Day: September 20, 2023

Ideology in Literature & Literary Theory

“Ideology,” as a theoretical term, refers to a system of interconnected beliefs, values, and ideas that form a comprehensive worldview.

Etymology of Ideology

The term “ideology” has a complex and multifaceted etymology. It originated in late 18th-century France, with Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment philosopher, coining the word “idéologie” to refer to a systematic science of ideas.

However, it was the French philosopher and social thinker, Karl Marx, in the mid-19th century who popularized and gave the word its contemporary connotations. Marx used “ideology” to describe systems of beliefs and ideas that serve the interests of dominant social classes, masking social inequality.

Meanings of Ideology
MeaningsDescription
System of BeliefsCoherent set of values, beliefs, and principles.
PoliticalGuiding beliefs of political groups or movements.
Social Beliefs shaping social norms and interactions.
Economic Economic principles influencing policies and systems.
CulturalIdeas shaping cultural practices and expressions.
Hegemonic IdeologyDominant beliefs reinforcing the status quo.
Critique of IdeologyExamination and questioning of underlying biases.
Ideological ConflictClashes between differing ideologies.
Definition of Ideology as a Theoretical Term

“Ideology,” as a theoretical term, refers to a system of interconnected beliefs, values, and ideas that form a comprehensive worldview, often influencing an individual’s or a society’s understanding of social, political, and cultural phenomena.

It encompasses a framework through which one interprets and rationalizes the world, shaping perceptions and guiding behaviors.

Additionally, it serves to legitimize and maintain power structures, reflecting the interests and priorities of dominant groups within a given social or political context.

Ideology: Theorists, Works and Arguments:
Theorists:
  • Karl Marx: Developed the concept of ideology as a tool of social control, arguing that it often serves the interests of the ruling class by masking class struggle. His works like The German Ideology and The Communist Manifesto” discuss these ideas.
  • Louis Althusser: Introduced the notion of “Ideological State Apparatuses” (ISA) and “Repressive State Apparatuses” (RSA), emphasizing the role of ideology in maintaining social order. His essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” is seminal.
  • Antonio Gramsci: Proposed the idea of cultural hegemony, suggesting that the ruling class maintains control through the dissemination of its ideology and values. His Prison Notebooks contain extensive discussions on this topic.
Works:
  • The German Ideology by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: A foundational text exploring the relationship between ideology and class struggle.
  • Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses by Louis Althusser: An influential essay examining how ideology functions within state institutions to reproduce social structures.
  • Prison Notebooks by Antonio Gramsci: A collection of writings addressing the concept of cultural hegemony and its role in sustaining power imbalances.
Arguments:
  • Ideological Control: Theorists argue that ideology serves as a tool for dominant groups to maintain control over society by shaping perceptions and values in their favor.
  • Class Struggle: Marxian theory posits obscures class contradictions and reinforces the status quo, preventing the working class from recognizing its exploitation.
  • Hegemony: Gramsci’s argument highlights it in establishing and legitimizing the dominance of a particular group or class through the consent of the subordinate classes.

These theorists, works, and arguments are pivotal in understanding the concept and its significance in various sociopolitical contexts.

Ideology and Literary Theories
Literary TheoryUse of Ideology Trope
Marxist Literary TheoryMarxist literary theory explores how literature employs the ideology trope to reflect and perpetuate class struggle and social inequality. It emphasizes the role of literature in either challenging or reinforcing dominant ideologies and power structures.
Feminist Literary Theory: Feminist literary theory employs the ideological trope to examine how literature portrays and perpetuates gender roles and stereotypes. It seeks to uncover and critique patriarchal ideologies present in literary works.
Postcolonial Literary TheoryPostcolonial literary theory employs the ideological trope to focus on the representation of colonialism, imperialism, and the effects of cultural domination in literature. It explores how texts engage with and subvert colonial ideologies.
New HistoricismNew Historicism employs the ideological trope to look at literature in the context of its historical and cultural moment. It highlights how literary works both reflect and shape the ideologies of their times.
Reader-Response TheoryReader-response theory employs the ideology trope to emphasize the reader’s role in interpreting a text. It considers how individual readers bring their own ideologies, beliefs, and experiences to the reading process, influencing their understanding of the text.
DeconstructionDeconstruction employs the ideology trope to challenge the notion of fixed meanings in texts. It questions the stability of language and reveals how ideologies are constructed through language and can be deconstructed.
Cultural StudiesCultural studies uses it to examine the intersections of literature, culture, and society. It investigates how literature reflects and contributes to the construction of cultural ideologies and identities.
Psychoanalytic Literary TheoryPsychoanalytic theory, particularly Freudian and Lacanian approaches, employ the ideology trope to delve into the subconscious motivations and desires of characters and authors in literature. It explores how unconscious elements can reveal underlying ideologies and conflicts.
Critical Race TheoryCritical Race Theory applied to literature employs the ideology trope to analyze how racial ideologies and structures of privilege and oppression are depicted and challenged in literary works.
Ideology in Literary Criticism
  1. Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:
    • Ideological Critique: Brave New World critiques a dystopian future society driven by consumerism, hedonism, and technological control. It explores the consequences of a world where individuality and critical thinking are suppressed in favor of social stability and superficial happiness.
  2. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck:
    • Ideological Critique: This novel critiques the capitalist ideology and exploitation of the working class during the Great Depression. It portrays the struggles of Dust Bowl migrants, highlighting the oppressive economic system that forces them into poverty.
  3. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood:
    • Ideological Critique: The Handmaid’s Tale critiques theocratic authoritarianism and the subjugation of women in a dystopian society. It exposes the dangers of a religious ideology that enforces rigid gender roles and strips women of their autonomy.
  4. Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad:
    • Ideological Critique: This novella critiques European imperialism and its impact on Africa. It delves into the moral darkness that arises when individuals and societies justify exploitation and violence in the name of colonial ideology.
  5. Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury:
    • Ideological Critique: Fahrenheit 451 critiques censorship and the suppression of free thought. It explores the consequences of a society where books and critical thinking are banned, emphasizing the importance of intellectual freedom and the dangers of conformity.
Suggested Readings
  1. Eagleton, Terry. Ideology: An Introduction. Verso, 1991.
  2. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1982.
  3. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
  4. Lukács, Georg. The Theory of the Novel. Translated by Anna Bostock, The MIT Press, 1971.
  5. Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Translated by Geoffrey Wall, Routledge, 2006.
  6. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Edited by Frederic L. Bender, Norton, 1988.
  7. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Vintage Books, 1994.
  8. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society:1780-1950. Columbia University Press, 1983.
  9. Zizek, Slavoj. The Sublime Object of Ideology. Verso, 1989.
  10. Žižek, Slavoj. Mapping Ideology. Edited by Slavoj Žižek, Verso, 1994.
You may read more on Theoretical Terms below:

Hybridity in Literature & Literary Theory

Hybridity is a theoretical concept that signifies the blending, intermixing, or convergence of distinct cultural, social, or linguistic elements, resulting in the formation of novel, multifaceted identities or cultural expressions.

Etymology of Hybridity

The term “hybridity” derives from the Greek word “hybris,” which originally denoted an act of violence, excess, or outrage.

Its etymological journey evolved to include the notion of mixing or crossbreeding different elements or species. In contemporary usage, “hybridity” has broadened its scope beyond biology to describe the blending or intermingling of diverse cultural, social, or technological components, reflecting the interconnected and diverse nature of the modern world.

This concept is frequently applied to domains such as culture, identity, and technology to capture the intricate interactions and amalgamations that arise when different elements converge, resulting in novel and distinctive phenomena.

Meanings of Hybridity

Meanings in Language and LiteratureAssociated Theories
– Linguistic Hybridity: Combining elements from multiple languages or varieties.– Hybridity Theory: Examines language mixtures, emphasizing fluidity and power dynamics.
– Literary Hybridity: Incorporating diverse cultural, linguistic, or stylistic elements in works.– Postcolonial Hybridity: Explores blending of indigenous and colonial cultures.
– Cultural Hybridity: Fusion of elements from different cultures.– Cultural Hybridity Theory: Focuses on multicultural influences on identity and belonging.
– Hybrid Identity: Formation of identities from multiple cultural influences.– Hybrid Identity Theory: Studies complex, multifaceted identities in multicultural contexts.
– Hybrid Narrative: Literary works blending different narrative styles or genres.– Hybrid Narrative Theory: Analyzes narratives that challenge traditional norms.
– Language Acquisition in Multilingual Environments: How individuals acquire languages in diverse settings.– Sociolinguistics & Psycholinguistics: Explores language mixing and adaptation in multilingual contexts.
Definition of Hybridity as a Theoretical Term

Hybridity is a theoretical concept that signifies the blending, intermixing, or convergence of distinct cultural, social, or linguistic elements, resulting in the formation of novel, multifaceted identities or cultural expressions. It often arises within postcolonial, cultural, and identity studies, illuminating the dynamic and transformative nature of interactions between diverse cultural and social contexts.

Hybridity: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists on Hybridity:
  • Homi K. Bhabha: Bhabha’s concept as articulated in his work The Location of Culture (1994), explores the cultural and identity intersections in postcolonial contexts. He argues that hybridity challenges traditional notions of fixed identities and highlights the dynamic interplay of cultures.
  • Stuart Hall: Hall, in his writings on cultural identity, particularly in Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990), discusses how hybridity emerges in multicultural societies, emphasizing the fluid and shifting nature of identities as people navigate multiple cultural influences.
  • Gloria Anzaldúa: Anzaldúa, in Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987), examines the concept of the “new mestiza” and the hybrid identity of individuals living on the U.S.-Mexico border. She contends that hybrid identities emerge from the collision of different cultural worlds.
Key Works on Hybridity:
  • The Location of Culture (1994) by Homi K. Bhabha: This influential work explores the concept of hybridity and its implications for postcolonial identities and cultural representation.
  • Cultural Identity and Diaspora (1990) by Stuart Hall: Hall’s essay investigates how hybrid identities are formed in diasporic contexts and the role of cultural diversity in shaping identities.
  • Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987) by Gloria Anzaldúa: Anzaldúa’s book delves into the complex experience of living on the border and the hybrid identities that emerge in this liminal space.
Arguments Surrounding Hybridity:
  • Hybridity as Resistance: Scholars argue that hybridity serves as a form of resistance to dominant cultural norms and power structures. By blending and remixing elements from different cultures, individuals and communities challenge hegemonic forces.
  • Fluidity of Identity: Hybridity challenges the notion of fixed identities, highlighting the fluid and dynamic nature of identity formation. This argument emphasizes the ability of individuals to adopt multiple cultural facets.
  • Cultural Appropriation vs. Cultural Hybridity: There is an ongoing debate about the distinction between cultural appropriation and cultural hybridity. Critics argue that hybridity can sometimes be misinterpreted as appropriation, emphasizing the need for nuanced discussions.
  • Globalization and Hybridity: Globalization is seen as a catalyst for hybridity, as it facilitates the flow of ideas, cultures, and people across borders. Some argue that globalization has led to both cultural homogenization and hybridization.
  • Postcolonial Hybridities: In postcolonial contexts, hybridity is often examined as a response to colonialism’s cultural imposition. Scholars explore how colonized societies have adapted and transformed their cultures through hybridization processes.
Hybridity and Literary Theories
TheoryRelevanceUsage
PostcolonialismHybridity is a central concept in postcolonial literary theory, addressing the impact of colonialism on culture and identities.Postcolonial theorists like Homi K. Bhabha and Edward Said employ hybridity to analyze how colonized populations adapt, subvert, and negotiate with colonial power structures. Hybrid identities and cultural expressions in postcolonial literature illustrate the complex interplay between colonizer and colonized cultures. Example: Salman Rushdie’s “Midnight’s Children.”
Cultural StudiesCultural studies explore the intersections of culture, society, and literature, making hybridity relevant for understanding evolving identities in a globalized world.Scholars in cultural studies use hybridity to examine cross-cultural influences and literary exchanges. Works of authors like Jhumpa Lahiri, straddling multiple cultural backgrounds, are analyzed to illustrate hybrid identities and the challenges of navigating diverse cultural contexts.
PostmodernismPostmodern literary theory challenges traditional notions of fixed identities and linear narratives, emphasizing the fragmentation and mixing of cultural elements.Postmodern authors employ hybrid forms of storytelling, blurring genre and narrative boundaries. Writers like Italo Calvino and Jorge Luis Borges blend elements of fantasy, reality, and various literary traditions, showcasing a characteristic hybrid narrative style.
Diaspora LiteratureDiaspora literature explores the experiences of individuals and communities living outside their countries of origin, making hybridity essential for analyzing complex identities.In diaspora literature, hybridity is evident in characters straddling multiple cultures. Novels by authors like Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie depict characters grappling with dual identities as they navigate between African roots and Western influences, providing insights into the tension and richness of such portrayals.
TransnationalismTransnational literary theory examines literature transcending national boundaries, highlighting hybrid literary forms resulting from globalization and migration.Transnational literature frequently features characters and narratives in constant movement between cultures. Authors like Zadie Smith explore characters’ experiences navigating globalization and multiculturalism, emphasizing the inherent hybridity in their identities and stories.
Hybridity in Literary Criticism
  1. Midnight’s Children by Salman Rushdie: Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children is a seminal work of postcolonial literature that explores the complexities of India’s post-independence identity. Critics have highlighted how the novel exemplifies hybridity in both its narrative style and thematic content. Rushdie’s blending of magical realism with historical events and his portrayal of characters with mixed cultural backgrounds reflect the hybrid nature of postcolonial identities. The novel underscores how colonialism and the subsequent struggle for independence have led to a hybrid Indian identity, shaped by a fusion of various cultures, languages, and histories.
  2. The House of the Spirits by Isabel Allende: Isabel Allende’s The House of the Spirits is a Chilean novel that intertwines the personal and political histories of a family over generations. Critics have examined the novel through the lens of hybridity, emphasizing how Allende blends elements of magical realism with historical and political themes. The novel’s narrative structure, which merges familial tales with political allegory, reflects the hybrid nature of Latin American literature. The characters in the novel also embody hybrid identities, reflecting the cultural mixing that occurs in a postcolonial context.
  3. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy: Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things explores the lives of a family in India, particularly the twins Estha and Rahel, in the context of a changing society. Critics have analyzed the novel as a representation of hybridity in postcolonial India. The narrative style, which blends English and Malayalam languages, reflects the linguistic hybridity of the characters. Additionally, the novel delves into the clash between traditional Indian customs and Western modernity, highlighting the hybrid cultural landscape in which the characters must navigate.
  4. The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle by Haruki Murakami: Haruki Murakami’s The Wind-Up Bird Chronicle is a Japanese novel known for its surreal and multifaceted narrative. Critics have examined the novel through the lens of hybridity in Japanese literature. Murakami’s blending of Western literary influences with Japanese cultural elements demonstrates a hybrid literary style. Moreover, the protagonist’s journey through a dreamlike world filled with diverse characters and experiences reflects a hybrid sense of reality and identity, challenging traditional notions of Japanese literature and culture.
Suggested Readings
  1. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
  2. Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. Harvard University Press, 1997.
  3. Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Harvard University Press, 1993.
  4. Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, edited by Jonathan Rutherford, Lawrence & Wishart, 1990.
  5. Haraway, Donna J. Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature. Routledge, 1991.
  6. Puar, Jasbir K. The Right to Maim: Debility, Capacity, Disability. Duke University Press, 2017.
  7. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
  8. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
  9. Zizek, Slavoj. The Plague of Fantasies. Verso, 1997.

Hyperreality in Literature & Literary Theory

Hyperreality, as a theoretical term, denotes a state in which the distinction between reality and simulation becomes increasingly blurred or even indistinguishable.

Etymology of Hyperreality

The term “hyperreality” originates from the combination of two words: “hyper,” meaning excessive or beyond, and “reality,” referring to the state of being real or true. It was popularized by the French philosopher Jean Baudrillard in the late 20th century.

Baudrillard used “hyperreality” to describe a condition where the distinction between reality and simulation becomes blurred, often due to the overwhelming influence of media, technology, and consumer culture.

In a hyperreal context, the simulated or fictional aspects of our world can become more impactful and pervasive than the actual reality, leading to a sense of disconnection from traditional notions of truth and authenticity.

Meanings of Hyperreality
  • Blurred Distinction: Hyperreality refers to a state in which the boundaries between reality and simulation become increasingly indistinguishable, often due to the saturation of simulated experiences in contemporary culture.
  • Media-Saturated Society: It describes a condition in which media, technology, and consumer culture play a dominant role in shaping perceptions, often leading to an emphasis on the simulated over the real.
  • Simulation Over Authenticity: In a hyperreal context, the simulated or artificial aspects of life can take precedence over the authentic, leading to a sense that the reproduced or fictional is more significant than the real.
  • Baudrillard’s Theory: The concept was notably popularized by French philosopher Jean Baudrillard, who used it to critique the increasing influence of media and simulations in postmodern society.
  • Loss of Referentiality: Hyperreality involves a loss of referentiality, where signs and symbols no longer point to external realities but instead refer to other signs and simulations, creating a self-referential loop.
  • Consumer Culture: It is often associated with consumerism, where commodities and products are marketed based on idealized and hyperreal representations rather than their actual utility or value.
  • Impact on Perception: Hyperreality has a deep impact on how individuals perceive and interact with the world, as it can shape expectations, desires, and understandings through mediated experiences.
  • Artificial Realities: Virtual reality, augmented reality, and other immersive technologies contribute to hyperreal experiences by creating artificial realities that can be more compelling than the physical world.
Definition of Hyperreality as a Theoretical Term

Hyperreality, as a theoretical term, denotes a state in which the distinction between reality and simulation becomes increasingly blurred or even indistinguishable. This concept, notably popularized by Jean Baudrillard, suggests that in hyperreality, the simulated or mediated experiences and representations often take precedence over the actual, authentic reality.

It signifies a condition where signs, symbols, and cultural experiences are divorced from their original referents and exist within a self-referential and hyperreal framework, deeply impacting contemporary perceptions and experiences.

Hyperreality: Theorists, Works and Arguments
Theorists Associated with Hyperreality
  • Jean Baudrillard: French philosopher Jean Baudrillard is most prominently associated with the concept of hyperreality. He extensively explored and popularized the idea in works like Simulacra and Simulation.
Key Works on Hyperreality:
  • Simulacra and Simulation by Jean Baudrillard: In this seminal work, Baudrillard delves into the concept of hyperreality, discussing how simulations and signs can replace reality and blur the lines between the two.
  • Amusing Ourselves to Death by Neil Postman: Postman’s book critiques the impact of television and media on society, highlighting how it contributes to a state of hyperreality.
Arguments and Concepts Related to Hyperreality:
  • Blurring of Reality and Simulation: Hyperreality argues that the distinction between reality and simulation becomes increasingly blurred, challenging the conventional understanding of what is real.
  • Media and Consumer Culture: It emphasizes the role of media, technology, and consumer culture in shaping perceptions and experiences, often by prioritizing simulated or idealized representations.
  • Loss of Authenticity: The concept suggests that in a hyperreal environment, authenticity and the “real” become devalued as hyperreal simulations take center stage.
  • Simulation Over Referentiality: Hyperreality is characterized by a loss of referentiality, where signs and symbols no longer point to external realities but instead refer to other signs, creating a self-referential loop.
  • Critique of Postmodern Culture: The idea of hyperreality serves as a critical tool to analyze postmodern culture and its reliance on mediated experiences, artificial realities, and the erosion of traditional notions of truth and authenticity.
Hyperreality and Literary Theories

Hyperreality is a concept that has deep implications for various literary theories. It challenges traditional notions of representation, reality, and interpretation within literature. Here are some of the literary theories associated with hyperreality:

  1. Postmodernism:
    • Hyperreality is closely tied to postmodern literature, as it reflects the skepticism toward grand narratives and the blurring of distinctions between reality and simulation. Postmodern authors often use hyperreality to deconstruct traditional narrative structures and question the authenticity of language and representation. Works like Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 exemplify this approach by presenting a world where reality is elusive, and conspiracy theories abound.
  2. Metafiction:
    • Hyperreality occurs in metafictional works, where authors self-consciously draw attention to the constructed nature of narratives. Authors like Italo Calvino in If on a winter’s night a traveler play with the boundaries of fiction and reality, creating narratives that reflect the hyperreal quality of contemporary culture.
  3. Reader-Response Theory:
    • Reader-response theorists examine how readers engage with texts, and hyperreality influences this interaction. Readers navigate narratives that may challenge their ability to discern between real and simulated experiences. Hyperreality prompts readers to consider the impact of mediated experiences on their interpretations of literary works.
  4. Postcolonialism:
    • Hyperreality is relevant in postcolonial literature, where it can be used to critique the constructed narratives of colonial powers. Postcolonial authors like Salman Rushdie in Midnight’s Children employ hyperreal elements to challenge colonial representations of history, culture, and identity.
  5. Science Fiction:
    • Science fiction often explores hyperreality by presenting imagined futures or alternate realities where the boundaries between real and simulated experiences are blurred. Works like Philip K. Dick’s Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? examine the nature of reality and identity in a world of hyperreal simulations.
  6. Dystopian Literature:
    • In dystopian literature, hyperreality is used to depict oppressive regimes that manipulate and control reality through simulated experiences. George Orwell’s 1984 and Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World illustrate how hyperreality can be employed to critique totalitarian societies.

Hyperreality challenges traditional literary conventions and invites readers and critics to question the authenticity and reliability of narratives. It is a concept that continues to inspire critical analysis and creative exploration within the realm of literature and literary theory.

Hyperreality in Literary Criticism
WorkCriticism through Hyperreality Term
Poem: “The Waste Land” by T.S. EliotHyperreal Imagery: Literary critics often analyze Eliot’s “The Waste Land” for its use of hyperreal imagery. The poem presents a fragmented and disorienting urban landscape, reflecting the hyperreal quality of the modern city. Critics discuss how the poem’s vivid descriptions and sensory overload contribute to a sense of hyperreality, where the real and the simulated are intertwined.
Play: “Waiting for Godot” by Samuel BeckettTheater of the Absurd: Samuel Beckett’s play “Waiting for Godot” is a classic example of the Theater of the Absurd, a dramatic genre associated with hyperreality. Literary critics explore how the play’s repetitive and seemingly meaningless dialogues create a sense of existential ennui and the blurring of reality and illusion. The characters’ futile wait for Godot highlights the absurdity of existence in a hyperreal world.
Short Story: “The Library of Babel” by Jorge Luis BorgesInfinite Knowledge and Information: Borges’ short story “The Library of Babel” is often discussed in literary criticism for its exploration of hyperreality. The story imagines a vast and infinite library containing every possible book. Critics examine how the story challenges traditional notions of knowledge and reality, raising questions about the nature of truth and the limits of human comprehension in a hyperreal library of endless information.
Novel: White Noise by Don DeLilloMedia-Saturated Society: Don DeLillo’s novel White Noise explores the hyperreality of contemporary consumer culture and media. Literary critics analyze how the novel portrays characters who are inundated with simulated experiences, from television to advertisements. DeLillo’s satirical take on the hyperreal nature of modern life prompts discussions about the impact of media on our perceptions of reality.
Suggested Readings
  1. Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. University of Michigan Press, 1994.
  2. Boorstin, Daniel J. The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events in America. Vintage, 1992.
  3. Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, 1991.
  4. Kellner, Douglas. Jean Baudrillard: From Marxism to Postmodernism and Beyond. Stanford University Press, 1989.
  5. Ritzer, George. The McDonaldization of Society. Pine Forge Press, 2019.
  6. Umberto Eco. Travels in Hyperreality: Essays. Mariner Books, 1990.
  7. Virilio, Paul. Open Sky. Verso, 2008.
  8. Virilio, Paul. The Information Bomb. Verso, 2000.
  9. Žižek, Slavoj. The Plague of Fantasies. Verso, 1997.

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of Robert Louis Stevenson was written during the heyday of the Victorian period in England.

Introduction to The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde of Robert Louis Stevenson was written during the heyday of the Victorian period in England causing uproars about the storyline. Writing in the introduction of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Other Tales of Terror, Robert Mighall explains when referring to Adam and Even interpretations that despite being a product of its “perennial” morality, the novel is a “product of its time, and if it is an allegory it is constructed out of historical circumstances” (xxii). Although it seems a simple Gothic and horror tale of a doctor who is obsessed with the idea of transforming his personality through his knowledge, it depicts much more than merely the obsession of this person. In fact, The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde depicts Victorian culture, and its advancement in psychology, medicine, morality, and economy.

Psychological Progress during the Victorian Period and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

Psychology was advancing during the Victorian period at a fast pace with the arrival of Freud and Jung and their phenomenal works about dreams and the duality of human nature. Specifically, Freud’s concepts of uncanny events and of id and ego are of prime importance (Freud 8-10). It is but natural for Stevenson to depict the duality of human nature and such psychological issues in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. That is why Stephen Arata argues that his stories and this novel are “primarily psychological dramas rather than explorations of the supernatural or the paranormal” (55). Commenting upon its uncanny feature, she argues that the uncanniness of Freud emerges from the story due to its depiction of common reality (57). She has cited the event of uncanniness when Utterson visits Dr. Jekyll and finds Poole to see that there are strange things in the glass lying on the table to which Utterson says that they are “none stranger than itself” (Stevenson 46). In their paper, Shubh M. Singh and Subho Chakrabarti have also argued citing Freud that Mr. Hyde is depicting id as he seeks his own gratification, and Dr. Jekyll is ego as he is a rational creature, while the Victorian society is representing superego on account of its moral framework (222). In other words, the novel depicts the advancement in psychiatry and psychological conditions of human beings and their likely impacts on the society. This progress has also been shown in the field of medicine.

Progress in Other Fields and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

The progress in medical science and other professional fields is of specific interest during the Victorian page. Stevenson has presented the character of Dr. Jekyll in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde in this background. Dr. Jekyll’s dedication to his profession and jealousy with his co-professionals is evident in his interest in working in his laboratory full of medicines, chemicals and strange potions. Writing about professions in his article “Children of the Night: Stevenson and Patriarchy,” William Veeder says professions such as medical, engineering and law were much respected in Victorian period of that time (107) adding that Jekyll returns to his clinical medicine and pharmacological research following the death of Carew (127). His jealousy with Dr. Lanyon is also more professional than personal, the reason that Dr. Lanyon berates Dr. Jekyll that he is going in the wrong direction calling it “scientific balderdash” (Stevenson 36). It clearly shows that the Victorian period has witnessed specific interest as well as professional rivalry in the field of medicine as well as to wrong direction it has taken due to competition. Even when Dr. Jekyll turns into Mr. Hyde he does not hide this professional rivalry as Veeder has pointed out later in his article in the critique of the novel saying that Hyde’s claim of transcendental medicine and its knowledge takes life of Lanyon (129). In other words, the interest in medical and other professions was so deep that rivalry took a heavy toll on the weak-minded professionals such as Dr. Lanyon who commits suicide.

Morality During Victorian Period and The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde

Even morality was witnessing fast transformation during the Victorian period. The novel The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde portray the double morals and hypocritical attitude of the people in various ways. The third person narrator of the novel has shown Dr. Jekyll as a rich person having known for charity work and very religious man and “he did good; his face seemed to open and brighten, as if with an inward consciousness of service” (Stevenson 31). However, at the same time when he transforms into Mr. Hyde, he becomes a merciless killer, leading to moral ambiguity that J. R. Hammond has explained in his article “Stevenson’s Literary Achievement” included in his book A Robert Louis Stevenson Companion. He argues that Stevenson constantly “explores his lifelong concern with problems of duality and moral ambiguity” (18).  The characters Dr. Jekyll and even Utterson demonstrates this moral ambiguity of the Victorian period. Emma Griffin in “Patterns of Industrialization” writes that growth increased exponentially during the late Victorian period (93). The description of the growth of the city of London and buildings show the economic growth of England that Utterson calls as “the low growl of London” (Stevenson 14). It was at the time when Industrial revolution was leading to urban growth and sprawling buildings.

Conclusion

Making the long argument brief, the novel of The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde not only depicts the advancement in knowledge such as psychology and medicines but also highlights importance of professionals, ambiguity of morality and growth in economy of England. The character of Dr. Jekyll shows how people hide true identities and show another face in the public due to psychological problems. Even in medical and other professions, Dr. Jekyll, Mr. Utterson and Lanyon show their expertise and try to surpass each other showing rivalry and competition. In the field of morality, the novel depicts moral ambiguity of Dr. Jekyll and of Lanyon when treating the case of Mr. Hyde. The description of the city of London shows the economic growth and increasing wealth of the people.

Works Cited
  1. Arata, Stephen. “Stevenson and Fin-de-Siecle Gothic.” The Edinburgh Companion to Robert Louis Stevenson, edited by Penny Fielding, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010, pp. 53-70.
  2. Freud, Sigmund. The Ego and the Id. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 2018.
  3. Mighall, Robert. Introduction. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Other Tales of Terror, by Robert Louis Stevenson. Penguin Classics, 2002.
  4. Griffin, Emma. “Patterns of Industrialization.” The Victorian World, edited by Martin Hewitt, New York: Routledge, 2012, pp. 90-108.
  5. Singh, Shubh M., and Subho Chakrabarti. “A Study in Dualism: The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.” Indian Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 50, no.3, 2008, pp. 221-223.
  6. Stevenson, Robert Louis. The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and Other Tales of Terror. Penguin Books. 2002.
  7. Veeder, William. “Children of the Night: Stevenson and Patriarchy.” Robert Louis Stevenson, edited by Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers, 2005, pp. 103-159.
Relevant Questions about The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde: Victorian Culture
  1. How does the character of Dr. Jekyll’s alter ego, Mr. Hyde, symbolize and critique the dualities and repressed desires present in Victorian society? In what ways does this duality reflect the tensions and anxieties of the Victorian era?
  2. In the context of Victorian culture, how does the novel explore the idea of maintaining a respectable public image while harboring hidden vices and desires? What does this reveal about the societal norms and expectations of the time?
  3. Stevenson’s novella delves into the themes of science and morality. How does the character of Dr. Jekyll’s scientific experimentation reflect the broader scientific advancements and ethical debates of the Victorian era? In what ways does the story comment on the consequences of unchecked scientific curiosity within this cultural context?
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Odysseus’s Adventures in Odyssey

Odysseus’s adventures in Odyssey shows him a hero, who carries on wandering for ten years after the Trojan war facing different challenges.

Introduction to Odysseus’s Adventures in Odyssey

Odysseus’s adventures in Odyssey shows him a hero, who carries on wandering for ten years after the Trojan war facing different challenges, where his ingenious ploy of coming up with the Trojan horse idea won the Greeks the war in Troy. During his return journey, he faced numerous incidents where he faced temptations, was tricked and forced to overcome obstacles that he must face if he is to return to his kingdom to take his rightful position at the throne. He had invariably invited the anger of two gods but remained steadfast and using his intelligence, discernment, bravery and strength, he overcame whatever came his way. Besides his own will power, he also had the help from the goddess Athena, who selected him as one of her chosen heroes and thereafter ensured he had her blessings, helping him overcome three formidable obstacles that blocked his path on his journey back to his home which had he not won, he would surely have faced stark reality of failure.

Obstacle and Odysseus’s adventures

The first big obstacle Odysseus’s adventures come across on his journey back home comes when Hecuba falls to him. He was tempted by her beauty but he hurled down her grandson from a wall that she did not tolerate.  Athena, the Goddess, heard her screaming and wailing and created fierce tornadoes of tremendous strength that they were forced to finish off Hecuba or else would have faced destruction.  The second obstacle came his way when he conquered Cicones, a city, and was served wine which made him and his men fall asleep and in the meantime a bunch of his fighters were killed as they were attacked while asleep. Odysseus forced his men awake to be able to escape successfully. The third obstacle was when they arrived at the island where Cyclops resided and ended up trapped with the Cyclops in his cave. Using his quick thinking, Odysseus got him drunk from the earlier wine and blinded him thereafter. Odysseus succeeded in moving the wheel away from the entrance of the cave from where he and his men escaped from there as Cyclops, enraged, hurled a huge stone at them to stop them from escaping but they managed to get away. Bad for them however it proved that the Cyclops was the son of Poseidon and the sea god got angry with Odysseus for blinding his son. He began to create trouble for him afterwards. Odysseus’s adventures in Odyssey, in fact, bring him obstacle this time on Aeolus Island which Odysseus successfully overcomes.

Incidents During Odysseus’s Adventures in Odyssey

The other two incidents came in the form of cannibals and the island of Circe, the sorceress. He managed to survive the incident with the cannibals but he was overcome with lust for Circe and it was only after the help of a goddess that he was able to overcome his desire. There were several temptations he had to overcome. First he traveled to the underworld to meet Hades. He saw several ghosts over there even of his dead mother who had died waiting for him to return from Troy. He wanted to stay there but he consulted Tiresias, the blind seer, on how to win the favor of Poseidon, the sea god, and got his answers. He also saw other notable ghosts of kings and other important people but decided to return. He then returned to Circe and asked her how to cross the sirens successfully. Odysseus and his men managed to avoid the whirlpool Charybdis and the six headed monster Scylla, by rowing directly in between the two to avoid both of them. He was tempted once again by a nymph Calypso, who fell in love with him and wanted him to stay with her forever. He stayed with her for 7 long years but eventually his longing for home overcame him. He wanted to eventually return.  Poseidon was busy elsewhere in Ethiopia which provided him a chance to leave. Zeus helped him make preparation to depart and he ordered Hermes to tell Calypso to allow him return. Third time he was tempted was with Nausicaa, her being a princess of Phaeacians. Competitions were held routinely there and life was never boring in this kingdom but soon after Odysseys got homesick again.  The Phaeacians helped him make preparations and soon after he departed for home leaving Odysseus’s adventures to end.

Conclusion to Odysseus’s Adventures in Odyssey

His troubles were not over yet. He was tempted and tested many times during his return journey. But even then he constantly used his wit, quick thinking, mental ingenuity and courage to overcome these obstacles and temptations. It was also he had the favor of the gods on his side. One other thing that helped him resist these temptations was his strong love for his family that being his wife and son, his home land and his people which drew him back and made him be able to aptly resist his desires. Even when he was getting complacent and stayed with the nymph for 7 long years, his love for his homeland suppressed his desire and temptation and he wanted to return home. It may be assumed that his love for his homeland fueled his determination to return home and overshadowed other temptations.

Works Cited
  1. Homer. Odyssey. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1977.
Relevant Questions about Odysseus’s Adventures in Odyssey
  1. How do Odysseus’s encounters with various supernatural beings and mythical creatures, such as the Cyclops Polyphemus, Circe, and the Sirens, serve to illustrate the themes of cunning and resourcefulness in the face of seemingly insurmountable challenges?
  2. The journey of Odysseus is marked by a strong sense of longing for home and family. How does this theme of nostos (homecoming) and the role of Penelope, Telemachus, and Ithaca contribute to the narrative’s emotional depth and resonance?
  3. In “The Odyssey,” Odysseus faces numerous moral dilemmas and choices that test his character. How do his actions, including the blinding of the Cyclops and his interactions with the suitors in Ithaca, reflect the concept of heroism in ancient Greek culture, which often involved complex moral decision-making?
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“Bunty in the Light of a Hero”: Narratological Analysis

This extract under analysis through narratological lens of Meike Bal occurs as “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” of Seven Little Australians.

Introduction to “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”

This extract under analysis through narratological lens of Meike Bal has been taken from the chapter ten “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” of the novel, Seven Little Australians, by Ethel Turner. When the theoretical terms enunciated by Bal in her book are applied to this extract of two pages, it demonstrates that stories are “structured whole composed of signs” (Bal, p. 6) which show different shades, perspectives, interpretations and aspects to different audiences and readers. If this extract is analyzed in the light of these views through narratological strategies, it shows the complexity of fabula elements of events, actors, time location as well as of description, dialogue and perspectives using the narrator and focalizer.

“Bunty in the Light of a Hero” as a Fabula

If this extract “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” is taken as a complete fabula with event/s given, it shows a logical and chronological order (Bal, p. 6). The third person omniscient narrator shows the character of Bunty and Judy in the loft. Bunty is already hiding there when Judy arrives playing truant from school. Both agents (Bal, p. 6) perform this action of the event that takes place in the location of the “loft” as stated by the third person narrator or external narrator. As the duration of the act and its exact timing is not given, the third person narrator has shown that as they are in the loft, it is probably day light, and there is some darkness in the loft. The second actor, Judy, tells the other character, Bunty, that it is the “loft” (Turner, p. 64-65) where they are meeting, and that she will stay there “for a time” (Turner, p. 64) which is not specified.  Therefore, the location is clearly stated that it is the loft at home that is beyond other rooms where both the characters are hiding. It also shows that both are children and are using this location to hide themselves from the authority of the elders.. Other locations such as Lawson, Springwood and Katoomba are just for reference but they show that the characters are far away from these locations in this loft. Judy is asking the other character, Bunty, that she has run away from school that is located at a great distance. It also points to this location that is the “loft” (Turner, p. 64-65) and that it is in the building of the house.

Events in “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”

As the events happen at this place in “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”, the first event is the hiding of Bunty in the loft and his thinking about other animate objects, second is the arrival of Judy, third involves their conversation and the fourth departure of Bunty to bring something to eat for Judy. Other than these two, there are some characters who are absent from the events but are present through the impact they have had on both children. The first impact is invisible as is clear from the sound that Bunty makes after terrified of something like rat and second is the clear names that he shrieks out such as “Meg – oh! Father—Esther” (Turner, p. 64), There is another character that Judy refers to which is of Miss Burtons, who seems to be a teacher. It appears that Miss Burtons will come to know about her whereabouts when she is back to school. Whereas Bunty is somewhat naughty and playing hide and seek though terrified at this place, Judy, too, seems not much less, for she has stated that she has played truant from school and has asked Bunty to bring for her sometime to eat. Therefore, both the characters are distinct and individualized.

Description in “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”

As far as the description of the text of “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” is concerned, it has been applied by the external third person narrator as pointed out with “He.” It is his perspective about the characters that the readers would have. He makes the characters to show the naughty, clever, terrifying or fearful side of their individualities, and it is he who describes their traits with specific images. He states about Bunty when opening the text “He fancied…” (Turner, p. 63) which is an exact wording for a naughty boy and also states the location of the place as “second loft” (Turner, p. 65) and where it is located. This external narrator also makes the boy to say “Shoo” (Turner, p. 64) by which the narrator means the readers to understand that the boy is fearful of something, and then makes the boy think that it is “rat” (Turner, p. 64) where the objective is clear that it is intended to show to the reader. The argument here is to show how two naughty and clever children can plan to move away from the adult and authoritative world to hide their activities.

Narrator in “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”

Whereas the narrator and the focalizer are in “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” concerned, they, too, have played an important role. The text uses the narrator and focalizer both at the same time as the third person narrator is also the focalizer. The main task of the narrator here in this passage is to describe and show how actors act and move the act forward (Bal, p. 167). However, the focalizer, though, he is the same makes the readers think about the specific vision that he wants to show (Bal, p. 167) which is that children often play truant and that the readers should understand the specific perspective of the children. As both the perspectives are interspersed with dialogues, it becomes clear that focalizer and narrator shift the text to dialogue when it becomes necessary to show the action of the agents/characters. They are involved again when they want to show the specific perspectives and aspects of the situation of Judy and Bunty to the readers. This constant shift moves the text from one event to another, building logic and chronology in the text to make it credible. In this way, the narrator /focalizer build characters by first giving a vision to the readers what the specific character such as Judy or Bunty is going to appear, and then announcing through the dialogue of the character how he is going to act, and how it is going to impact the act or the event. For example, third person narrator / focalizer here announces constantly within the text how Judy arrives and how she surprises Bunty when he is hiding in the loft as when she puts her hand “over his mouth” (Turner, p. 64). The narrator could have stated that she has put her hand on her shoulders, but the focalizer wants to build readers’ vision that it is a moment of surprise and that Bunty could shriek out loud in that case.

Conclusion

By using description and then dialogue of “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”, the third person narrator builds the characters and then events and moves them forward chronologically to build a vision through focalization that the readers see clever and naughty children of a household hiding in a loft where they think that they can hoodwink the world of adults. This also gives a very good clue to the readers that they must expect something hard for these naughty boy and girl who are hiding in the loft. The final description by the narrator the emotions of Bunty which are foreshadowing that he would go to bring something to eat. This foreshadowing by the readers is the impact of the gradual progression of the events. 

Bibliography
  1. Turner, E., 2005. Seven Little Australians. National Library Australia.
  2. Bal, M., 2009. Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. University of Toronto Press.
Relevant Questions about “Bunty in the Light of a Hero”: Narratological Analysis
  1. How does the narrative perspective and focalization in the story “Bunty in the Light of a Hero” affect our understanding of the characters and events? How does the choice of a first-person narrator influence the reader’s perception of Bunty and her actions?
  2. Explore the use of narrative structure and time in the story. How does the author employ flashbacks and shifts in chronology to reveal Bunty’s character development and the underlying themes of the narrative? What effect does this temporal manipulation have on the reader’s engagement with the story?
  3. Analyze the role of narrative voice in conveying Bunty’s emotional and psychological experiences. How does the narrator’s tone and language contribute to our understanding of Bunty’s internal struggles and her transformation over the course of the story?

Glengarry Glen Ross Seems A Postmodern Answer

Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer to Miller’s Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller which presents the tragedy of a common man.

Introduction

Literature has always witnessed transformations according to the society it is created in, its culture, and its values as Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer to Miller’s Death of a Salesman. The modern period which started quite lately in literature, as compared to modernity, reached its peak following WWII, and then after further evolution it entered into the postmodern world where cultural values, beliefs, and morals witnessed sea changes. The transformation in these values, morals, and beliefs could be seen in the respective literary pieces. Not only that the literary ideals such as tragic heroes and their representations have changed, but also themes and structures, language, and moral values have gone through massive changes. Written by Arthur Miller, Death of a Salesman presents a modern literary piece that presents modern tragedy, values of the society, modernist language structures and themes of faith, hope and dreams, while contrary to it, its supposed sequel Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer demonstrating postmodern trends of literature sans tragedy, sans morality, transparent and language to be inferred by the audience.

Tragedy and Glengarry Glen Ross

As far as the idea of tragedy is concerned, the debut of Death of Salesman created a stir in the literary circle regarding presentation of a common man as a tragic hero, for which Miller has to write an essay to explain his idea of tragedy in this play which he states, “the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest sense as kings were” (Miller 3-7) and Willy Loman is a down-to-earth common American who is disillusioned by the mythical American dream. Contrary to the classical idea of Aristotelian definition of tragedy, having heroes with grand stature, Miller has touted that “The commonest of men may take on that stature to the extent of his willingness to throw all he has into the contest, the battle to secure his rightful place in his world” (Miller 3-7) which in Willy’s case is his two sons, his whole career and family that he bets in order to make himself equal to either Ben or his own father that Ben mentions or others in his familiar circle. However, none is achieved. In other sense, everything seems to him in “disorder” (Klages) through which Miller has tried to bring out the “order” (Klages) of the moral values that is to dig out “meaning which has been lost in the most of modern world” (Klages) which Biff states at the end that “He had the wrong dreams. All, all, wrong” (Miller). He is followed by his younger son Happy, who says that “I’m gonna show you and everybody else …that …he had a good dream” (Miller) which is that Willy wants to bring order by realizing his dreams that were not right according to Happy, but he could not, which is why he seems to be a common tragic hero of Arthur Miller. However, opposed to this modern view, there are no morals, no scruples and no values whatsoever in Glengarry Glen Ross. There is only “talk” (Mamet) about “leads” (Mamet), “close and sales” (Mamet) devoid of all morals that shows Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer. If Levene seems to the central character, he acts just like a common salesman but unlike Willy, he is devoid of any dream and therefore no order exists for him.

Glengarry Glen Ross Seems a Postmodern Answer to Morality and Values

Whereas the question of morality or moral values is concerned, in Aristotelian and Elizabethan tragedies, the protagonist is always on the guard to set right that “Something is rotten in the state of Denmark” (Shakespeare 90) and takes the entire onus of doing this on himself and the piece presents a “clear-cut moral position” (Klages). However, in modern literature, this does not mean that the common man, as a hero, is morally upright similar to the classical heroes, but that “if it is true that tragedy is the consequence of a man’s total compulsion to evaluate himself justly, his destruction in the attempt posits a wrong or an evil in his environment” (Miller) which Willy sees in the shape of situation and his own ideal of achieving the American dream. Even his affair does not mean that there is no morality, but it means that he realizes that he has done due to which he could not achieved his desires and expectations which Miller has presented a modern view of “clear-cut moral position” (Klages) that this cut-throat competition takes its toll form the people involved in the rat race for money.  Also, there does not seem to be any morality in it, Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer and the characters are living in world where stealing, lying, cheating, burglaries, sex, and drinking are the order of the day in which man has become a machine as Roma says about Levene “That’s the “Machine.” That is Shelly “The Machine” Lev…” (Mamet).  It is on the audience to deduce the meanings from the situation presented to them. At least there is a faith, hope and dreams in Death of Salesman which Willy demonstrates but there is no such thing in Glengarry Glenn Ross, a typical postmodern feature of the literature. In fact, it is Roma who seems to be the epitome of the postmodern era whose lengthy and baffling monologue regarding absence of “an absolute morality” (Mamet) in this world shows a world sans conscience.

Glengarry Glen Ross Seems a Postmodern Answer to Transparency of Language

As far as the question of language is concerned, there is a modern idea that “language is transparent, that words serve only as representations of thoughts or things, and don’t have any function beyond that” (Klages) which seems to be true in the case of Willy Loman and he has “Big” (Miller) ideas, “contacts” (Miller) and above all the idea of “well-liked” (Miller) through which we could assess his dreams. He is the “signified” in which the “reality resides” (Klages). However, the case of Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer. There is no idea and “only surfaces” (Klages) and only “signifiers, without no signifieds” (Klages) which is clear from the language used by Levene, Roma and Williamson. Contrary to Death of a Salesman, where language is a vehicle to communicate the reality, the characters in Glengarry Glenn Ross do not use language for communication but for hiding, manipulating and exploiting truth and hooking the customers and others of their ilk. Miller’s ideas are clear that he wants to show the other side of capitalism and he presented it through Willy but Mahmet has left everything on the reader to deduce from the use of language.

Conclusion

In nutshell, the difference lies in the periods in which both plays have made their debuts where Death of Salesman represents the modern idea of tragedy as expounded by the author himself. On the other hand, Glengarry Glen Ross does not present any tragedy, hence no catharsis of any emotions in it. Whereas Death of a Salesman is a journey toward the realization of a moral system, beliefs, and hopes or better to say order, Glengarry Glen Ross is the epitome of a world sans moral values, beliefs, or creeds except material gains by hook or by crook. If Death of Salesman uses transparent language to point out the reality, the same reality disappears as Glengarry Glen Ross seems a postmodern answer. It is true that both have the same theme and one seems to be the sequel of the other, but both present a world poles apart from each other where one is a modern play and the other is a postmodern one. 

Works Cited
  1. Klages, Mary. “Postmodernism.” Postmodernism. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 May 2014.
  2. Mamet, David. Glengarry Glen Ross: A Play. New York: Grove, 1984. Print.
  3. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Oxford: Heinemann, 1994. Print.
  4. Miller, Arthur. “Tragedy and the Common Man.” The Theater Essays. New York: Viking, 1978. 3-7. Print.
  5. Shakespeare, William. “Hamlet”. Shakespeare Online. 1999. Web. 29 May 2014

Relevant Questions about Glengarry Glen Ross Seems A Postmodern Answer

  1. How do the themes of disillusionment and the American Dream in Glengarry Glen Ross and Death of a Salesman reflect the postmodern critique of traditional values and narratives in American society?
  2. In what ways do the characters in Glengarry Glen Ross and Death of a Salesman challenge or subvert the conventional portrayal of the salesman figure in American literature, and how does this reflect postmodern perspectives on identity and success?
  3. Both Glengarry Glen Ross and Death of a Salesman depict the harsh realities of the capitalist system and its impact on individuals. How do these plays engage with the postmodern notion of a fragmented and uncertain reality, and how does this influence their portrayal of the characters’ struggles and aspirations?

Accountant in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

Although it is a work of fiction and comprises fictional characters, it has much to do with the reality of that time as shown by the accountant in Heart of Darkness.

Introduction to Accountant in Heart of Darkness

Although it is a work of fiction and comprises fictional characters, it has much to do with the reality of that time as shown by the accountant in Heart of Darkness. Colonialism was expanding far and wide into Africa as well as Asia at the time when Conrad penned this novel. The novel mostly deals with the machinations of the colonial powers to plunder the resources of the other lands by keeping the natives subjugated and illiterate. The hero of the novel, Marlow, explores the farthest land of the Congo to find out that the real intention touted by the European nation of educating the natives is a myth and farce. This he finds out through the observation of several characters, stations he visits, and the real situation in the country. Marlow sees imperialism and colonialism running rampant everywhere and comes across two important characters, emblems of imperialism, which are related to accounting. The first is the accountant in Heart of Darkness whom Marlow meets at the Nellie, the cruising yacht and the second is the chief accountant of the first station towards Congo (Conrad 3-26).  My opinion is that both the characters not only show their maximum professional restraint, but also orderly professional behavior in everyday settings and in conversation.

Restraint and Accountant in Heart of Darkness

As far as the restraint is concerned, both the accountants show maximum restraint, because it is the demand of their profession. The first accountant appears shortly when Marlow boards the Nellie. He sees that the Accountant brings out a box of dominoes and starts “toying architecturally with the bones,” as his profession demands that he should do only what he is supposed to do which is do accounting (3). The second character is the chief accountant whom Marlow comes across when he lands at the first station. This typical accountant is also a thoroughly professional who keeps himself to himself which means restrains himself from exposing the secrets of the trade. He only comes out “to get a breath of fresh air” (27). In this connection, Harold Bloom says that it is necessary for the accountant to stay rigid in order to “imply that certain cold, unfeeling, rigid lines of conduct must be observed” to run the business of the office (Bloom 57). That is the very reason for their restraint that both accountants are only accountants and Marlow never mentions their names at any place. It is actually their professional requirement to keep themselves to themselves and not be frank with anyone as is common in the accounting profession.

Professionalism and Accountant in Heart of Darkness

Both first and the second accountant in Heart of Darkness are professional in their behavior as well as everyday life. Although there is not much about the first accountant; however, the first initial of his professional name is enough to announce that he is a professional accountant. The second is mentioned as chief accountant which Marlow has described in detail. Marlow says that “in great demoralization of the land he kept up his appearance” that is a hint to his professional setting and professional behavior that he must keep up with (Conrad 27). He carries on saying that even in his everyday life at that station he has taught a woman to do domestic work for him though he was thoroughly professional “devoted to his books, which were in apple-pie order” (27). It is because he was to be accountable for his profession. That is why not only he keeps himself in order, but also keeps his ledgers and books in order. Due to both of these qualities, Marlow, the hero of the novel, calls him a miracle, for everything over there was in muddle. His professionalism is shown through his conversation when he tells Marlow that even the groans of the natives dying over there distract his attention. He says that without showing his fury to the locals, it is “difficult to guard against the clerical errors in this climate” (28). This shows how he is professional in his ordinary as well as in his working behavior.

Conversation and Accountant in Heart of Darkness

Where the conversation of and about accountant in Heart of Darkness is concerned, it is not frank, but it is highly secretive. The first accountant does not talk to Marlow and anybody else. However, when Marlow stays for ten days at the inner station, the accountant does not talk much to him. He only shows, but when Marlow becomes quizzical, he just tells him to that there is a person Kurtz, who is very important for the authorities sitting in Europe. In other words, he exposes that there is a person who is very capable financially, for he keeps the record. Mohit Kumar Ray argues that that is the very reason that “he is obliged to see Kurtz through the eyes of the accountant” (Ray 61). It could be that the accountants are more aware of every business than the ordinary people and even highups. That is why he paints the real picture of Kurtz to show Marlow who could be his next boss in the depth of the Congo.  He wins the confidence of the accountant who tells him briefly about Kurtz. This is what an accountant can do in his professional life to inform the middle authorities about the highups and their demands.

Conclusion

Therefore, the accountant in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad shows a true professional. As the first accountant is not very senior, he keeps himself to himself and does not talk to Marlow at all. However, the chief accountant is a senior and knows everything about the business of the company. Therefore, he tells Marlow what is very important for him to know. However, about the other things, he keeps his mum and does not let him know what the business actually is. He keeps himself professional even in this squalid corner of the world and has learned how to live professionally by grooming a local lady. He also mentions heartlessly that the groans of the dying person distract his attention which destroys his clerical tasks of keeping the accounts correct. In short, both the accountants are highly professional, trained, and well-conversant with their status as well as situations.

Works Cited

  1. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness.  Planet Ebooks. Online ebook. 2009.
  2. Bloom, Harold. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. New York. Infobase Publishing. 2009. Print.
  3. Ray, Mohit Kumar. Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. New Delhi. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. 2006. Print.

Relevant Questions about Accountants in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

  1. How do the accountants in Heart of Darkness symbolize the bureaucratic and administrative machinery of European colonialism, and what role do they play in the broader critique of imperialism presented in the novella?
  2. In what ways do the accountants’ meticulous record-keeping and adherence to rules contrast with the chaotic and morally ambiguous world of the Congo, and how does this tension contribute to the overall themes of the novella?
  3. Considering the accountants’ limited presence in the narrative, what can we infer about their attitudes and beliefs regarding the African natives and the exploitation of the Congo? How does their perspective align with or differ from that of other characters in the story?