Day: September 14, 2023

Anticlimax: Creating and Critiquing It

An anticlimax is a literary device characterized by disappointing shift in narrative tension or emotional intensity with unfavorable result.

Introduction to Anticlimax

An anticlimax is a literary device characterized by a sudden and disappointing shift in narrative tension or emotional intensity, typically resulting in an underwhelming resolution or outcome. It serves to subvert the audience’s expectations, often by deflating the buildup of suspense or excitement, and can be employed for various purposes, such as humor, irony, or commentary on the human condition. This device is particularly effective in creating contrast and highlighting the absurdity or mundanity of a situation.

Literary Examples of Anti-Climax
WorkAnti-ClimaxExplanation
Hemingway: The Old Man and the SeaAfter Santiago’s epic battle with the marlin, he returns to shore, only to find that the sharks have devoured his prized catch, leaving only the skeleton.This anticlimax contrasts the heroism and determination of Santiago’s struggle with the harsh reality of his loss, emphasizing themes of perseverance and the inevitability of defeat.
Golding: Lord of the FliesThe novel’s climax occurs when the boys are rescued by a naval officer. However, the officer’s arrival reveals the true savagery of the boys and the dark nature of humanity.This anticlimax subverts the expectation of a traditional rescue and highlights the novel’s overarching theme of the inherent evil within society.
Achebe: Things Fall ApartThe novel builds tension as Okonkwo faces the encroachment of colonialism. However, Okonkwo’s eventual suicide represents a tragic and unexpected anti-climax.This anticlimax underscores the devastating impact of colonialism on traditional societies and challenges the reader’s expectations of a triumphant resolution.
Nagogi: The Sailor Who Fell from Grace with the SeaThe novel’s climax involves the shocking murder of a sailor. However, the aftermath reveals the disturbing nature of the teenage boys’ actions.This anticlimax subverts the expectation of a traditional murder mystery resolution and explores themes of nihilism and the loss of innocence.
Mahfouz: The Thief and the DogsThe novel follows the protagonist Said Mahran’s quest for revenge. However, the story concludes with his death in an anticlimactic encounter.This anticlimax challenges the conventional narrative of revenge and emphasizes the futility of violence and hatred.
Gurnah: By the SeaThe novel revolves around the protagonist’s journey to uncover family secrets. However, the revelation of these secrets does not lead to resolution but rather deepens the sense of loss.This anticlimax highlights the complexities of identity, memory, and the unresolved past, questioning the possibility of closure.
How to Create an Anticlimax
  1. Building Up Expectations: Begin by crafting a compelling narrative or scene that raises expectations and engages your readers. Create a sense of anticipation through vivid descriptions, emotional tension, or dramatic events.
  2. Heightening the Conflict: As you progress, intensify the conflict or problem within your story. Make it seem like a major turning point or climax is imminent, drawing readers deeper into the narrative.
  3. Foreshadowing a Spectacular Resolution: Drop hints or foreshadow a spectacular or satisfying resolution to the conflict. Give readers a glimpse of what they might expect, making them believe that something grand is about to happen.
  4. Introducing an Unexpected Twist: Just when the anticipation peaks, introduce an unexpected twist or event that defies readers’ expectations. This twist should subvert the buildup of tension and anticipation.
  5. Shifting Focus or Downplaying the Climax: Redirect the narrative’s focus away from the anticipated climax. You can do this by shifting the perspective to a less significant character, changing the setting, or downplaying the importance of the conflict.
  6. Injecting Humor or Absurdity: Incorporate elements of humor or absurdity into the narrative. This can create a jarring contrast with the previous tension and make the anticlimax more pronounced.
  7. Resolving the Conflict in a Mundane or Unexpected Way: Conclude the conflict in a mundane, anticlimactic, or unexpected manner. Avoid providing the satisfying resolution that readers anticipated, opting for a more ordinary outcome.
  8. Reflecting on the Irony: After the anticlimax, take a moment to reflect on the irony of the situation. Consider how the outcome contrasts with readers’ expectations and the earlier buildup.
  9. Using Literary Devices: Utilize literary devices like irony, understatement, or reversal to accentuate the anticlimax. These techniques can emphasize the gap between what readers expected and what actually transpired.
  10. Leaving Room for Interpretation: Conclude your writing by leaving room for interpretation or reflection. Allow readers to ponder the significance of the anticlimax and its implications for the story’s themes or characters.
Benefits of Using Anticlimax
  1. Subversion of Expectations: An anticlimax defies conventional storytelling by subverting the audience’s expectations for a traditional, dramatic climax. This element of surprise can engage and captivate the audience.
  2. Thought-Provoking: Anticlimaxes often prompt reflection and discussion among the audience or readers. They challenge preconceived notions and encourage deeper exploration of the story’s themes and messages.
  3. Character Development: Anticlimaxes provide opportunities for nuanced character development. Characters’ reactions to unexpected resolutions can reveal their true nature, motives, or growth throughout the narrative.
  4. Exploration of Irony: Anticlimaxes frequently involve ironic twists or outcomes, adding layers of complexity to the story. This exploration of irony can enhance the narrative’s depth and meaning.
  5. Emotional Impact: When executed effectively, anticlimaxes can evoke strong emotional responses from the audience. These may include shock, humor, or a sense of tragedy, depending on the tone of the story.
  6. Artistic Creativity: Incorporating an anti-climax showcases the writer’s creativity and willingness to challenge traditional storytelling conventions. It allows for experimentation with narrative structures and can set a work apart as unique and memorable.
Anti-Climax and Literary Theory
Literary TheoryCritique of Anti-ClimaxExample
FormalismCritique: In formalism, anticlimaxes may be seen as disruptions of narrative structure and unity. Critics might argue that anti-climactic resolutions detract from the work’s overall coherence.Example: In Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Tell-Tale Heart,” the narrator’s confession and subsequent breakdown at the end can be critiqued as an anti-climax because it defies the expectation of a more traditional resolution or confrontation.
Feminist TheoryCritique: Feminist literary theory may critique anticlimaxes in terms of gender representation. If an anti-climax disproportionately affects female characters or reinforces gender stereotypes, it can be seen as problematic.Example: In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the ending where the protagonist descends into madness and her husband faints can be critiqued through a feminist lens for portraying a gendered power dynamic.
Marxist TheoryCritique: Marxist literary theory may assess anticlimaxes in relation to class dynamics and social critique. An anti-climax that preserves the status quo or fails to challenge societal structures can be critiqued as conformist.Example: In George Orwell’s novel Animal Farm, the ending where the pigs become indistinguishable from the humans can be critiqued as an anti-climax that reflects the failure of the revolution and perpetuates class distinctions.
Psychoanalytic TheoryCritique: Psychoanalytic theory explores the psychological development of characters. An anticlimax that leaves characters’ motivations unexamined can be critiqued for failing to delve into their underlying psychological conflicts.Example: In Arthur Miller’s play “Death of a Salesman,” the protagonist Willy Loman’s suicide can be critiqued from a psychoanalytic perspective for not fully delving into his complex psychological struggles and the root causes of his actions.
Postcolonial TheoryCritique: Postcolonial theory may critique anticlimaxes in terms of their portrayal of cultural identity and colonial legacies. If an anti-climax simplifies or trivializes these issues, it can be seen as insensitive or regressive.Example: In Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart, the ending with Okonkwo’s tragic death can be critiqued through a postcolonial lens for its complex portrayal of the collision of cultures and the impact of colonialism.
Reader-Response TheoryCritique: Reader-response theory focuses on the readers’ interpretations and reactions. An anti-climax that leaves readers unsatisfied or disengaged can be critiqued for not effectively engaging its audience.Example: In Shirley Jackson’s short story “The Lottery,” the shocking but anticlimactic stoning of the lottery winner can be critiqued for its unsettling effect on readers, challenging their expectations and eliciting strong reactions.
Suggested Readings
  1. Baker, George Pierce. Dramatic Technique. Good Press, 2019.
  2. Elam, Keir. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. Routledge, 2002.
  3. Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. Vintage, 2004.
  4. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
  5. Hornby, Richard. Drama, Metadrama and Perception. The Athlone Press, 2001.
You may read more on Literary Devices below:

Anti-Climax: A Literary Device

A promise fulfilled may be a classic moment but prophecies mean anti-climax. How much awesome was an unexpected salvation? China Miéville

Etymology of Anti-Climax

The term “anti-climax” has its roots in Greek and Latin. It combines the Greek word “anti,” meaning “against” or “opposite,” with the Latin word “climax,” which originally referred to a ladder or a series of steps.

With time, “climax” came to represent the high point or culmination of a story or event. Therefore, “anti-climax” was coined to describe a disappointing or underwhelming moment that occurs after building up expectations for something significant or exciting. It also means a reversal or contrary to the expected climax.

Meaning of Anti-Climax
DisciplineMeaning
Literary and NarrativeAnti-climax in literature refers to a disappointing or underwhelming resolution or event that occurs after a series of rising expectations, often contrasting with the anticipated climax, creating a letdown for the audience or readers.
Dramatic and TheatricalIn theater and drama, anti-climax denotes a moment or scene where tension or excitement deflates, resulting in a less impactful or less dramatic resolution compared to what was expected or built up.
Comic EffectIn comedy, anti-climax is a humorous device where a situation or punchline falls flat, intentionally defying expectations for comedic effect, often playing on the element of surprise.
Rhetorical DeviceIn rhetoric, anti-climax is used as a deliberate descending order of importance in a series of ideas or statements, often for satirical or comedic purposes, with the least important item placed at the end for emphasis.
Scientific ContextIn scientific discussions, an anti-climax can refer to a situation where research or experimental results fail to meet the anticipated or highly promoted outcomes, leading to disappointment or a less significant discovery than expected.
Emotional ImpactIn psychology and emotional contexts, an anti-climax describes a situation where emotional intensity abruptly diminishes, leaving individuals feeling let down or unfulfilled after high expectations or excitement.
Cinematic and Visual ArtsIn film and visual storytelling, anti-climax can occur when a movie or artwork intentionally subverts traditional narrative structures, leading to a less dramatic or less conclusive ending than the audience might expect.
Historical EventsIn history, an anti-climax refers to a significant event or turning point that ultimately leads to an unsatisfactory or uneventful outcome, disappointing those who anticipated a more dramatic or meaningful resolution.
Definition of Anti-Climax as Literary Device

Anti-climax in literature is a rhetorical device characterized by a sudden and disappointing shift from a heightened or intense situation to a less significant or underwhelming outcome, often used to evoke humor, surprise, or satirical effect.

This device subverts the reader’s or audience’s expectations, diminishing the dramatic tension or emotional impact built up in the preceding narrative or scene, serving as a tool for commentary on the absurdity of life or human folly in the context of the work.

Features of Anti-Climax
FeatureExplanationExample
Sudden DisappointmentAnti-climax entails a sudden and unexpected shift in narrative tension, moving from an eagerly anticipated climax to a notably less significant or even disheartening outcome, often leaving readers or viewers surprised and disappointed.In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio’s dramatic death is followed by his humorously mundane last words: “Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man.”
Surprise or IronyThis device occurs to catch the audience off guard, generating either surprise or ironic amusement by defying their established expectations, resulting in a subversion of the anticipated dramatic resolution.In O. Henry’s short story, “The Gift of the Magi,” a woman sells her hair to buy her husband a gift, only to discover he sold his watch to purchase combs for her hair.
Satirical EffectAnti-climax serves as a powerful tool in a satire, enabling authors to critique societal norms, conventions, or absurdity by intentionally undermining traditional narrative structures and creating a satirical or critical narrative impact.In Jonathan Swift’s satirical essay, A Modest Proposal, a proposal to address overpopulation by consuming children is presented in a composed, rational manner.
Emphasis on the MundaneOften, this device accentuates the mundane or ordinary aspects of life, contrasting sharply with preceding dramatic buildups, thereby highlighting the inconsequential or everyday nature of certain events or resolutions.In the film The Truman Show, Truman’s escape from his artificial world leads to an anticlimactic sequence as he navigates mundane obstacles, such as heavy traffic.
Narrative SubversionBy deliberately challenging conventional narrative structures and undermining the anticipated resolution, anti-climax offers authors a unique means of creating a narrative impact that departs from traditional storytelling norms.In Franz Kafka’s novella, The Metamorphosis the protagonist’s transformation into a giant insect ultimately culminates in an anticlimactic ending devoid of resolution or closure.
Emotional ImpactWhile anti-climax often diminishes the emotional impact of a narrative, it elicits specific emotions such as disappointment, amusement, or a sense of absurdity, contingent upon the author’s intent and execution.In the television series The Office, Jim’s elaborate proposal to Pam concludes with an anticlimactic “Plan C” involving a gas station and unexpected rain, evoking both laughter and empathy.
Commentary and CritiqueAnti-climax provides authors with a platform to make social or cultural commentary, allowing them to criticize unrealistic or exaggerated societal expectations, norms, or outcomes in the context of their work.In George Orwell’s allegorical novella, Animal Farm, the animals’ revolution against humans results in an anticlimactic return to oppression under the rule of the pigs, offering a pointed critique of the Russian Revolution.
Types of Anti-Climax
TypeExplanationExample
Literary Anti-ClimaxDisappointing events follow a dramatic build-up.After a long and epic battle, the hero defeats the villain with a single slap.
Rhetorical Anti-ClimaxItems or ideas presented in ascending order of importance end with something less significant.We need to address world hunger, global conflict, and the lack of office parking spaces.
Sexual Anti-ClimaxA romantic or passionate moment is ruined by something comical or embarrassing.The characters share a passionate kiss, but a bird drops something on their heads.
Comedic Anti-ClimaxComedy uses an unexpected or mundane punchline to subvert expectations.A long joke with an elaborate setup ends with a simple and unexpected punchline.
Narrative Anti-ClimaxA story’s resolution is unsatisfying or the conflict is resolved too easily or predictably.The detective stumbles upon the solution to a complex mystery by accident.
Dramatic Irony Anti-ClimaxThe audience knows something the characters don’t, leading to dashed expectations.A character opens a closet door expecting a monster, but the audience knows it’s in the next room.
Satirical Anti-ClimaxSatire uses disappointment to critique or mock social, political, or cultural situations.A politician promises grandiose changes but only delivers a trivial policy change.
Suggested Readings
  1. Alexander Gurd, Sean. Dissonance: Auditory Aesthetics in Ancient Greece. Idiom: inventing writing theory. New York: Fordham University Press, 2016.
  2. Elam, Keir. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. Routledge, 2002.
  3. Esslin, Martin. The Theatre of the Absurd. Vintage, 2004.
  4. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
  5. Hornby, Richard. Drama, Metadrama and Perception. The Athlone Press, 2001.

Dialectical Materialism in Literature & Theory

Dialectical Materialism posits that historical progress results from resolving contradictions within the material world, especially in the context of class struggle.

Etymology of Dialectical Materialism

Dialectical Materialism, a term coined by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century, combines two key elements. It blends “dialectics,” the study of change through opposing forces, with “materialism,” which emphasizes the importance of the material world.

This philosophical framework posits that historical progress results from resolving contradictions within the material world, especially in the context of class struggle. It played a central role in developing Marxist theory and its applications in politics and economics.

Meanings of Dialectical Materialism
MeaningDescription
Philosophical FrameworkDialectical Materialism is a philosophical framework that combines dialectics and materialism.
Clash of Opposing ForcesIt involves the study of change through the clash of opposing forces or ideas (dialectics).
Material World EmphasisIt emphasizes the significance of the material world and its underlying processes (materialism).
Coined by Marx and EngelsKarl Marx and Friedrich Engels used this term in their works in the 19th century.
Historical ProgressIt suggests that historical progress occurs through resolving contradictions in the material world.
Class StruggleDialectical Materialism is often applied to analyze class struggle dynamics in society.
Marxist Theory FoundationIt played a central role in the development of Marxist theory and its applications in politics and economics.
Definition of Dialectical Materialism as a Theoretical Term

Dialectical Materialism, as a theoretical term, is a philosophical framework that asserts that historical and societal development is driven by the continuous interplay of opposing forces within the material world. This perspective, initially formulated by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, emphasizes the pivotal role of material conditions in shaping human history and serves as the foundational theoretical basis of Marxist thought.

Dialectical Materialism: Theorists, Works and Argument
TheoristsWorksArgument in Literary Theory and Criticism
Karl Marx– The Communist Manifesto– Historical Materialism: Dialectical materialism when applied to literature emphasizes the socio-economic and historical context in which literary works are created.
Friedrich Engels– Capital (Das Kapital)– Class Struggle: Literary analysis from a Dialectical materialist perspective often explores how class conflict and material conditions influence characters, plots, and themes.
– Ideological Critique: Dialectical materialism is used to uncover and critique the ideological underpinnings of literature, revealing how it reflects or challenges dominant societal norms.
– Materialist Analysis: Focuses on the material conditions of the author’s life and the society in which they lived as factors influencing literary creation.
– Dialectical Process: Literary critics employing dialectical materialism examine contradictions and conflicts within literary works to uncover deeper societal truths.
Dialectical Materialism and Literary Theories
Literary TheoryIntegral Role of Dialectical Materialism
Marxist Literary Theory– Dialectical materialism serves as the foundational framework for analyzing literature within a Marxist context, incorporating class struggle, historical materialism, and ideological critique.
Historical Materialism– Dialectical materialism forms the basis of historical materialism, a central component of Marxist literary theory. It examines how material conditions and class conflicts shape literary works in specific historical contexts.
Class Analysis– Dialectical materialism is indispensable for class analysis within literary theory, providing tools to examine literature’s reflection and critique of class hierarchies, economic systems, and power dynamics.
Ideological Critique– Dialectical materialism is a fundamental tool for ideological critique in literary analysis, facilitating the uncovering and analysis of underlying ideologies in literary works, whether reinforcing or challenging dominant beliefs.
Materialist Analysis– Dialectical materialism plays a crucial role in materialist analysis, focusing on the material conditions of an author’s life and the socio-economic context in which they wrote. This perspective provides insights into the themes and content of literary works.
Conflict and Contradiction– Its emphasis on conflict and contradiction is vital in literary theory. It aids in exploring the conflicts within literary works and how they reflect broader societal tensions and contradictions.
Historical Context– Its attention to historical context is essential in literary analysis, helping scholars understand how literature is shaped by historical forces and class struggles of its time, making it an integral part of historical literary criticism.
Examples: Dialectical Materialism in Literary Criticism

Example 1: Novel Analysis (Title: The Dispossessed by Ursula K. Le Guin – 1974): In Ursula K. Le Guin’s novel The Dispossessed, the protagonist lives in a society marked by stark economic disparities between anarcho-communist and capitalist worlds. Through a Dialectical Materialist lens, we can critique the novel by examining the material conditions that underlie these two societies. Le Guin explores how the economic structures and ownership of resources shape individuals’ lives. The contrasting worlds reflect the impact of different modes of production and property relations on human existence. This analysis allows us to engage in a critical discussion about the materialist aspects of social organization and class struggle in the 1970s, ultimately challenging the prevailing economic ideologies of the era.

Example 2: Short Story Analysis (Title: “The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas” by Ursula K. Le Guin – 1973): Ursula K. Le Guin’s short story “The Ones Who Walk Away from Omelas” presents a utopian city built on the suffering of a single child. Applying dialectical materialism, we can critique the story by examining the material conditions that sustain this seemingly perfect society. The narrative raises questions about the ethical and moral implications of a society that sacrifices one individual for the benefit of the many. This analysis highlights the materialistic underpinnings of social systems and the ethical dilemmas they entail, encouraging readers to consider the trade-offs and contradictions inherent in societal structures of the 1970s.

Example 1: Poem Analysis (Title: “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost – 1916, but influential in the 1970s and beyond): Robert Frost’s poem “The Road Not Taken,” though written earlier in the 20th century, continued to be relevant during 70s and beyond. Applying dialectical materialism to this poem, we can critique it by examining the material conditions and choices individuals face in their lives. The poem’s narrator reflects on a pivotal choice, symbolizing the paths people take in life. From a materialist perspective, we can interpret this choice as being influenced by social and economic factors. The poem can be seen as a commentary on the limitations and possibilities presented by one’s socio-economic circumstances. Analyzing it through Dialectical Materialism, we gain insight into how material conditions shape life’s trajectories.

Example 2: Poem Analysis (Title: “A Supermarket in California” by Allen Ginsberg – 1956, influential in the 1970s and beyond): Allen Ginsberg’s poem “A Supermarket in California,” though written in the 1950s, continued to influence literature in the 1970s and beyond. Applying dialectical materialism to this poem, we can critique it by examining the materialistic aspects of consumer culture and its impact on individual identity. The poem’s imagery of Walt Whitman in a modern supermarket reflects the clash between the poet’s ideals and the consumer-driven society of the mid-20th century. Through this lens, we can analyze how the material conditions of the time, including the rise of consumerism and conformity, influenced the poet’s vision and the tensions between personal expression and social norms.

Suggested Readings
Books:
  1. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Verso, 2018.
  2. Lukács, Georg. History and Class Consciousness: Studies in Marxist Dialectics. MIT Press, 1971.
  3. Lenin, Vladimir I. Materialism and Empirio-Criticism. International Publishers, 1972.
  4. Althusser, Louis. For Marx. Verso, 2005.
  5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Search for a Method. Vintage, 1968.
  6. Colletti, Lucio. From Rousseau to Lenin: Studies in Ideology and Society. Monthly Review Press, 1972.
Edited Collections:
  1. Ollman, Bertell, ed. Dialectical Investigations. Routledge, 1993.
  2. Callinicos, Alex, ed. Marxism and Philosophy. Clarendon Press, 1983.

Differance in Literature & Literary Theory

Derrida used this neologism to convey the complex nature of meaning and language, showing that “Différance” suggests that meaning in language constantly shifts.

Etymology of Differance

The term “differance” coined by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida, is a deliberate play on words that embodies his philosophical ideas. It combines the French words “différer” (to differ or defer) and “déférance” (deference or reference).

Derrida used this neologism to convey the complex nature of meaning and language. “Différance” suggests that meaning in language constantly shifts. It is deferred as words gain significance through their relationships with other words, creating a dynamic and ever-evolving interplay of signification.

Meanings of Differance
MeaningExplanation
1. Linguistic DeconstructionIn the context of deconstructionist philosophy, “différance” refers to the idea that meaning in language is not fixed but is always deferred or postponed. It highlights the inherent ambiguity and instability of language, suggesting that words and signs gain their meaning through their relationships with other words and signs.
2. Neologism and Wordplay“Différance” is a neologism coined by Jacques Derrida, formed by combining the French words “différer” (to differ or defer) and “déférance” (deference or reference). This deliberate wordplay captures the essence of Derrida’s philosophy, emphasizing the complex relationship between language, meaning, and reference.
3. Critique of Fixed MeaningDerrida’s concept of “différance” challenges traditional philosophical notions of fixed meaning and truth. It encourages a reevaluation of how language constructs reality and highlights the shifting and deferred nature of linguistic signification.
4. Influence on Deconstructionism“Différance” is a foundational concept in deconstructionist philosophy, influencing how scholars approach texts, language, and the deconstruction of binary oppositions. It has had a profound impact on literary and philosophical discourse.
Definition of Differance as a Theoretical Term

“Differance” refers to the inherent instability and ambiguity of language and meaning. It emphasizes that meaning in language is not fixed but is continually deferred or postponed, creating a web of interconnected signifiers. This concept challenges traditional notions of fixed meaning, highlighting the complexity of linguistic signification and its role in constructing reality in poststructuralism and deconstructionism.

Differance: Theorists, Works and Argument
TheoristKey WorksArgument
Jacques DerridaSpeech and Phenomena (1967)Derrida discusses the concept of “differance” in the context of Husserlian phenomenology, highlighting the ways in which meaning is deferred in language.
Of Grammatology (1967)He extensively explores “differance” in this foundational work, laying out the complex relationships between speech, writing, and meaning. He argues that written language reveals the deferred nature of linguistic signs.
His argument centers on the idea that meaning in language is not stable or fixed but is instead deferred and elusive. He contends that language relies on differences between words and signs to convey meaning, and these differences create a network of references that continually defer ultimate meaning. “Differance” challenges traditional notions of fixed meaning and linear communication, emphasizing the complexities of linguistic signification and the inherent instability of language.
Differance and Literary Theories
Literary TheoryUse of Differance
StructuralismIn structuralism, “Differance” challenges the structuralist notion of fixed binary oppositions. It demonstrates that language itself is marked by differences and deferrals, rendering any stable binary structures elusive. For example, “differance” reveals that meanings in language are constantly deferred, challenging the fixed distinctions between signifier and signified.
DeconstructionDeconstruction, heavily influenced by Derrida’s ideas, incorporates “Differance” as a central concept. Deconstructionists apply “differance” to texts by examining how meaning is deferred, showing that texts contain internal contradictions and complexities that undermine their apparent stability. They reveal how binary oppositions within texts are blurred and disrupted, exposing the inherent ambiguity of language.
PoststructuralismPoststructuralist literary theories, which include deconstruction, use “differance” to critique the limitations of structuralism and challenge the idea of a fixed, universal meaning in literature. Poststructuralists argue that texts are open to multiple interpretations due to the deferral and differences inherent in language. They emphasize that “differance” highlights the need for nuanced, context-dependent readings of texts.
Reader-Response TheoryReader-response theorists acknowledge that readers’ interpretations of a text are influenced by the deferrals and differences in language. It underscores that readers actively participate in the production of meaning through their engagement with a text, and their interpretations may vary due to the inherent ambiguity in language.
New CriticismWhile New Criticism traditionally focuses on close reading and formal analysis, the concept of “differance” challenges the assumption of a stable, fixed meaning within a text. New Critics recognize that even within tightly woven texts, there exist layers of meaning that are deferred and open to multiple interpretations.
PostcolonialismPostcolonial literary theorists apply “differance” to highlight how colonial discourses are marked by deferrals and differences. They analyze how colonized peoples’ voices and identities are deferred within colonial texts, revealing the complexities of cultural and linguistic domination.
Feminist Literary TheoryFeminist theorists use “differance” to deconstruct gender binary oppositions and show how they are deferred and constructed through language. This approach allows them to explore the nuanced ways in which gender identities and roles are shaped by cultural and linguistic differences.
Queer TheoryQueer theorists employ “Differance” to examine how language and cultural norms construct and defer non-normative sexual identities. They argue that “differance” challenges the fixed categorization of sexual identities and exposes the fluidity and complexity of sexual orientation.
Examples: Differance in Literary Criticism
Literary WorkApplication of Differance in Criticism
White Noise by Don DeLillo (1985)In White Noise, differance shows th analysis of the portrayal of consumer culture and its influence on characters’ identities. The novel’s use of advertising jargon, brand names, and consumer products highlights the characters’ alienation and disconnection from authentic cultural experiences. The exploration of the commodification of death can be seen as a critique of consumer-driven societies.
The Famished Road by Ben Okri (1991)In The Famished Road, differance is applied to explore how language and symbolism contribute to the deferral of meaning in the novel. The protagonist’s journey challenges conventional distinctions between reality and fantasy within the context of magical realism.
Housekeeping by Marilynne Robinson (1980)In Housekeeping, differance is analyzed to explore themes of loss, memory, and identity. The narrative’s sense of deferral and ambiguity is evident as characters grapple with their pasts and changing surroundings. Language is used to convey the deferral of meaning, highlighting complex relationships.
Blindness by José Saramago (1995)In Blindness, differance shows the analysis of the fragility of language and the challenges of conveying meaning when communication breaks down during an epidemic of blindness. The novel underscores the dependence on language in a world without sight.
Suggested Readings
  1. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
  2. Derrida, Jacques. Margins of Philosophy. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1982.
  3. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1978.
  4. Wortham, Simon Morgan, and Yvonne Sherwood. The Derrida Dictionary. Continuum, 2010.
  5. Glendinning, Simon. Derrida: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2011.

Communism in “The Garden Party”

Communism in “The Garden Party” by Katherine Mansfield is perhaps the first trace of this leftist perspective shown suppressed by the family.

Introduction to Communism in “The Garden Party”

Communism in “The Garden Party” by Katherine Mansfield is perhaps the first trace of this leftist perspective shown suppressed by the family and friends so successfully that Laura also has to conclude that “It was simply marvelous” (Mansfield). It means she has shown a great deal of resistance to class privilege and benefits. Yet, she has to succumb to pressure and above all the festivities of the party. From the very start, she demonstrates that she is not susceptible to class consciousness. When the laborers reach her home to work, she immediately recognizes and mingles with them and their cultural nitty-gritty. However, when she speaks to her mother, brother, and family members, she is constantly reminded that she is of the elite class and must behave likewise. Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, her journey from awareness and resistance to final acceptance witnesses three stages; the awareness of humanity, an awareness of her class, and resistance to it she puts up at her own expense.

Laura’s Awareness in “The Garden Party”

Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, the first awareness of her class comes to her mind when she hears her mother saying that she is “determined to leave everything to you children” (Mansfield). This is where she knows the first taste of autonomy and independence that is a typical feature of such elite classes. However, she is made up of some other stuff and everybody knows that she is an “artistic one” (Mansfield). It means she knows a lot more than others and possibly becomes easily aware of such familial privileges. She knows and also enjoys life like all others and she has a likeness for tastes (Mansfield). After all, they belong to the Sheridan family. When the laborers come, everybody at home feels the same as they used to but she does not feel easy, and when she says “Good morning” (Mansfield) it “sounded so fearfully affected” to her (Mansfield). Yet, it does not make any difference to others. This is the point where she starts showing something different in her character from all others. However, it is also that her upbringing makes her feel surprised at this. Even when the tall man smells lavender she is surprised to see it but she could not show she is feeling at home (Mansfield). This is the stage of her awareness about humanity that a single streak runs through all souls. It also shows traces of communism in “The Garden Party” that the tall and short are made of the same stuff, and she is also among them.

Resistance and Communism in “The Garden Party”

However, her resistance, a love for communism in “The Garden Party”, emerges when she sees the Sheridans treating all others differently. She sees that her mother as well as her brother are full of affection. When Cook comes and says that “There’s been a horrible accident” (Mansfield), all others think of the party instead of the dead man and his family. However, Laura is different from all of them. She stares at Godber’s man and then she informs Jose that they are going to stop the garden party. However, the privileges say that they cannot as they are from the upper family, and their response to her resistance is indifference (Mansfield). What others think about them is very beautifully summed up in the story in that they “were the greatest possible eyesore” with no right to live in such a neighborhood (Mansfield). In fact, she shows her true colors of belonging to the same humanity. That is why her mother warns her and makes her realize that this is a trivial issue. Her mother clearly tells in response to her surprise to a death that “my dear child, use your common sense” (Mansfield).  But her response is quite curt that it is “terribly heartless” (Mansfield). However, when she is told from every side from her brother to her father, sisters, and mother that she needs not worry about the dead man in the neighborhood and that she must enjoy her party,  she slowly starts succumbing to these pressures though with misgivings “Is mother right?” (Mansfield). This is the stage of communism in “The Garden Party”where it starts getting blurred and unreal and it is the point where she is going to stop resisting.

Conclusion

She starts accepting it when she is being mocked at this by her mother and she is made to feel odd about those poor people, showing traces of communism in “The Garden Party”. Her mother tells everybody in a mocking tone that “Laura insisted we should put it off” (Mansfield). It is where she starts accepting that she is from the upper class and when her mother asks to bring her a basket to send eatables to the family of the dead person, she has taken full circle in realizing her status “mother, do you really think it’s a good idea?” (Mansfield). Her mother has to make her realize that people in this class are impressed by such gestures and this is what she “couldn’t realize it” (Mansfield). She brings that basket and reaches there. She hands over it to that lady and when she questions herself “Am I being extravagant?” (Mansfield) and this is the point where she has realized that it is a part of life which she said at the end to her brother. This is how she has resisted and finally accepted it.

Work Cited
  1. Mansfield, Katherin. “The Garden Party”. Katherine Mansfield Society. n.d. Web. 08 April 2014. http://www.katherinemansfieldsociety.org/assets/KM-Stories/THE-GARDEN-PARTY1921.pdf. Accessed Nov. 22, 2021.
Relevant Question about Communism in “The Garden Party”
  1. How does Mansfield’s portrayal of the Sheridan family’s extravagant garden party reflect the social hierarchy of the time, and what parallels can be drawn between this class divide and the critiques of privilege often associated with communist ideology?
  2. In “The Garden Party,” the Sheridan family’s affluence and detachment from their less privileged neighbors are evident. How might this stark contrast between the Sheridans and their neighbors resonate with discussions of social inequality and the class struggle, which are central to communist thought?
  3. While “The Garden Party” doesn’t explicitly delve into communism, how does Mansfield’s narrative treatment of the Sheridan family’s luxurious lifestyle and their interaction with the lower-class workers prompt readers to contemplate broader societal issues, including economic disparities and the potential for class-consciousness?

 “Early Modern” And “Renaissance”: Investigating Difference

The expressions “early modern” and “Renaissance” sometimes, undergo confusion in usage with being alternatives when it comes to literature.

Introduction of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”                                             

The expressions “early modern” and “Renaissance” sometimes, undergo confusion in usage with being alternatives of each other, specifically, in the arena of the literary studies or critiques of the literary texts appearing during that period. In the literary world, however, there is a slight difference between “early modern” and “Renaissance” in that whereas “early modern” connotes an emphasis on “economic continuity between periods” (Dubrow and Dolan, 1994, p. 1025), Renaissance seems to give “privileges to certain groups of culture” (1025). Yet, an early modern term not only points to mercantilism in the rural centers but also large “historical divisions” instead of minor or small divisions (1026) which it interestingly presents a ready “badge,” facilitating critics to select texts (1026) of that specific period. It means that the term early modern in the phrase “early modern” and “Renaissance” mostly refers to the period that roughly falls in the late fifteenth and early sixteen century during the Tudor dynastic rule in England marked with “humanism” and stress on “for goodness in humans” (Allegretti, n. d.). Some historians, other than the literary ones, also call it the period of spreading globalization (de Vries, 2010, p. 710), while regarding literary output, Scott Robinson argues that early modern writers “sought to appropriate, to reinvent, or to repudiate romance, in the effort to reimagine a changing world” (2007, p. 02). His stress is on the changing world about “early modern” and “Renaissance”. The argument that the Renaissance, too, changed the world causing globalization, stands in the way of this difference that could resolve with the polemic of Renaissance as an inclusive, exclusive as well as broad period compared to the term, early modern.

Inclusivity of Renaissance in “early modern” and “Renaissance”

Whereas inclusivity of Renaissance is concerned in “early modern” and “Renaissance”, it is the hallmark of this period not only in terms of the inclusion of art and literature but also different regions such as the French and English regional emergence following the Italian contributions (Robin et al. 2007, p. xv). Yet some also suggest the use of “early modern” in “early modern” and “Renaissance” for the same period, adding it is “less encumbered by the cultural baggage of the past” (p. xv). This shows the interesting distinction that seems broad in that it includes regionalities as well as inclusive humanistic, ethical, and epistemological advances spreading throughout Europe (p. xv). Some, on the other hand, put it as a complete field of studies as it “produced a new transnational cultural formations” with new ways to analyze the “modernity” of entire Europe (Robinson, 2007, p. 15).

Vastness of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”

This shows that it means not only just one field of study but various others, including philosophy and economics, and cultural values across different cultures. It is clear from Jerry Brotton”s argument that “National museums and art galleries are the most obvious places” to understand the phenomenon of “The Renaissance” (2006, p. 02). Despite its historical relevance to the multifarious phenomena in other cultural fields, in the scholarly and academic arena it led to studia humanitatis which included the whole humanity and social sciences of today (p. 03). After recounting all the diverse fields that prospered during this period, Brotton concludes that the term refers to “profound and enduring upheaval and transformation” from “1400 to 1600” (p. 09). Yet, he has refrained from the periodization of this phenomenon. Brotton refers to Michelet to explicate it further, saying it was not only the age of the discovery of the world but also of the discovery of man (10). With its double distinctive features, he states that it broke with the Middle Ages and led to a “modern understanding of history” (p. 10).

Differences between “Early modern” and “Renaissance”

A cursory glance at these arguments shows that there does not seem much difference yet Leah Marcus (1992) not only differentiates but also puts both “nomenclatures” for each other, saying it is a “conceptual reconfiguration” with tracing of the features that are “precursors” of our own period. Then, he highlights the contestation of the terminological polemic arguing that whereas Renaissance scholars are not concerned with periodization, the scholars using the early modern term strictly adhere to periodization (p. 42). Despite playing with the significance and dilution of this significance of the literary studies, he continues saying that early modern is less hierarchical and less energy-consuming in terms of terminological initiation (p. 42) as the lovers of Renaissance term do. Yet, he has objections to its elitism (p. 43), when he underlines the stress on the quantitative method of the early modern period with further emphasis on “the common place lives of the common people” (p. 44). Although he argues that the interest and his research about both terms is to redraw “disciplinary boundaries,” he states that both have special purposes while the objective of the usage of the term, early modern, is “preservation of literature” (p. 56). Interestingly, he seems consistent in preferring early modern and jettisoning Renaissance when he adds studies with it in another article “Cyberspace Renaissance” (1995) showing difference between “early modern” and “Renaissance”. In this article, he argues that that as Renaissance”s glorification of despotism and intellectual hierarchies have missed the community or a huge segment of the population, and states that now literary critics call it an “early modern era” because Renaissance, as a term, is too hegemonic and too titular to leave its holistic, inclusive and exclusive tendencies to include specifics of literature under its banner (p. 388). Therefore, his contention seems appropriate when he argues that most of the usages of “Renaissance” are full of discomfort to be used freely for every other study or field (p. 389). Hence, the early modern term wins the contest and becomes one of the terms having no negative or positive, inclusive or exclusive, upbeat or low-beat connotations as Renaissance has, yet it has its own usage in literary studies referring to specific periodization as well as the specific emphasis on “the common lives of the common people” (Marcus, 1992, p. 44).

References
  1. Allegretti, C. (n. d.). The Early Modern Period. Eastern Connecticut University, Retrieved September 28, 2021, from https://www.easternct.edu/speichera/understanding-literary-history-all/the-early-modern-period.html
  2. Brotton, J. (2006). The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, UK.
  3. de Vries, J. (2010). The limits of globalization in the early modern world. The Economic History Review, 63(3), 710-733.
  4. Dubrow, Heather, and Frances E. Dolan. “The Term Early Modern.” PMLA 109, no. 5 (1994): 1025–27. https://doi.org/10.2307/462969.
  5. Robinson, B. (2007). Islam and Early Modern English Literature: The Politics of Romance from Spenser to Milton. Palgrave, MacMillan, New York, America.
  6. Robin, D. M., Larsen, A. R., & Levin, C. (2007). Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-CLIO.
  7. Marcus, L. S. (1992). (1992). Renaissance/Early Modern Studies. Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies, ed. Stephen Greenblat and Giles Gun, The Modern Language Association of American, New York, 41-63.
  8. _____ (1995). Cyberspace Renaissance. English Literary Renaissance, 25(3), 388-401.

Relevant Questions about “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”

  1. How do scholars and historians distinguish between the terms “Early Modern” and “Renaissance,” and what specific characteristics define each period in the context of intellectual, cultural, and societal changes?
  2. When examining the transition from the “Renaissance” to the “Early Modern” era, what key shifts in thought, art, and governance mark this transformation, and how do these changes shape our understanding of these two distinct periods?
  3. In the study of history and literature, how does the nuanced exploration of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance” periods enhance our comprehension of the evolving intellectual and cultural landscape, and what critical aspects help demarcate one from the other?

Double Consciousness in Obama’s Autobiography

In his autobiography, Obama established a connection between his life and story, showing double consciousness of his heritage and status.

Introduction about Double Consciousness in Obama’s Autobiography

            In his autobiography, Obama established a connection between his life and story, showing double consciousness, saying “what I’ve … life” (Obama, xvii), adding “I can’t even … American experience” (xvi). The objective of what he thought to make his life meaningful led him to tackle the long-life problem African Americans faced and struggled like him before such as Fredrick Douglas, Booker T. Washington, and Du Bios. It was the problem of race which not only shaped the African-American struggle for equality but also shaped African American Literature. Though his story is not the most representative one, yet it is set in the historical experience of demonstrating “double consciousness” (Du Bios) in the midst of racial discrimination despite imposition of this through certain laws. Echoing Du Bios in his story, Obama states that the people try to discover his “mixed blood … two worlds” and it makes him as if he is hiding his identity (xv). However, unlike his predecessors, he does not reconcile to the idea of coming down at the ladder and tries to reduce this trap of “two worlds” (Du Bios). His story demonstrates past experience of his generations, his own encounter with racial differences and his objective to shed this double consciousness.

Slavery and Double Consciousness

Although these efforts were stated first by Fredrick Douglas when the time was ripe for slavery and it was considered legal, he worked tirelessly during half of the nineteenth century. He wanted the readers to look beyond historical, legal, and political issues of African American race going toward freedom in society and freedom from domination. His basic question was the freedom of the spirit. His struggle was to achieve freedom instead of being given, and he even became an abolitionist, going far as contacting abolitionist militants in this connection. However, the streak of slavery runs so much deeper in the psyche of African American population at that time that it was hard to make the vast strata of those people educate about the ideas he harbored. It was Booker T. Washington who came later to amalgamate two races or at least tried to amalgamate on utilitarian grounds mentioning his idea of “cast down the buckets” (Washington). His was the historical difference from the lines taken by Douglas.

Booker T. Washington and Slavery

However, Booker T. Washington’s approach was constructive finding a compromise between the two worlds. During his famous “Atlanta Compromise Speech”, he asked African Americans from the South to “cast down their buckets where [they were]” so that they could prosper. His approach was the accommodation of the white so that equality could be reached through humility but his community strongly rebuffed him. Although he won a name for his adjustment approach and politicians viewed him as a sane voice, his own people came against his submissive approach.

Double Consciousness

Du Bios strongly attacked his views in his phenomenal work, The Souls of the Black Folk.  His was the reason that only education and intellectual development could overcome this racial prejudice. He severely lashed out at Washington, lambasting his approach of submission. He opposed the integration of two communities that Washington tried to propagate. Rather, he put the whole African American experience in his books, stating that it is actually “double consciousness” which runs through the minds of the blacks and stops their progress. They both were put in opposing personalities where Washington was considered passive, making the black submissive, while Du Bios was termed as progressive in thinking.

Obama and Double Consciousness

Put into this perspective, Obama seems to have inherited the same legacy. He has put into words his own thoughts that turning a deaf ear to racial prejudice and discrimination could lead African Americans to achieve laurels in the fields they want to achieve. By this, he means that this concept of “double consciousness” is still very much relevant today in this post-racial society. There are several implicit issues of this racial bias which makes it difficult for African Americans to achieve their goals but still, they can go ahead with this “double consciousness” and achieve a good status in life.

Conclusion

Making the long argument short, the “double consciousness” propagated by Du Bios is part of African-Americans and also their literature and life. If this is realized earlier, an African American is able to encounter and resolve such prejudices as Obama did in the early stages of his career. Although propagated by different theorists in different ways; first as a pacifist philosophy, then a separate creed, and finally a progressive outlook, Obama has borrowed the same consciousness from his predecessors.

Works Cited
  1. Bois, W. E. B. Du. The Souls of the Black Folk. New York: Oxford UP, 1996.
  2. Douglas, Fredrick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass: An American Slave. Cornhill, 1845.
  3. Obama, Barack. Dreams from My Father. Three Rivers Press: New York, 2004.
  4. Washington, Booker T. “Atlanta Compromise Speech.” History Matters. 1895. Web. 04 Aug. 2019.
Relevant Questions about Double Consciousness in Obama’s Autobiography
  1. How does Barack Obama’s autobiography delve into the concept of double consciousness, particularly in his experiences grappling with a biracial identity?
  2. Within the pages of Obama’s autobiography, how does he confront and navigate the complexities of double consciousness, impacting both his personal journey and political career?
  3. In Barack Obama’s autobiography, what valuable insights does he offer into the ways double consciousness influenced his perceptions of race, identity, and his place in American society?

Billy Pilgrim: A Victim of PTSD

Billy Pilgrim, the central character of Slaughterhouse-Five is an effort of Vonnegut to highlight the plight soldiers suffering from PTSD.

Introduction

The modern wars have taken their toll on the common soldiers more than the elite class officers in the shape of making them victims of their own weak mental state of mind. Billy Pilgrim, the central character of Slaughterhouse-Five is an effort of Vonnegut to highlight the plight of such people. Thomas L. Wymer calls him “the major example of victim” of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and war related anxiety (428).

Soldiery of Billy Pilgrim

The story of his soldiery goes thus; the novel Slaughterhouse Five presents him as a common American soldier recruited to fight in Europe against Germany in the WWII where he surrendered with the author in the battle of Bulge. From there, he was taken to Dresden, a peaceful city in Germany devastated by the allied bombing. Thousands of buildings turned to rubble and people into dead bodies within a day. Billy Pilgrim with other American POWs was the survivor. The German soldiers tasked them to dispose of the bodies. He narrates this story through flashbacks, remembering the past, and present as well as predicting the future and weaving fantasies which show that Billy Pilgrim has gone through a hell to become this type of optometrist who sleeps in his own chair and wakes up after a while to attend to his patients and predict his own death at the hands of his former colleague in Dresden. The structure of the story may be the reflection of his state of mind. It is because the author leaves the story abruptly to start with the story of Billy Pilgrim whose catchphrase “So it goes” starts various frames of the story and ends each frame with something else (12). In fact, he suffers from all signs of depression, schizophrenia, intrusive memory and flashbacks which are hallmarks of post-traumatic stress disorder.

Depression of Billy Pilgrim

Whereas depression is concerned, Billy Pilgrim seems the worst victim. Although he does not clearly show the symptoms, some of his signs are clearly of the depression that he suffered during the Dresden bombing. He does not cry, or cry very little (Vonnegut 90). His dialogue with Rosewater at the asylum is perhaps pointing to the same thing that is a type of depression of the war and the anxiety that he inherits from Dresden. He says “Absolutely everybody gets a little something” and this little something is surely depression (52). Even Vonnegut himself is not articulate about the event if seen from the lens of his artistic creation of Billy Pilgrim. It seems that he has created Billy Pilgrim to show his own depression. Susanne Vees-Gulani has termed this type of depression as schizophrenic where a person is caught in the net of fantasy, coming and going back from reality and seeing hallucinations (176). In other words, Billy Pilgrim is suffering from an extreme type of depression which has transformed into schizophrenia as Susanne Vees-Gulani has concluded in her essay. It clearly means that this was a common depression but the gravity of the incident has transformed this simple depressive state of mind into schizophrenia that has taken its toll on Billy as well as his family.

Schizophrenia of Billy Pilgrim

Billy’s entire episodic thinking is an evidence of schizophrenia and hallucination. He starts his journey from the battle of Bulge with occasional trips to the far-off planet of Tralfamador, his visits to the hospital, his marriage, and even his concept of having sex with the top model at Tralfamadore are the possible symptoms of hallucinations. His description of Kilgore Trout with Rosewater at the hospital shows that he is suffering from schizophrenia. His capacity to “travel in time to the zoo on Tralfamadore” (53) and the details of the situation over Tralfamadore is a case in point where Billy Pilgrim shows himself at best in presenting the picture of his hallucinatory fantasy. This is the worst sort of schizophrenic state of mind that Billy Pilgrim is going through. He is also sometimes aware of it. He goes to sleep when he is to stay awakened. His honeymoon and sex with his wife and even his presence in the asylum are also indications of the worst sort of schizophrenia. The doctors, too, agree with him that he was touching lunacy (96) which means that he is definitely suffering from schizophrenia. In fact, this is a difference that Billy Pilgrims has forgotten to see between the real and the fantastic. It takes him to different locations and situations. The stories of flying saucers, his return to childhood, sexual encounters on Tralfamadore, and even his meeting with Kilgore Trout as discussed earlier are also signs of a schizoid mind.

Intrusive Memory of Billy Pilgrim

Another sign of PTSD is intrusive memory, forgetting everything and remembering things at the most unsuitable times. In fact, it is a sort of traumatic remembering of past events. It is called an abnormal confrontation with reality (Vees-Gulani 177). These signs of PTSD are abundant in Slaughterhouse-Five, specifically in Billy Pilgrims. In Billy Pilgrims, the most important sign comprises traumatic memories. They often come to him in the shape of going to the war, surrendering at the battle of Bulge, then going through a long train journey, his marriage and birth, loving memories of his father and mother, and of his son. This intrusive memory is also the sign of escape from the traumatic and terrible memory, which lies only in losing the sense of time and going to something that is beyond human reach such as Tralfamadore. It is a hallucination on the one side and an escape to forget the real Dresden devastation on the other side. In some sense, “So it goes” (12) is an attempt to make this escape easy as it points to something that remembering past events depends on a stable state of mind, or it could be that he has heard it from some other people. Therefore, this is also the worst sign of PTSD that Billy Pilgrim is the victim of. It is related to flashbacks, too.

Memory and Forgetting in Billy Pilgrim

Flashback means to remember something, and forget and remember another with a new flashback. A person suffering from PTSD often experiences flashbacks and remembers something that comes to his mind immediately and then jumps to another thing. This shift from one memory to another memory is the hallmark of the thinking of Billy Pilgrims that starts from the very first chapter when Billy Pilgrims appears in the novel. The novel shows clearly that it is not a linear narrative but a narrative in chunks due to flashbacks of Billy. He thinks about his childhood, reaches Tralfamadore, and immediately comes down on the train from the battle of Bulge to Germany (56). Here he is talking to Paul Lazarro and there he is appearing with Valencia, his wife. This back-and-forth movement in time not only makes times irrelevant but also makes space a fuzzy thing. This also is due to the flashbacks and working of memory in timeless space. This is the sign of PTSD of which Billy Pilgrims is a victim, but it is clear that this is not the reality that he is going through. It is due to the reality of Dresden that he could not face or describe.

Conclusion

In concluding the argument, it could be stated that Billy Pilgrim is not living in reality, but in fantasy, because he is the victim of the worst form of PTSD, a modern psychological issue. He is facing chronic depression that takes its toll on his health. He is suffering from schizophrenia which has shaken his life and the life of those living around him. He visits the Tralfamadorians and moves back and forth in the world of his own imagination merely because he cannot cope with this sort of hallucination. He is also going through an intrusive sort of memory where it is difficult for Billy Pilgrims to concentrate on one thing at a time. Even he is a victim of flashback and memory attacks which makes him prone to think one thing and then jump to the other one and think about it. The entire novel shows his flashback thinking going on from here to there until it ends on the bird’s twitter of pee-tee-weet where it seems that his narrative has merged with the senseless narrative of the bird.

Works Cited
  1. Vees-Gulani, Susanne. “Diagnosing Billy Pilgrim: A Psychiatric Approach to Kurt Vonnegut’s Slaughterhouse-Five.” Critique. vol. no, 2(2003): pp.175-184.
  2. Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. St. Albans: Panther Books Ltd, 1975.
  3. Wymer, Thomas L. “The Swiftian Satire of Kurt Vonnegut, Jr.” Contemporary Literary Criticism, edited by Roger Matuz and Cathy Falk, vol. 60, Gale, 1990. Contemporary Literary Criticism Online, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GLS&sw=w&u=txshracd2512&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CVGOHNC203384081&it=r. Accessed 27 Nov. 2017. Originally published in ., in Voices for the Future: Essays on Major Science Fiction Writers, edited by Thomas D. Clareson, Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1976, pp. 238-262.
Relevant Questions about Billy Pilgrim in Slaughterhouse-Five
  1. How does Billy Pilgrim’s character in Slaughterhouse-Five exemplify the experiences and symptoms commonly associated with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
  2. What specific events and traumas in Billy Pilgrim’s life contribute to the development and exacerbation of his post-traumatic stress disorder throughout the novel?
  3. In Slaughterhouse-Five, how does Kurt Vonnegut use Billy Pilgrim’s struggle with PTSD to comment on the broader impact of war on individuals and society?