaning-making.
Feminist Literary TheoryButler’s “Gender Trouble” (1990)Feminist Literary Theory frequently addresses the absence or marginalization of women’s voices, experiences, and perspectives within literature. It asserts that what is missing or underrepresented holds significant implications. This concept within this theory prompts critical examinations of patriarchal norms and the amplification of silenced perspectives. Feminist critics aim to illuminate the gender-related gaps and absences in texts to challenge dominant narratives.
Postcolonial TheorySaid’s “Orientalism” (1978)Postcolonial Theory, as elucidated by Edward Said, draws attention to the concept of absence in the context of colonial representations. It examines how Western texts often portray non-Western cultures through what is missing, misunderstood, or misrepresented. These absences create a sense of exoticism and otherness, reinforcing colonial power structures. Postcolonial scholars engage in deconstructing these representations and revealing the hidden narratives and voices within the colonized regions.
Psychoanalytic TheoryFreud’s “Interpretation of Dreams” (1899)Psychoanalytic Literary Theory, rooted in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and Jacques Lacan’s concepts, explores this concept in terms of repressed thoughts, desires, and anxieties. Characters in literature often exhibit neuroses or engage in symbolic actions as a means of compensating for what is absent or suppressed within their psyches. The narrative thus becomes a space where unconscious elements manifest symbolically, offering insights into character motivations and psychological conflicts.
Suggested Readings
  1. Barthes, Roland. The Pleasure of the Text. Translated by Richard Miller, Hill and Wang, 1975.
  2. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
  3. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Avon Books, 1980.
  4. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
  5. Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Translated by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1982.
  6. Said, Edward. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
  7. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, University of Illinois Press, 1988.
  8. Strauss, Leo. On Tyranny. University of Chicago Press, 2000.

Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”

The culture of every place, when seen by outsiders, exposes its beauty and ills in detail like poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”.

Introduction to Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”

The culture of every place, when seen by outsiders, exposes its beauty and ills in detail like poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”. The natives and locals, generally, ignore routine issues but outsiders even when they are travelers and enjoying life in foreign lands have a critical look. And it gets even more critical when they have an artistic eye and they record their days and nights spent in the lands they visit. They see and comment on everything that comes their way, whether it is the culture, the people, the way of their living and the enjoyments they have, and above all the way they earn their livelihood. “High Times in Jamaica” by Richard Jacobs comprises a stay of one and half weeks of the author and his friend in Jamaica when in March Jamaica won freedom. They went through the capital city of Jamaica and lived a bohemian type of life, staying with the lady and with their girlfriends. The author recorded his reflections and experiences in this short story regarding poverty in in “High Times in Jamaica”, occasionally commenting on what comes his way, on the people and how they are leading their lives. The story not only highlights poverty but also points out the curses accompanying the city of Jamaica.

Observation about Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”

When the author and his friend Scotty meet their hostess, Aggie, they go to her home with her and take a careful view of her house. It comprises four rooms of a saloon that has been turned into a house with a kitchen and bedrooms for the lady and “her little boy” (Jacobs). When he sees it he is sure that it is “not the best damn place” (Jacobs) they are going to live. This is the poverty reflected in the house of their hostess. Even she serves them poorly and brings “cold beer” (Jacobs) for them. Then they see the girls and start laughing and talking with them to pass their time. The comments and laughs of the girls show that they need something as they live in extreme poverty. “Dark-skinned” (Jacobs) girls are the ones who are out of work and are going to “have a great them staying” (Jacobs) with these travelers to earn their livelihood. This is the situation of poverty. Even when they go out, they see the railway station where “boys [are] making a living by begging” (Jacobs) to earn something. The poverty is acute. There is nothing to earn and it is enough that they get something. The situation of labor and job market is so bad that “You can hardly move without someone asking for a shilling or something to eat” (Jacobs) and when they do not get something they also threaten (Jacobs). This is how they get what they ask at every cost. This poverty in “High Times in Jamaica” is exactly like the “depression of the 1930s” (Jacobs) in the United States. It is running rampant in every nook and corner of the town.

Curses of Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”

The curses that accompany poverty in “High Times in Jamaica” are also taking their toll on the people as well as the tourists coming to Jamaica. First, it has given birth to the gangs of beggars as the writer suggests in the very beginning of the story. The boys are so poor that they are eight begging or selling petty things or working as guides for the tourists, and every carrying their luggage for something. The second is that girls from different nations are engaged in sex. The author and his friend Scotty are welcomed by Aggie who is running a brothel as he tells commenting about her house that it is “a wh*re house” for it is full of girls (Jacobs). They have also chosen two to stay with them to enjoy their stay in Jamaica. His girl Marjorie is always with him and even another native catches him when they book a theater for a show. She and her friend Scotty’s girl, Blossom, are always with them. When he is taken away by the teenage girl, they stay together and he sees that “She is all sex” (Jacobs) which tells how much sex is there. Again when he sees her standing, she has the “most provocative pose since Cleopatra” (Jacobs). Then they spend their nights together. Poverty has also given birth to crime, robberies, and thefts. Even the author is caught napping in a street, but he takes courage and makes the chasers leave without getting a cigarette but they have said “All want is cigarette” (4). They are so much in want of money that they have nothing else to purchase even a cigarette. Had he not taken courage, he might have been a victim of robbery and gotten a thrashing at their hands, for they would have harmed him had he not given them his possessions. In fact, poverty in “High Times in Jamaica” has brought all these crimes, sex, and beer to this small island.

Conclusion

Although the author Richard Jacobs makes the most of his short trip to the Prince Street of Jamaica, he has presented a short picture of the entire culture. Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica” has destroyed the very social fabric of society and has given birth to several diseases, crimes, and other curses that are ailing that society further. Both he and his friend enjoyed much during their short stay over there. They make the most of their time with their girlfriends Marjorie and Blossom. However, the city is not lacking girls from other origins such as Syria. Even when he and Scotty went to the theater, they see the same accompanying curses of poverty taking their toll on every strata of life. They observe everything that comes their way. The story not only exposes the poverty, but also the crimes and other social illnesses that are making life worse than it was during the Great Depression in America. Although he leaves with his friend after this short trip, his emotional farewell suggests that he was very much moved and wanted to highlight their plight that he did in this short story.

Work Cited
  1. Jacobs, Richard. “High Times in Jamaica.” n.d. 03 December 2013. <http://www.eastoftheweb.com/short-stories Accessed  14. Jun. 2020.
Relevant Questions about Poverty in “High Times in Jamaica”
  1. How is poverty in “High Times in Jamaica” depicted and explored, and what impact does it have on the lives of the characters?
  2. In “High Times in Jamaica,” how does the author address the theme of poverty, and what social and economic factors contribute to the characters’ struggles?
  3. Can you provide examples from “High Times in Jamaica” that illustrate the different dimensions of poverty within the story, and how does it shape the storyline and character development?