Day: September 7, 2023

Alterity in Literary Theory

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself.

Etymology of Alterity

The term “alterity” traces its origins to the Latin word alter, meaning “other” or “different.” It emerged in philosophical discourse during the 20th century, notably associated with the works of philosophers such as Emmanuel Levinas and Jacques Derrida.

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness or difference in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself. It serves as a foundational concept in existentialism and post-structuralism, highlighting the importance of acknowledging and engaging with the distinctiveness of the other as a means to understand the self and navigate complex intersubjective relationships.

Meanings of Alterity
AspectDescription
As the State of Being Different or Other:– Alterity refers to the fundamental concept of being different or distinct from something else.
– It encapsulates the idea that entities or experiences can be perceived as “other” in relation to one’s own identity or perspective.
Philosophical Notions:– In philosophy, alterity delves into the existential experience of encountering the Other as a separate and distinct entity.
– Philosophers often explore questions related to how individuals perceive and engage with the Other, reflecting on the nature of self and otherness.
Social and Cultural Contexts:– Alterity is frequently used to describe the experience of difference and otherness in social and cultural settings.
– It encompasses how individuals and groups perceive and interact with those who have distinct cultural, social, or personal backgrounds.
Alterity in Postcolonial Theory:– Postcolonial theory employs alterity to analyze how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture.
– It examines power dynamics, stereotypes, and narratives that contribute to the marginalization and subjugation of colonized groups.
Marginalization and Exclusion of Marginalized Groups:– Alterity can also be applied to elucidate how marginalized groups are systematically excluded or treated as different within larger social structures.
– It highlights the mechanisms that perpetuate discrimination and inequality based on perceived differences.
Linguistic Usage of Alterity:– In linguistics, alterity manifests through the use of second-person pronouns to address someone as “other” or “different” from oneself.
– This linguistic phenomenon underscores the role of language in expressing and reinforcing notions of alterity.
Challenging Dominant Narratives and Emphasizing Difference:– Alterity serves as a tool for challenging or destabilizing dominant narratives and identities.
– It emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing differences, promoting inclusivity, and resisting homogenizing or hegemonic perspectives in society.
Definition of Alterity

In literary theory, alterity refers to the representation of “otherness” in literature, where authors depict characters or cultures as distinct from the norm, often to explore themes of difference, identity, and power dynamics. This concept examines how texts portray and engage with the unfamiliar or marginalized, shedding light on the broader societal implications of these representations. Alterity plays a pivotal role in deconstructing dominant narratives and fostering critical analysis of literature’s socio-cultural and political dimensions.

Theorists on Alterity
TheoristWorkExplanation of Alterity
Emmanuel LevinasTotality and InfinityLevinas explores ethical responsibility in relation to the Other, emphasizing the irreducibility of the Other and the demand for radical ethical responsibility.
Jacques DerridaOf GrammatologyDerrida deconstructs binary oppositions and hierarchies in language and thought using alterity, challenging traditional structures and opening new possibilities for thought and language.
Homi BhabhaThe Location of CultureBhabha uses alterity to examine colonialism, identity, and hybridity, asserting that alterity challenges the dominance of imperial power and offers avenues for cultural and political change.
Mikhail BakhtinRabelais and His WorldBakhtin explores language, dialogism, and carnival through alterity, highlighting the ambivalent nature of the world of carnival and the creation of new meanings through interaction.
Martin HeideggerBeing and TimeHeidegger delves into being and authenticity, positing that alterity is essential to understanding one’s own existence and the potential for authentic being.
Alterity in Different Literary Theories
Literary TheoryExtract and WorkExplanation of Alterity
Postcolonial TheoryEdward Said – OrientalismPostcolonial theory examines how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture. Said’s work shows how alterity is used as a tool of power and how it can challenge dominant discourses and representations.
Feminist Theorybell hooks – Feminist Theory: From Margin to CenterFeminist theory explores questions of identity, power, and difference using alterity. hooks’ work demonstrates how alterity has historically been used to create and reinforce dominant narratives and identities, and how it can be used to challenge these structures.
Psychoanalytic TheoryJacques Lacan – ÉcritsPsychoanalytic theory delves into identity, desire, and the unconscious. Lacan’s work emphasizes how alterity is central to the formation of identity and subjectivity, allowing exploration of the complexities of human experience.
Reader-Response TheoryWolfgang Iser – The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic ResponseReader-response theory explores how readers engage with texts and negotiate their identities and experiences. Iser’s work highlights how alterity is central to the reader’s experience of the text and interpretation.
Queer TheoryJudith Butler – Gender TroubleQueer theory investigates sexuality, gender, and identity. Butler’s work reveals how alterity is used to construct and police dominant norms of gender and sexuality, as well as how it can challenge these structures.
Marxist TheoryLouis Althusser – Lenin and Philosophy and Other EssaysMarxist theory examines power, class, and social change. Althusser’s work illustrates how alterity is used to construct and reinforce dominant power structures and can be used to challenge these structures.
Cultural StudiesStuart Hall – Cultural Identity and DiasporaCultural studies explores identity, representation, and cultural production. Hall’s work argues that cultural identity is constructed through a process of difference and othering, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others.
Examples in Literature
Literary WorkFull ExtractExplanation of Alterity
1. Heart of Darkness“The horror! The horror!” – Kurtz’s last wordsIn Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, the character Kurtz embodies the enigmatic and foreign aspects of colonial Africa. Kurtz’s final words allude to his confrontation with a reality beyond human understanding, pushing him into madness.
2. Beloved“She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather them and give them back to me in all the right order.”In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, Beloved represents the haunting legacy of slavery. This quote illustrates Beloved’s ability to connect with Sethe on a profound level, transcending conventional boundaries of identity and experience.
3. The Metamorphosis“He lay on his armor-hard back and saw, as he lifted his head up a little, his brown, arched abdomen divided up into rigid bow-like sections.”In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect symbolizes alterity. The description of his unfamiliar body emphasizes his alienation from his humanity and identity.
4. The Stranger“I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again.”In Albert Camus’s The Stranger, alterity is explored through Meursault’s detachment from societal norms. This quote suggests that Meursault discovers a peculiar form of happiness in his indifference to conventional values.
5. The Sound and the Fury“They endured.”In William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury, the Compson family grapples with their past and the relentless passage of time, reflecting alterity. This quote underscores their ability to persevere despite their alienation.
6. Waiting for Godot“Nothing to be done.”Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” explores alterity through the absurdity of waiting and uncertainty. The quote highlights the characters’ powerlessness to change their situation, emphasizing the fundamental alterity of their existence.
Suggested Readings
  1. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
  2. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. Routledge, 1993.
  3. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976.
  4. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. Translated by Charles Lam Markmann, Grove Press, 2008.
  5. Foucault, Michel. The Birth of Biopolitics: Michel Foucault’s Lecture at the Collège de France on Neo-Liberal Governmentality. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.
  6. Freud, Sigmund. The Uncanny. Translated by David McLintock, Penguin, 2003.
  7. Kristeva, Julia. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. Translated by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1982.
  8. Levinas, Emmanuel. Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Translated by Alphonso Lingis, Duquesne University Press, 1969.
  9. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage, 1979.
  10. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues. Edited by Sarah Harasym, Routledge, 1990.

Alienation in Literary Theory

We live in a time where there’s an alienation factor. There’s a certain disconnection. We don’t have any real sense of community. Alan Ball

Etymology of Alienation

The term “alienation” finds its roots in Latin and Old French, where alienare and aliéner respectively meant “to transfer” or “to estrange.”

In an academic context, the concept gained prominence in the writings of Karl Marx, particularly in his exploration of the estrangement of laborers from the products of their labor under capitalism.

This etymological origin reflects the core notion of alienation as a process of separation, detachment, or estrangement, often referring to the disconnection of individuals from their labor, society, or even their own sense of self.

Different Meanings of Alienation in Literary Theory

These different meanings of alienation in literary criticism highlight the varied ways in which the theme of alienation can be explored in literature.

Types of AlienationDefinitionLiterary Depiction
Social Alienation– Refers to disconnection or isolation from society or social norms.
– Depicted in literature through characters estranged from their communities or struggling to find belonging.		– Characters feeling estranged from their communities.
– Struggles to find a sense of belonging.
Self-Alienation– Refers to disconnection or estrangement from oneself, often due to trauma or psychological distress.
– In literature, it is shown through characters struggling with identity or loss of agency.		– Characters experiencing disconnection from themselves.
– Identity struggles and loss of agency.
Political Alienation– Indicates disconnection or disillusionment with political systems or institutions.
– In literature, it is depicted through characters resisting oppressive regimes or feeling powerless in political corruption.		– Characters resisting oppressive political regimes.
– Feelings of powerlessness in the face of political corruption.
Cultural Alienation– Denotes disconnection or separation from one’s cultural heritage or identity. – In literature, it is portrayed through characters navigating cultural clashes or torn between different traditions.– Characters navigating cultural clashes.
– Struggles when torn between different cultural traditions.
Ecological Alienation– Involves disconnection or detachment from the natural world.
– In literature, it is represented through characters struggling with environmental destruction or seeking a deeper connection to nature.		– Characters grappling with environmental destruction.
– Desires for a deeper connection to nature.

These categories of alienation offer a framework for exploring various forms of disconnection and estrangement in literature and society.

Definition of Alienation

Alienation in literary theory refers to a multifaceted concept, comprising estrangement or disconnection individuals experience from various facets of their existence. It manifests as social alienation wherein characters feel isolated from their communities; self-alienation, marked by a detachment from one’s own identity often due to trauma; or political, cultural, and ecological alienation, where individuals experience disillusionment or detachment from political systems, cultural heritage, and the natural world, respectively.

Within literary analysis, alienation serves as a critical lens to examine characters’ experiences of detachment and the societal and psychological implications thereof.

Explanations of Alienation
  • Alienation refers to a sense of disconnection or separation from society, work, oneself, or others.
  • Alienation can be caused by various factors, including social, economic, psychological, and cultural factors.
  • Alienation can manifest in different forms, such as social isolation, loss of agency, psychological distress, or cultural clashes.
  • Alienation can be a product of structural or systemic factors, such as capitalism or social inequality, as well as personal experiences, such as trauma or loss.
  • Alienation can be a powerful tool for analyzing social, political, and cultural dynamics and for exploring the ways in which individuals and communities negotiate their relationships with the world around them.
  • Alienation is a prominent theme in modern literature, particularly in works that deal with social and political issues, such as dystopian novels or postcolonial literature.
  • Alienation can also be a source of creativity and resistance, as individuals and communities seek to assert their identities and agency in the face of social or cultural marginalization.
Alienation in Literary Theories

These theories of alienation provide valuable frameworks for analyzing literature from different perspectives and understanding how it reflects and responds to various forms of estrangement in society.

TheoryWorksMeaningUsage
Marxist Theory – The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich EngelsThe estrangement and alienation of individuals from their labor, products of labor, others, and themselves due to capitalist commodification of labor.Analyzing literature’s reflection of capitalist social relations and advocating for societal transformation.
Existentialist Theory– Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul SartreThe disconnection, alienation, and estrangement individuals feel from the world, others, and themselves due to awareness of mortality and existential choices.Analyzing literature’s portrayal of human freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in an apparently meaningless world.
Psychoanalytic Theory – The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund FreudDisconnection from unconscious desires and societal context leading to emptiness, anxiety, and neurosis.Examining literature’s representation of conflicts between conscious and unconscious desires and exploring self-awareness and healing.
Feminist Theory– The Second Sex by Simone de BeauvoirThe estrangement of women from their bodies, experiences, and male-dominated culture, leading to powerlessness and inferiority.Analyzing literature’s reflection of gender-based oppression and exploring possibilities for feminist empowerment and consciousness-raising.
Postcolonial Theory – Orientalism by Edward Said, Black Skin, White Masks by Frantz FanonColonized peoples’ estrangement from their culture, history, and colonizer’s culture, leading to cultural inferiority and assimilation desire.Examining literature’s engagement with colonial legacies and exploring decolonization and cultural revitalization possibilities.
Formalist Theory– The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship by Boris EichenbaumLiterary language’s capacity to estrange everyday reality, offering aesthetic pleasure and intellectual challenge.Analyzing literature’s use of language to create new meanings and perspectives, and promoting innovation and experimentation in literary form.
Queer Theory – Gender Trouble by Judith Butler, The History of Sexuality by Michel FoucaultLGBTQ+ individuals’ estrangement from their bodies, desires, and heteronormative culture, leading to isolation and marginalization.Examining literature’s reflection on dominant sexuality and gender norms and advocating for queer liberation and societal change.
Examples in Alienation in Literature
WorkContextMeaning/Explanation of Alienation
The Metamorphosis by Franz KafkaContext: The story follows Gregor Samsa, who wakes up one morning transformed into a giant insect. He becomes estranged from his body, family, and job, facing society’s treatment as a freak.Explanation: Often interpreted as an allegory for alienation and dehumanization in capitalist society, where workers are reduced to mere cogs in the machine.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. EliotContext: The poem is a monologue by J. Alfred Prufrock, struggling with self-doubt and alienation in high society.Explanation: Critique of modern life’s shallowness and emptiness, expressing existential angst and post-World War I alienation.
Waiting for Godot by Samuel BeckettContext: Vladimir and Estragon wait for Godot, who never arrives. They become increasingly isolated and estranged as they wait.Explanation: Commentary on the absurdity and meaninglessness of life, exploring the human condition of waiting for something that may never come.
The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins GilmanContext: A woman with postpartum depression is confined to a room with yellow wallpaper by her husband, losing touch with reality.Explanation: Feminist critique of the medical profession’s treatment of women’s mental health, revealing how women were confined and silenced in a patriarchal society.
Notes from Underground by Fyodor DostoevskyContext: A series of monologues by an unnamed narrator who rejects society’s rationalism and progressivism, embracing nihilism.Explanation: Critique of rationalism and individualism of modernity, exploring the human condition of isolation and despair in an indifferent universe.
Suggesting Readings
  1. Eagleton, Terry. The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Wiley-Blackwell, 1990.
  2. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. Grove Press, 1967.
  3. Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Translated by Stanley Corngold, Bantam Classics, 2004.
  4. Marx, Karl and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics, 2002.
  5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Nausea. Translated by Lloyd Alexander, New Directions Publishing, 2013.
  6. Smith, Adam. The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Edited by D.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie, Liberty Fund, 1976.
  7. Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1925.




Agency in Literary Theory

The concept of agency is central to literary theory and various critical approaches, including feminist and postcolonial theory, which seek to explore the ways in which marginalized groups exercise agency.

Etymoloy of Agency in Literary Theory

The term “agency” in literary theory is derived from the Latin word agens, meaning “acting” or “doing.” The concept of agency refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently and make choices that influence their own lives and the world around them.

The term entered English in the mid-17th century and was originally used in the context of law, referring to the authority granted to an individual or group to act on behalf of another. In literary criticism, agency is used to describe the ways in which characters in a text exert their own will and make choices that shape the course of events.

The concept of agency is central to literary theory and various critical approaches, including feminist and postcolonial theory, which seek to explore the ways in which marginalized groups exercise agency in the face of systemic oppression.

Meanings of Agency in Literary Theory
ContextDefinition and Application
General DefinitionIt refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently.
It involves making choices that impact their lives and the world around them.
Psychological PerspectiveAgency in psychology relates to an individual’s sense of control over their behavior.
It also includes the ability to influence the outcomes of their actions.
Sociological NotionIn sociology, agency describes the power of individuals or groups. It enables them to challenge or resist social norms and structures.
Business ContextIn business, agency denotes the relationship between a principal and an agent.
The agent acts on behalf of the principal, representing their interests.
Literary Criticism ApplicationIn literary criticism, agency refers to how characters in a text exert their will.
Characters make choices that shape the course of events in the narrative.
Multifaceted ConceptThe concept of agency is versatile and can be applied in various fields and contexts.
Theorists on Agency
TheoristKey WorkKey Concepts
Judith ButlerGender Trouble (1990)– Gender as performance.
– Agency to challenge gender norms.
– Gender identity as constituted through repeated acts.
Edward SaidOrientalism (1978)– Western construction of an exotic and inferior image of the East.
– Agency to challenge and resist these constructions.
– Assertion of autonomy against Western hegemony.
Gayatri Chakravorty SpivakCan the Subaltern Speak? (1988)– Silencing and exclusion of colonized peoples from discourse.
– Advocacy for giving voice to subaltern groups.
– Recognition of hidden agency within subaltern groups.
Louis AlthusserIdeology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970)– Examination of ideology’s role in reproducing social and economic structures.
– Concept of interpellation into subject positions.
– Limited agency due to pervasive ideology.
Michel FoucaultDiscipline and Punish (1975)– Analysis of power through discipline and surveillance in modern society.
– Acknowledgment of individual agency to resist power techniques.
– Emphasis on the entanglement of agency with power relations.
Use of Agency in Different Literary Theories
Literary TheoryKey Points
Feminist Theory– Central role of agency in feminist literary criticism. – Examines how female characters exercise agency in a patriarchal society.
– Explores the denial of agency to women and their struggles to gain it in a limiting environment.
Postcolonial Theory– In postcolonial literary criticism, agency describes how colonized peoples resist colonial power.
– Explores how formerly colonized groups assert autonomy and challenge dominant colonial narratives.
Marxist Theory– Marxist literary critics use agency to analyze how characters are shaped by social and economic contexts. – Examines characters’ constraints due to class and economic factors.
– Explores how characters may use agency to challenge these constraints and work toward social change.
Psychoanalytic Theory– In psychoanalytic literary criticism, agency relates to the ego and an individual’s sense of self.
– Analyzes how characters’ actions reflect their desires and fears. – Explores how agency is influenced by unconscious factors.
Reader-Response Theory– Reader-response theory views agency as shared between the reader and the text.
– Sees readers as active agents who bring interpretations and responses to a text. – Reader agency shapes the meaning of the text itself.
Structuralist Theory– Focuses on the structure of a text rather than individual agency. – Analyzes how elements within a text, such as language and symbols, interact to create meaning.
– Downplays individual interpretation in favor of identifying universal structures.
Deconstructionist Theory– Deconstructionist theory challenges the idea of fixed meanings in texts.
– Emphasizes that texts contain inherent contradictions and ambiguities.
– Encourages readers to engage with texts critically and recognize the instability of language.
Queer Theory– Queer theory explores how sexuality and identity intersect in literature.
– Challenges heteronormative narratives and highlights fluidity and diversity in sexual orientations and gender identities.
– Examines how characters and texts can subvert normative sexual and gender roles.
Examples of Agency in Literature
Literary WorkCharacterExercise of Agency and Its Impact
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper LeeScout Finch– Scout challenges racial prejudices in her community.
– She stands up for what she believes is right. – By questioning societal norms, she asserts her identity.
– Scout emerges as a moral force for change and helps challenge and dismantle systemic racism in her community.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins GilmanNarrator– The narrator resists patriarchal norms.
– She asserts her identity in oppressive circumstances.
– Through writing, she demonstrates the power of agency in the face of societal constraints.
– The exercise of agency highlights the individual’s struggle against oppressive norms and the potential for empowerment through self-expression.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. EliotJ. Alfred Prufrock– Prufrock exercises agency through introspective exploration.
– He confronts personal fears and insecurities.
– Gains deeper self-understanding, even as he realizes the limitations of his agency.
– Prufrock’s self-reflection demonstrates the potential for personal growth and understanding through the exercise of agency, even when it reveals the limits of control.
The Tempest by William ShakespeareProspero– Prospero utilizes magic and manipulation of other characters.
– He achieves personal goals through agency and restores order to the world.
– However, his actions can be seen as controlling and oppressive, raising ethical questions about power.
– Prospero’s exercise of agency is complex, achieving his goals while also raising ethical questions about control and power.
The Hunger Games by Suzanne CollinsKatniss Everdeen– Katniss resists the Capitol’s oppression and fights for her survival and that of her fellow tributes.
– She becomes a symbol of resistance and exercises agency in the face of authoritarian control.
– Katniss exemplifies how agency empowers individuals to resist oppression and become symbols of defiance and rebellion.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. EliotMultiple characters and voices– The poem explores constraints imposed by social and cultural norms.
– It suggests agency through interpretation and creation, with its fragmented structure implying agency in finding meaning.
– The poem reflects agency in a chaotic world, where interpretation and creation offer empowerment and meaning even amid disorder.
The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WildeVarious characters– Characters use wit and subterfuge to navigate Victorian social conventions.
– They achieve personal desires through clever maneuvering.
– By challenging the authority of the ruling class, they suggest agency within societal norms.
– The characters’ use of agency to navigate societal norms challenges traditional power structures and underscores the potential for individual empowerment even within the constraints of social expectations.
Suggesting Readings
  1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1971.
  2. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex”. Routledge, 1993.
  3. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
  4. Foucault, Michel. The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception. Vintage Books, 1994.
  5. Gilbert, Sandra M., and Susan Gubar. The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale University Press, 2000.
  6. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
  7. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. Penguin Classics, 2002.
  8. Young, Iris Marion. On Female Body Experience: “Throwing Like a Girl” and Other Essays. Oxford University Press, 2005.
  9. Zizek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. Verso, 1989.
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“The Belonging Kind”: Cyberpunk Story

Written by John Shirley and William Gibson, “The Belonging Kind” presents several characters including a lecturer of linguistics and a robot type of lady after whom he leaves his job and home but does not find her in the physical world.

Introduction to “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

“The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story could invite various interpretations. Written by John Shirley and William Gibson presents several characters including a lecturer of linguistics and a robot type of lady after whom he leaves his job and home but does not find her in the physical world. The story belongs to the new genre of cyberpunk, but it still misses several of its major features. The characters except Coretti are not only nameless but also sans identity. Their entire daily routine comprises visiting bars, drinking, rhythm-less dancing, and absurd conversation. The complete story presents a few days routine of the professor in a way that he is like a robot who is after robots, who are drinking but not feeling drunk, eating nothing, and engaged in a mechanical routine. Their identities stay the same, but their clothes, styles, and features change abruptly that they seem to him of a “kind”, he himself is. “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story not only shows signs of a cyberpunk story through its nameless characters but also through technical language and sexual seduction.

Opening of “The Belonging Kind” as a Syberpunk Story

When “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story opens, there is mention of bars in which Coretti is after a girl he has seen once. The first time he notices her in the Backdoor Lounge. In fact, “he hadn’t ever had a girl like the one”, he has seen there whose dress is “the green of  young corn” and hair is “coppery.” He instantly falls into her magical appeal and experiences some mechanical type of erection. After this, he goes ahead with his chase which takes him into another bar where he drinks too much. He watches her with a young man but when he chases both, he sees her dress as “green foam, fizzing, dissolving, gone” like that of aliens. He could not sense that he is after aliens, but he carries on chasing them throughout the story. His chase then gets prolonged so much so that he loses his job and even his residence. He rents a new room and continues chasing the girl and the young man with her in Lothario, Waylons, cabs, and hotels. This becomes his routine.  There is mention of her name as Antoinette but not of the young man who has been depicted with only the name of his shirt which is different each time.

Language of “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

The language used by Shirley and Gibson in “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story shows it as highly technical or comprises technical and mechanical jargon. Even human emotions and acts have been represented through this language. When Coretti first sees that lady, he sees her “through the wrong end of a powerful telescope” which shows how far ahead of time the characters are placed. He might have seen her on some different planet. Then the writers have used words like “coppery” and “spikes” for her hair. They have also described her dress in digital terms “fizzing, dissolving, gone” exactly like her who “vanished there, into robotic flashing.” Then finally, he concludes that though he is an eavesdropper himself, this woman is “not a woman, this human wallpaper” that he is after. It means that he is either after shadows or he is placed in the far future when a human would have the power to move like shadows and then disappear. However, the interesting point is that he himself experiences feelings such as “cellular relief” while his heart throbs like “wipers.” This type of language shows that this story was heralding the more digitally stuffed novels or stories when interpreting “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story.

Sexuality in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

The third point is that sexual seduction has changed in this cyberspace of the story. The story shows Coretti going after the girl and when he finds her in a bar, he feels an erection. This has strangely occurred to him that she would know it and it was a fact that “he was startled to realize that he had one to hide.” Then when he found her with another young man, they were sitting with their hips touching each other which made him jealous of them. These sexually appealing parts dominate his mind from the very first of the story to the last and even when he chases her and sees that her “breasts had become slightly larger and her hips a shade heavier.” And very important thing takes place that now alcohol does not make him intoxicated. By the end, he feels that they are of its own kind like him, and he is also like them as his wife told him very early that he looks like a Martian. He experiences a strange type of copulation that even hips touching was sending “slow orgasmic waves” in him in which he felt that he was “two men” as if his other part was after her while real was with him. Its evidence is his last comment “like a real human being” showing the idea of sexuality in “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story.

Conclusion

In short, “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story shows not only its nameless characters but also the use of language as a representation of the cyberpunk genre. The character except Coretti stays nameless. Even the real name of the girl has not been mentioned though Annoinette has been mentioned at some places by the authors. It has also been observed the language has been merged with technical jargon including emotions and passions. To top it all, the hero, Coretti experiences not only erection but also copulation and ejac**lation in a strange way that could be called as if it has been happening in cyberspace. Therefore, on the basis of these elements, “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story confirms its place in this genre.

Works Cited

Shirley, John & Gibson, William. “The Belonging Kind.” Cyberpunk Project. n.d. Web. 08 March. 2022.

Relevant Questions about “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story
  1. How does the narrative style and the portrayal of a futuristic, dystopian society in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story” align with the typical characteristics of the Cyberpunk genre, such as the exploration of advanced technology and its societal implications?
  2. What role do the themes of social stratification, corporate control, and resistance to authority play in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story,” and how do they contribute to the overarching narrative and world-building within the Cyberpunk genre?
  3. How does “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story” address the idea of human augmentation and the blurring of the line between humans and machines, and in what ways does it draw upon the traditional Cyberpunk fascination with transhumanism and its ethical dilemmas?

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” by Kafka

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” peeps through every line, for the characters in stories are not what they are; they symbolize something else.

Introduction to Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” peeps through every line. The characters in stories, as Foster says, are not what they are. They symbolize something else, as Jane in “The Yellow Wallpaper” is a symbol of women who are restricted within their boundaries and face hallucinations because of their restrictions. However, with great artists, it is sometimes different. It happens that somebody becomes too much obstinate to make a name that he not only inflicts injuries to himself but also makes others feel discomfort. The story of the hunger artist told by Franz Kafka is written in the same vein. In fact, it could be stated in Foster’s words that it is quite “unfortunate that genius was harnessed to someone who may not have worn it well” (Foster 139). He was not suited to become this type of artist, or he should have used this intelligence for some other purpose. It has been suggested that this sort of ridiculous relationship is often common as it shows that “this sort of macabre relationship between performer and audience is common” (Lecture 4). At the same time, the hunger artist wants to become a name among his audience so that they should appreciate him. However, when he is at the peak of his career and the interest of the public is alive, his manager cheats on him. When he crosses all of his previous records, the public loses interest in him. The great mistake that he makes is that he tells everybody that “it is the easiest thing in the world” (489). It leads the people to become disenchanted with him, thinking he is not doing any feat. Therefore, the hunger artist symbolizes the loss of the interest of the people through his own blunder though he chooses something that does not have any value, while the relations he builds with his audience are based on his own disenchantment. 

Symbol of Hunger Artist: Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

The hunger artist symbolizes a person who has no other skill except his hunger or the power to overcome his hunger that he shows to the people through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”. In fact, these sorts of people are found in a society doing bizarre things to impress others so that they could win the public approval and applause. He thinks that he could always be treated as the cynosure of the people. They also form their own code of honor as they consider themselves artists as in the case of this hunger artist who does not eat because “his code of honor as an artist forbade it” (Kafka 488). A great critic of Kafka, Noami Ritter has termed the hunger artists as the “ultimate symbol of suicide” (Ritter 72) because he knows that if he does not eat, he will die but the intoxication of winning public approval ultimately overpowers him that leads to his death. As stated by Foster, in fact, he is a genius who can overpower his hunger but he uses it wrongly but putting himself to suffering. Therefore, he loses the battle in the end when nobody comes to see him. It is also that he does not see the sudden transformation in times as people have more interesting things to see in the circus. He is also a symbol of eating which attracts people and not what he does for the public.

Public and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

The strange thing about the hunger artist is the selection of his medium that he wants to connect with his audience. This is his hunger. Most artist chooses what they have a profession or make some art as their profession to earn their livelihood. However, it is never shown in the story. The only thing that he considered important was the glory that he was winning by fasting as he thought about the people who “want to rob him of the glory of fasting longer” (490) that he wanted to have had. The matter is that the attraction of the artists is built on the validity of the art that stays up-to-date with the changing times. The problem with his art is that it has a limited marketability and its perfection is in death that he would no more be able to enjoy what others see him with pleasure. Gray in his book A Franz Kafka Encyclopedia states the same thing. His view is that Kafka has shown a mirror to the people that an artist does not exist without the public and if he forgets himself, nobody cares to think about him as happened with the hunger artist where Kafka leaves his readers “with the question whether art can exist if there is no audience” and his answer is in negative as the hunger artist is left alone at the end (Gray 7).

Audience and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Although at one point, Kafka is also right. Suffering is involved when it is the matter of audience because sometimes artists and performers die merely because they want to win the hearts of their spectators. However, this is the rule of the plays that the audience wants to see suffering whether it is tragedy or comedy. It is another thing that when there is no audience, the actor or performance becomes his/her audience himself. The idea of Kafka through through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” is marketability that when a performer loses his/her worth, he/she is no more kept in mind and nobody pays attention to what a great artist that person might have been in the past. This makes the artist turns away from his/her audience. It is a turning point as Celeste Escobar says in her article on the story that “The turning point towards his complete disconnection with the humanity outside begins. This transition is possible through the means of his art that makes him bear life” (Escobar).  By this, she means that he gets disillusioned because the people start ignoring him at the end seeing through this symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”.

Effectiveness of Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

However, when he is seen in the graphic version of the story, he seems to have aroused sympathy as is shown just a handful of bones at the end when the supervisor gives him his ears (Mairowitz & Crumb 153). However, it is more effective in the prose form where it is told that he does not seem to exist as he has become a straw with straws. It is clear from this that at the end the circus workers came and “poked into the straw with sticks and found the hunger artists underneath” where he is so weak that he even cannot speak (Kafka 496). Therefore, he turns his wish toward his desire that he could not find anything to eat due to which he fasted. It is actually the hunger for popularity that brings him to his grave. Therefore, the prose is more effective with symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” than the picture where he is shown as an active person.

Conclusion

In short, the hunger artist is a symbol of those demagogues and artists who inflict self-injuries to gladden their audience and attract people but they lose their lives in the game. This interpretation through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” shows that the hunger artist could not assess that the thin thread of his relationship with his audience could break at any time when he loses his worth but he does not know that his art would lose its worth. The pleasure-seeking audience turns their back to him and he becomes satisfied with the perfection of his performance which is his death. However, this is more persuasive and beautiful in prose than in graphics.

Works Cited
  1. Escobar, Celeste. “A Hunger Artist.” Panorama. 03 July 2003. Web. 30 July 2015.
  2. Foster, C. Thomas. How to Read Literature Like a Professor. Harper Perenial. 2009. Print.
  3. Gray, T. Richard. A Franz Kafka Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2005. Print.
  4. Kafka, Franz. “A Hunger Artists” Charters, Anne. The Story and Its Writer. New York: Bedford /St. Martins, 2014. 488-494
  5. Mairowitz, David Zane & Robert Crumb. Kafka. Fantagrahics Books. Seattle. 2009. Print.
  6. Ritter, Noami. Art as Spectacle: Images of the Entertainer Since Romanticism.  University of Missouri Press. 1996. Print.
Relevant Questions about Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”
  1. How does the repeated act of fasting and the barren cage serve as powerful symbols of the alienation and disconnect from society experienced by the protagonist in “A Hunger Artist,” and how does this symbolism contribute to the overall meaning of the story?
  2. What is the significance of the audience’s changing tastes and preferences for entertainment as a symbol in “A Hunger Artist,” and how does this symbolism comment on society’s tendency to trivialize and forget the suffering and artistry of those who deviate from the norm, as depicted in the story’s events?
  3. How does the symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” surrounding the panther, which replaces the hunger artist in the circus, convey the theme of liberation and the longing for a more primal and authentic existence, and how does this symbolism contrast with the hunger artist’s self-imposed suffering throughout the narrative?

Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

The transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” is in the character of Rainsford. Although in our lives we see several people staying on the same course, several characters do not witness any transformation.

Introduction to Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

The transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” is in the character of Rainsford. Although in our lives we see several people staying on the same course, several characters do not witness any transformation even in the imaginary world of fiction. They stay flat and the same as they are in the beginning of the story. Even among several such characters, there is an inner transformation manifested in their habits and attitude more than in their outward acts. Such as the stories of Richard Connell have the same characters who do not change their outward actions, but still, they go through a certain psychological or inward transformation. This transformation takes place due to several reasons. This transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”, presents a situation where a big-game hunter goes through a situation of being hunted by another hunter. Rainsford changes inwardly because he becomes a beast at heart and kills his pursuer, but outwardly he does not change and stays the same hunter who merely hunts.

Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Rainsford experiences change and psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” of being a hunted by the end of the story. He starts his voyage with his colleague Whitney to the Amazon to hunt the jaguars which are highly cunning animals. Therefore, they hope to enjoy this “best sport in the world” (Connell) but his friend thinks otherwise. Rainsford shows his true colors saying “You’re a big-game hunter, not a philosopher?” (Connell). These are his exact words and he feels pride at his being a lucky person that they are “the hunters” (Connell). This shows his pride in being lucky that they are among the hunters, but soon he found himself in the other role. He falls down from the yacht when looking out into the forest and reaches the forest where he finds a “palatial chateau” (Connell). As an experienced hunter, he instantly recognizes that there is something sinister in the air and that the forest is “An evil place”(Connell). He realizes that he has gone through these things earlier in his life for “it was not the first time” (Connell), he has been at such a place. But this is something different. He is finding it a mirage “but it was not a mirage” (4). Soon he was with the Cossack general with his dumb and deaf sidekick, enjoying a delicious meal and champagne. However, one thing about him was making him uncomfortable that was “he found the general studying him” (Connell). It ended when he told him that “I hunt more dangerous game” (5). This is the point where he found himself preparing psychologically but this transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” does not come to fruition as yet. He further added that he had experienced all types of hunting and this no more interests him. Therefore, he may go to pieces if he leaves it like (Connell), he tells Rainsford. This slow narration of the general slowly continued working on him psychologically and it reached its culmination when he told him that he wanted an “ideal animal” (Connell) at which he looked in disbelief at first. However, he wanted to confirm and demurred to which General Zaroff said that “Life is for the strong to be lived by the strong, to be lived, if needs be, taken by the strong “(Connell). He clearly understood what he meant and this was the point he protested to get rid of this but found no arguments working on the general. There were two choices to run and escape but to go to pieces by his sidekick Ivan. However, he chose the second one due to his psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” that he felt every minute of his life during this chase as an animal being hunted down. He was going through the same fear of pain and fear (1) and even tried several methods an animal would have tried such as cats and foxes. It is where this transformation made him feel “how an animal feels at bay” (Connell) and there he acted but like a reasoning human being and jumped into the sea to reach his chateau before him by swimming. When the general came to sleep in his bed he found the changed Rainsford there smiling saying “I am still a beast at bay” (Connell) which means that he has no reason now not to kill him. This shows how his mind transformed from a hunter to huntee and then “a beast at bay” (Connell).

Type of Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

The other argument that he does not change outwardly and there are no physical signs is also correct. No physical change is ever observed from his signs and polemics which take place in his mind that he has changed. First, he is seen arguing his case with his friend Whitney to tell him that animals do not feel as if they are “no understanding” (Connell) but he alerts him that they, though, understand “fear” (Connell). Then they talk about the place and there is no change whatsoever. Even when he falls down into the sea and makes his way to the sea, he is the same and there is no physical transformation. Then he reaches the “palatial chateau” (5) and faces the general at his dinner table. Again there is no transformation. Even when he is told that he is going to be a huntee, he does not experience any change and tries to deal with it through his reason. However, when he sees that there is no end, he goes through physical exertion by running for two full days in the forest. Still, he holds his mind saying “I will not lose my nerve.” (Connell). This shows that he has not changed physically though at the end he says that “I am still a beast at bay” (Connell) which is a sign of his psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”. He is the same lucky hunter who hunts down his pursuer.

Conclusion

Summing up the argument, it can be said that Rainsford witnesses a great psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” from the start of the story up to the end. He becomes a beast at heart and kills his hunter, though at the beginning he claims that he is lucky that he is not a huntee, but at the end, he is a hunter. However, physically he stays the same hunter who merely kills his pursuer. His psychological transformation is the same as an animal has to go through fear and pain of death when being hunted down by the hunters like him. However, he retains his nerves and does not lose his senses. Had he lost all this, he would have been an easy prey for General Zaroff, though he is his huntee, but it is his partly beast and partly human nature that makes him win the game by the end of the day. It means he is a round character though outwardly he is the same, Rainsford. But it is this inner transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” that matters.

Works Cited
  1. Connell, Richard. “The Most Dangerous Game.” 1994. Fiction Eserver. <http://fiction.eserver.org/short/the_most_dangerous_game.html>. Accessed 20 Nov. 2022.
Relevant Questions about Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell
  1. How does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” reflect the idea that power and privilege can lead to a disregard for human life, as seen through General Zaroff’s evolution from a seasoned hunter to a ruthless predator?
  2. What role does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” play in conveying the story’s central theme of the thin line between civilization and savagery, particularly as Rainsford experiences a shift in his perspective on life and death?
  3. How does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” underscore the eerie and unsettling nature of Ship-Trap Island, emphasizing how the isolated and dangerous environment can influence individuals, like the way it shapes the characters’ behaviors and decisions?