Day: September 13, 2023

Antecedents: Creating and Critiquing It

While not a literary device in the creative sense, antecedents are commonly used in literature to maintain clarity and effective communication.

Introduction to Antecedents

Antecedents are primarily grammatical elements used to establish clarity in language and writing. They serve as essential components of sentence structure, ensuring proper reference and coherence. While not a literary device in the creative sense, them are commonly used in literature to maintain clarity and effective communication.

How to Spot an Antecedent
Spotting an AntecedentStepsExample
Read the Sentence CarefullyStart by reading the sentence carefully to identify any pronouns.“She loves reading novels, but sometimes they can be challenging.” (Pronoun: they)
Look for CluesPay attention to the words and phrases around the pronoun. Often, the antecedent is nearby and provides context.“The cat chased the mouse, and it scurried away.” (Pronoun: it)
Check Previous SentencesIn some cases, the antecedent may appear in a preceding sentence, especially in more complex writing.“John was tired. He decided to take a nap.” (Pronoun: He)
Confirm ClarityEnsure that the pronoun and its antecedent make the sentence clear and logical. The antecedent should match the pronoun in gender, number, and person.“Sarah found her missing book. It was under the bed.” (Pronoun: It)
PracticeSpotting them becomes easier with practice. Read various texts and identify pronouns and their corresponding antecedents to improve your skills.Engage in reading exercises to identify pronoun-antecedent pairs effectively.
Benefits of Using Antecedent
  1. Enhanced Clarity: Well-chosen antecedents make communication clearer by connecting pronouns to their intended referents, reducing confusion.
  2. Improved Coherence: They contribute to overall coherence in writing, creating smoother transitions between ideas and sentences.
  3. Ambiguity Prevention: Effective them help avoid ambiguity, ensuring readers or listeners grasp the writer’s intended meaning.
  4. Concise Expression: Using them allows for more concise writing, as they replace repetitive nouns with pronouns.
  5. Enhanced Flow: Properly placed them improve the flow of writing, making it easier for readers to follow the text.
  6. Grammatical Accuracy: Using suitable them ensures grammatical correctness, maintaining agreement in gender, number, and person between pronouns and their antecedents.
Antecedent and Literary Theory
TheoryHow to Critique Antecedent
FormalismIn formalism, they aid in analyzing the structure and form of literary works. To critique antecedents, identify how they contribute to the overall structure and form of the text. Assess whether the choice of antecedents enhances or detracts from the work’s formal qualities.
Feminist TheoryFeminist literary theory explores how them in a text reflect gender roles or biases. To critique antecedents, analyze their portrayal of gender and whether they reinforce or challenge traditional gender stereotypes. Consider how antecedents contribute to the feminist discourse within the work.
Marxist TheoryMarxist literary theory considers how them relate to class distinctions and power dynamics. To critique antecedents, examine their role in depicting social hierarchies and economic disparities. Evaluate whether antecedents contribute to the Marxist critique of class struggle and inequality.
Psychoanalytic TheoryPsychoanalytic theory looks at how characters’ antecedents and their psychological development intersect. To critique antecedents, assess how they reveal characters’ motivations, desires, and inner conflicts. Analyze whether antecedents effectively contribute to the psychological depth of characters.
Postcolonial TheoryPostcolonial theory examines how them are used to depict cultural identity and colonial legacies. To critique antecedents, evaluate their portrayal of postcolonial experiences and identities. Consider whether antecedents contribute to a nuanced exploration of postcolonial themes.
Reader-Response TheoryReader-response theory focuses on how readers engage with texts. To critique antecedents, analyze how their interpretation varies among readers. Consider how different readers’ responses to antecedents affect their understanding and engagement with the text.
Suggested Readings
  1. Finegan, Edward. Language: Its Structure and Use. Cengage Learning, 2018.
  2. Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey K. Pullum. A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  3. Matthews, P. H. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics. Oxford University Press, 2007.
  4. Radford, Andrew. English Syntax: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  5. Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.
  6. Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Antecedent: A Lingusitic Term

The term “antecedent” is not typically considered a literary device in the same way that metaphors, similes, or alliteration are. It is more of a grammatical and linguistic concept than a literary device.

Etymology of Antecedent

The term “antecedent” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “antecedens,” which is the present participle of “antecedere,” meaning “to go before” or “precede.” This word reflects the fundamental concept of something that precedes or comes before another in a sequence, serving as a reference point, particularly in linguistics and grammar. Its Latin origin underscores its role in maintaining clarity and coherence in language and academic discourse.

Is Antecedent a Literary Device?

The term “antecedent” is not typically considered a literary device in the same way that metaphors, similes, or alliteration are. It is more of a grammatical and linguistic concept than a literary device.

However, it is still relevant in literary analysis because understanding antecedents can help in the interpretation of sentences, paragraphs, and dialogues in literature. It plays a crucial role in maintaining clarity and coherence in writing, including literary works. So, while it may not be a traditional literary device, it has significance in the study of literature.

Meaning of Antecedent
MeaningDescription
Linguistic ReferenceIn linguistics, an antecedent is a noun or phrase that a pronoun refers back to in a sentence, ensuring clarity in communication.
Historical PrecedenceIn historical contexts, an antecedent represents something that precedes or serves as a precedent for later events or developments.
Preexisting ConditionIn healthcare, an antecedent can refer to a preexisting condition or factor that contributes to a medical issue or disease.
Grammatical TermIn grammar, it is a word or phrase that a pronoun replaces in a sentence, aiding in sentence structure and coherence.
Psychological TriggerIn psychology, it refers to a stimulus or event that precedes a specific behavior or reaction in an individual.
Mathematical ContextIn mathematics, it signifies the first part of a mathematical ratio, sequence, or conditional statement.
Definition of Literary Device of Antecedent

An antecedent, as a literary device, refers to a noun or phrase that precedes and is later replaced or referred to by a pronoun in a sentence. This device is instrumental in maintaining sentence coherence and clarity by connecting pronouns to their intended referents within a text. It plays a pivotal role in enhancing the flow of narrative and discourse while aiding readers in understanding the relationships between different elements of a composition.

Common Features of an Antecedent
  • Preceding Noun or Phrase: An antecedent is typically a noun or phrase that precedes a pronoun in a sentence.
  • Pronoun Reference: It serves as the reference point for a pronoun that replaces or refers back to it within the same sentence or text.
  • Clarity Enhancer: Its primary function is to ensure clarity in communication by linking pronouns to their intended referents.
  • Grammatical Role: An antecedent often plays a specific grammatical role, such as the subject or object of a sentence, and influences the pronoun’s form and function.
  • Narrative Continuity: In storytelling, antecedents contribute to narrative continuity by connecting ideas and maintaining coherence in a text.
  • Various Forms: They take various forms, including proper nouns, common nouns, phrases, or even entire clauses, depending on the context.
  • Widespread Usage: They are prevalent literary devices found in both written and spoken language, facilitating smooth and comprehensible communication.
Types of Antecedents
Type of AntecedentExplanationExample
Simple AntecedentsConsist of single nouns or phrases directly preceding and corresponding to pronouns.– He likes pizza. (Antecedent: He)
Complex AntecedentsInvolve intricate noun phrases or clauses providing context for pronoun references.– The book that she lent to me is interesting. (Antecedent: The book that she lent to me)
Relative Pronoun AntecedentsAssociated with relative pronouns and found in sentences with relative clauses.– The cat that chased the mouse is fluffy. (Antecedent: The cat)
Indefinite AntecedentsRefer to unspecified or non-specific nouns, often used for generalization.– Someone left their umbrella. (Antecedent: Someone)
Collective AntecedentsConnected to collective nouns referring to groups of individuals.– The team celebrated its victory. (Antecedent: The team)
Demonstrative AntecedentsRelated to demonstrative pronouns, indicating specific items or entities.– This is the cake I made. (Antecedent: This)
Implicit AntecedentsAntecedents not explicitly stated but inferred from context.– She arrived late because of traffic. (Antecedent: She)
Compound AntecedentsInvolves multiple nouns connected by coordinating conjunctions, collectively serving as the antecedent.– John and Mary went shopping, and they bought clothes. (Antecedent: John and Mary)
Shakespearean Antecedents
  • Sonnet 18: In Sonnet 18 (Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?), the word “thou” serves as an antecedent referring to the subject of the poem, highlighting the speaker’s affection. (“Thou art more lovely and more temperate.”)
  • Macbeth: In Macbeth, the pronoun “him” often refers to King Duncan as the antecedent, as various characters discuss or conspire against him. (“To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day.”)
  • Romeo and Juliet: In Romeo and Juliet, the antecedent “her” is frequently used to refer to Juliet, emphasizing her central role in the tragic love story. (“But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks? It is the east, and Juliet is the sun.”)
  • A Midsummer Night’s Dream: In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the antecedent “they” often refers to the group of Athenian lovers, contributing to the confusion and humor in the play. (“Lovers and madmen have such seething brains, Such shaping fantasies, that apprehend More than cool reason ever comprehends.”)
  • Hamlet: In Hamlet, the pronoun “it” often serves as an antecedent to various objects or concepts, such as the ghost, the murder of King Hamlet, or Hamlet’s own madness. (“To be or not to be, that is the question: Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune…”)
Suggested Readings
  1. Crystal, David. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Wiley-Blackwell, 2020.
  2. Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Modern Language Association, 2016.
  3. Quirk, Randolph, and Sidney Greenbaum. A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English. Pearson, 1993.
  4. Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
  5. Huddleston, Rodney, and Geoffrey K. Pullum. A Student’s Introduction to English Grammar. Cambridge University Press, 2005.
  6. Finegan, Edward. Language: Its Structure and Use. Cengage Learning, 2018.

Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker: Racial Feminism

Although both writers, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker, were in different circumstances, there is a natural connection between them.

Introduction to Racial Feminism in Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker

Although both writers, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker, happen to be in different circumstances and contrasting times, there is a natural connection and relation in their writing in that both are African American women living in the United States where racial discrimination was very high until the Civil Rights Movement. Therefore, it is natural that both, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker, should have written about the situation of women. As Zora Neal Hurston happens to have lived in earlier times than Alice Walker, the stream of the evolution of racial/African American feminism runs through both of them to get rid of the irresponsible African American men to total independence in Alice Walker.  In her phenomenal work, Leith Mullings states, “Both [Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker] within … African American women continue to be defined in ways that deny their humanity” (Mullings). This is clear in Zora Neal Hurston’s story “Sweat” where she has presented the character of Delia Jones that refers to this “beyond it” (Mullings) situation. It is because the person who tortures her is not a white man or someone from another race, but her very husband from her African-American community, Sykes. Referring to Alice Walker and Patricia Hill Collins, she is of the view that it not only pervades society but also domestic affairs — the reason that b–k feminism started making headway in national politics and literature (Mullings). From Zora’s Delia Jones to Alice Walker’s mom, b–k feminism leaped fast from a simple desire for independence from male domination of the same race to complete independence. Whereas Zora presents a feministic point of getting rid of a patriarchal society, Alice Walker presents complete independence to supporting siblings.

“Sweat” and Zohra Neal Hurston

Delia Jones is Hurston’s protagonist in her story “Sweat” where she is working as a washerwoman, washing clothes for white people and earning her livelihood, because her husband Sykes is irresponsible to the point of sitting idle at home and torturing her for doing the labor. She used to collect “the soiled clothes” and “returned the clean things” (Hurston 568) until she has enough to make both ends meet. However, her husband is there only to make fun of her fear of snakes and uses his whip to this end. When Sykes is ready to pick up a fight with her, she is calm and silent and is not ready to pick up a fight. It is because she knows she has still a lot to do. He not only wants her to leave this but also wants her to serve him as if he is her master. She shows her feminist nature telling him that he has gone too far, but he again rebuffs and insults her. However, she has become stubborn. She blurts out strongly, “Mah sweat is done paid for this house” (571). She faces brutal thrashing but ultimately she stands up against him and he stops. This is an expression of feminism that she is bringing toward independence. The limit of her patience is crossed when he brings home a rattlesnake ostensibly with the purpose to kill her. However, it bites him instead of her, while she stands and sees him dying. This is a symbol of her getting independence. Commenting on the story, Marion C. Burk says, “Hurston makes subtle arguments to forward the cause of feminism — [by showing her that] protagonist Delia is a strong, independent woman who finds herself at the receiving end of a patriarchal society that strongly privileges men and denigrates women” (Burke) where Sykes has every right to beat her. Burke says Hurston is promoting b—k feminism in “Sweat.” However, this independence and b—k feminism in Alice Walker has reached its peak that both, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker, seem projecting it.

Feminism in both, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker

Mom in Alice Walker is clearly independent. She has made her best to educate her elder daughter Dee by sending her to a boarding school with the help of the local church. This “big boned woman with rough, man-working hands” (Walker 452) sharply contrasts with Delia Jones of Hurston who is weak to the point of only “humming a song in a mournful key” (Hurston 570). However, the mother of Maggie and Dee is strong as Sykes — the reason that she does not need a male figure like Sykes to torture here. She has responsibilities to fulfill and that she is fulfilling with great courage, stamina, and strength equal to men. According to Mullings, this is not the culture of resistance against male dominance, but the culture of identity where mom has made great efforts for her Dee to make a name so that she should have a clear identity (Mullings). Men are there in “Everyday Use” but their role is limited to only the past relics that they remember like Grandpa Jarrell and Grandpa Ezra and their shirts and uniforms (456). Her feminism does not allow her to truly exclude males from the female company. The males are very much there in the shape of Jimmy T and Assalamalakim but their role has been marginalized to the point of non-existence which started in Hurston in the shape of meekly seen the dying Sykes. The move that Hurston made through her character Delia Jones of getting rid of the patriarchal dominance completes in Alice Walker where male characters are left outside of the realm of the female struggle. Dee has full dominance over Hakim-e-Barbar, but at the same time, she has also changed because she knows that she would not find any other person better. The education brings awareness of the rights that the mother is confident to have given to Dee. Hence, she supports Maggie because she needs him, and not Dee who can take care of herself (459). She knows that she is independent and has to take care of her siblings. This show how both, Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker, project it in their respective stories.

Feminist Characters in Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker

However, here comes the disfigurement that Maggie has suffered from a fire that is a symbol of incidents. It could occur to women and how they can manage them. She knows that Maggie is totally dependent on her. However, she also knows that Dee has got Hakim-e-Barbar who can take care of not only herself but also her man. Therefore, she does not need any heritage that is after all the same — African-American though it comprises only quilts and pillows. The mother is aware that Maggie needs these things more than Dee. Therefore, she says at the end of the story that “I asked Maggie to bring me a dip of snuff” (491), and then she sits with her which is a collaboration. It is not only b—k feminism and women’s independence but it is also an indictment of the patriarchal society where men have no role while women have asserted themselves in every way in the household, taking care of the past as well as the future. In her essay, Marta Mazurek says “Walker turns to African American women’s everyday practices such as church singing, storytelling and taking care of gardens to trace expressions of their spirituality and art” which is clear from the role of the mother that she plays at home by doing everything (Mazurek).

Conclusion

Concluding the essay, it could be stated the evolution of African American feminism that started from Zora Neal Hurston in the shape of just avoiding male dominance to avoid torture reaches the point of total independence in the shape of the mother in Alice Walker. This then leads to the independence of the next generation like Dee, but at the same time, it has not ended as the mother has to take care of Maggie or those who cannot support themselves. This is the support of a woman for another woman with the intention that she should not face the same neglect with the race and cruelty outside of it. Therefore, this racial theme is very much clear and interrelated in both Zora Neal Hurston and Alice Walker.

Works Cited

  1. Burke, Marion C. “Zora Neale Hurston’s Sweat and the B—k Female Voice: The Perspective of the African-American Woman.” Women Studies. 4(5). 2012. pp. 1-2.
  2. Hurston, Zora Neal. “Sweat” Charters, Anne. The Story and Its Writer. New York: Bedford /St. Martins, 2014. 570-579.
  3. Mullings, Leith. “African American Women Making Themselves.” Columbia. Columbia. 2000. Web. 06 Aug. 2015.
  4. Mazurek, Marta. “African American Women and Feminism: Alice Walker’s Womanism as a Proposition of a Dialogic Encounter.” Lingua Mundi. Lingua Mundi. n. d. Web. 06 Aug. 2015.
  5. Walker, Alice. “Everday Use” Charters, Anne. The Story and Its Writer. New York: Bedford /St. Martins, 2014. 452-461
Relevant Questions about Zora Neale Hurston’s and Alice Walker’s Racial Feminism
  1. How did Zora Neale Hurston’s and Alice Walker’s respective works contribute to the evolution of racial feminism in the 20th century?
  2. In what ways did Zora Neale Hurston and Alice Walker address intersectionality within their writings, exploring both race and gender through their unique perspectives on racial feminism?
  3. Could you elaborate on the key differences in the racial feminist ideologies advocated by Zora Neale Hurston and Alice Walker, shedding light on their distinct literary and philosophical contributions to the movement?

“Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”

The short story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been” by Joyce Carol Oates can be interpreted on several levels including characters.

Introduction to “Where are You Going…”

The short story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been” by Joyce Carol Oates can be interpreted on several levels with characters having several historical and allegorical similarities. The story is about a 15-year old middle-class white girl thrown in the midst of the glamorous American culture dominated by music, automobiles, fast food, and evening outings. Like every other juvenile, Connie tries to break the social order in which parents have a dominant role in the safety and behavioral upbringing of a girl. She loves to be out in the open to enjoy life with other girls and boys of her age, but in-between these daydreams of enjoyments, this just 15-year old girl has the reality staring in her face in the shape of what her parents, society (the next-door neighbor) and other siblings would say in case they find out that she has crossed the social limits. On the other hand, the allurement of the modern culture, music, car riding, fast food, and the flattery exercised by a pretty young chap with threats to her dear ones have worked upon her mind to the point that she is ready to leave home with Arnold Friend in the story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”

Modern Culture in “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been” and Connie

Although the point of whether it is a fantasy or a reality is debatable, the argument that Connie loves modern culture is a reality in “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”. It is clear from the very start that she does not like her mother to praise June who has conformed to the traditional culture of a dominant parenting structure. She is fed up with hearing “June did this, June did that, she saved money” and all other such would-be-expected-of-her niceties (Oates 1). She loves going out with other girls and boys of her age, for June has had this freedom as “June went to places with girl friends of her,” while she is allowed only to go with the father of her girlfriends. She wants music and is obsessed with the idea of having music as “something to depend upon” (2).  Arnold Friend knows that this allurement of the modern culture has had effects on Connie. That is why he brings a radio with her that she “began to hear music” and by the end, it dawns upon her that even this music seems “so familiar to her was only half real” and not a complete reality (7). The other allurement that Arnold Friend uses very successfully to seduce Connie is the automobile and music with fast food. He comes in a good car with his friend Ellie carrying a radio and constantly playing music to trap her. He comes straight to the point when he talks to her in the beginning, “We come out here to take you for a ride” (4). When he does not see himself succeeding, he again throws the same bait before her of taking her to “have a nice ride” with them (6). However, it is another thing that despite both of these modern baits of seducing a girl at work, Connie feels something that is not right. She instantly comes to know that Arnold Friend is not a boy but an old predator of girls when she asks him his age and he cries out saying “That’s a crazy thing to ask. Can’tcha see I’m your own age?” which is not the fact (7) and she knows from the reality in the story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”.

Allegorical Interpretations of “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”

Another trick used by Arnold Friend is the same used by the allegorical namesake Arch Fiend or Satan against Adam in Heaven if the story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been” is interpreted on this level. It is flattery. He comes to use flattery until he achieves his end. He calls her pretty, honey, and everything that he can think to lure her into his trap. He even makes her believe, “I like the way you are, honey” to assure her that she is a pretty girl (7). She has already in mind that she is pretty. For a girl of 15 to be conscious that she is pretty, it is very difficult to resist an offer from a modern and stylish young man like Arnold Friend who not only owns modern gadgets but also uses an oily tongue. When she finds out his real intentions, she refuses, and true to his character, Arnold Friend comes down to threaten her. He knows that if flattery and baits fail, the threat of harm to near and dear ones works wonders. He clearly tells her to give her hand and that “nobody else gets hurt” or else it would be the other way round (7). This works and she comes with him in a trance-like state, but this state and the beginning of this fantasy both show that it is a daydream in which she has lost herself. It is the situation in which she finds herself when she is left by all other members of the family at home and she hears music after which she “seemed to rise mysteriously out of the music itself and lay languidly about the airless little room” (3). She then finds herself with Arnold Friend in a conversation to go out.

Conclusion

The debate about whether this is a daydreaming or a reality is beside the point, the argument that this daydreaming or fantasy has shown her a true reality carries weight by the end of the story “Where are You Going, Where Have You Been”. She is clearly seen on the side of her family, a loving nucleus from which she does not want to break away. She accepts Friend’s offer to come out only when he assures her that nobody else will get hurt and if she has not come out, it means her parents are in danger. The baits of modern luxuries and flattery fail where threats to loved ones work.  Therefore, it is fair to say that it is a dream through which she has learned the lesson of not crossing social limits set by parents for their kids. She comes to know that there are risks lurking behind every other glittering bait. This exposure to reality through daydreaming is set to make her aware of all the dangers around her.

Works Cited

Oates, Joyce Carol. “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been” NDSU. n. d. Web. 2 Dec. 2022.

Relevant Questions about “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been”
  1. How does Connie’s character evolve throughout the story “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been”? What internal and external factors contribute to these changes in her personality and actions?
  2. What role does Connie’s obsession with her appearance and desire for independence play in shaping her character and ultimately leading to the climax of the story? How do these traits influence her decisions and interactions with others?
  3. In “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been,” how does Connie’s character serve as a symbol of the vulnerability and naiveté often associated with adolescents? How does the author use Connie’s character to explore themes of innocence and danger in the story?