Themes in “Fences” by August Wilson

The most controversial themes in “Fences” by Wilson shows the reason that it has raised a brouhaha in literary circles about critiquing it.

Introduction to Themes in “Fences”

The most controversial themes in “Fences” shows the reason that it has raised a brouhaha in literary circles about critiquing it. It has a host of themes interwoven so beautifully in it that every sort of audiences see their own representation in it. Not only has he presented a stark reality of the situation in which the b**cks used to live, but also presented the worst sort of treatment they used to face from the elite circles, the whites. Much of the conflict in the play takes place between characters of the same family, which does not complete and stays “half” as “Everybody got different fathers and mothers” (Fences 2030), Rose says that she is baffled and “Can’t hardly tell who’s who” (2030) at home. Similarly, Troy seems to say that he should be treated as a “boss” (2021) to Cory, his son, who does not give due regard to his advice regarding his career. This conflict between father and son, then between father and mother, and then at the end between mother and son creates several fences within the play. Some themes in “Fences” comprise his African-American experience or racial discrimination, strained relations between the father and the son, and metaphorical interpretations of fences as boundaries to keep a firm hold on families.

Political Themes in Fences”

During his interview, Wilson stated, “all art is political. It serves a purpose” (Sarvron 1988) by which he means that politics and political issues are always a theme in plays and literary pieces. It means there are various themes in “Fences”. For example, his idea was that Africans living in America should give due regard to the fact that “we must know our past” (Wilson qtd. Sarvron 289) which he demonstrates through is the character of Troy when he relates the whole history of his father, how he was kicked and whipped, and did whipping to his own father in return and left home at only 14. The African American culture of that time when “Fences” was written has been amply displayed not only through the representation of the garbagemen but also through their living and their household conditions. It was the racial discrimination that they met everywhere in every field of life – be it career or games. Had Troy been white, he would have made a name in baseball. He did not see any point in Rose’s logic “Times have changed from when you was young” (Fences 2017) because he know what still Cory, as a n**ger, would have to do double effort as compared to the his white colleagues. He knows that “The white man ain’t gonna let you get nowhere with that football noway” (2015) because it was based on truth as an African American negro. He even lashed at the entities controlled by all whites such as games, garbage management, urban areas, creditors and mortgage executives, and even law. It is because it does not go out of his memory how hard struggle he waged against this system to stay at a place but that too at the price of half blown head of his brother, Gabriel. It was sheer his perseverance and sincere responsibility that he was teaching his son to get out of this past to succeed in the world (Shannon).

Themes in “Fences” about Strained Relations

However, in this background, the strained relations between father and son, Troy and Cory, are other themes in “Fences” that make it interesting in that the father, a giant man, is trying to force down his ideas into the throat of his son, Cory, who is now studying at different times. He has been offered a place in the school team, but his father knows that as a b**ck, he would not succeed. He should rather learn some skills and do something valuable that he should not be a garbage collector in his life. When Cory tries to argue with him, he is silenced with “You are a bigger fool than I thought” (Fences 2015), advising him to “You go on and learn how to put your hands to nobody take away from you” (2018), by which means him to learn some skill to become valuable, which he cannot clearly make his young son understand. Troy knows that “The colored guy got to be twice as good as he get on team” (2014) but Cory has a different idea. A fight and conflict ensued between them when Troy returned the offer of football, while Cory refused to join A&P. Both had a brawl and ultimately Cory had to leave. In fact, by protecting his son’s future, Troy ruined his whole career (Arnold). It shows how themes in “Fences” about strained relations dominate the play.

Themes in “Fences” about Discrimination

In the background of this discrimination and strained relations, Rose, unconsciously, tries to hold the family together by building a fence in front of her house. This could be a metaphorical device used by Wilson deliberately to let the audience know that it is the women who try to keep the household together. Though the strong man has left the world for good, she still keeps her calm as she has a house now. For her, the fence is the thing that has held it together. Though the strong-headed Troy could not understand the logic behind this action of hers, the family man Bono knows that “Some people build fences to keep people [like Alberta] out ….and other people build fences to keep people [like Troy] in” (Fences 2027). However, Troy could not understand till the end. As she has got built that fence, at the end she knows that it is now her house, and she advises her son to attend his father’s funeral. Even Troy at one point knows the importance of this and says during his monologue “I am gonna build me a fence around what belongs to me” (2035) but it is too late now as Rose has asked him to go “womanless” (2036).

Conclusion about Themes in “Fences”

Concluding the discussion about themes in “Fences”, it could be said that the play is not only a representation of the racial discrimination of African Americans, but also a representation of their domestic life. It shows that they and their sons had virtually no or very less opportunities at that time. Even garbage collectors have tensions, conflicts, and ups and downs in life – a situation in which they are much alike the whites, where sons and fathers experience the same strained relations as happens in “The Death of Salesman” by Miller. It also is that the play metaphorically highlights the importance of fences as representing limits and boundaries, which keep the people and families stuck to each other in a household. The points Wilson has highlighted have universal appeals – the reason that “Fences” won such high accolades in the world of theaters. Despite this, it has a host of other themes too.

Works Cited
  1. Wilson, August. “Fences.” An Introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama and Writing. Ed. Kennedy X. J. & Dana Gioia. 3rd ed. Vol. 10. New York: Pearson Longman, 2007. 1966-2035. Print.
Relevant Questions about Themes in “Fences”
  1. How do the themes in “Fences” illuminate the characters’ experiences and relationships, particularly regarding the theme of race and racism, and what insights does the play provide into the African American struggle for equality during the 1950s?
  2. What is the significance of the themes in “Fences,” especially the theme of family, in shaping the character of Troy Maxson and his choices, and how does it reflect the complex balance between personal aspirations and familial responsibilities within the African American community?
  3. How do the themes in “Fences,” including dreams and aspirations as well as limitations and barriers, intersect to portray the challenges faced by African Americans in pursuing their dreams within a racially segregated society, and what commentary does the play offer on these themes?

Aphorisms in Francis Bacon: Essays

The use of aphorisms in Francis Bacon makes his writing pithy and pragmatic, laving lasting impression of his writing in the literary realm.

Introduction to Aphorisms in Francis Bacon

The use of aphorisms in Francis Bacon makes his writing pithy and pragmatic, laving lasting impression of his writing in the literary realm.. Almost all of his essays included in the textbook are related to worldly wisdom be it truth that makes a person regarded highly for marriage that makes a person coward and lazy or superstitions that clearly state his own opinion of having no “opinion of God at all than” having a bad opinion such as superstitious (1668). Even more than these little quotes of worldly wisdom, he has cited the world’s greatest philosophers, thinkers, and saints to bring home his audience about his sagacity and pragmatic approach to worldly issues. In the same essay, he has cited Plutarch as his opinion about God and atheism. In the same way, in another essay “From the Advancement of Learning,” he has referred to several past personalities such as Erasmus. These are not just a few examples, he has referred to Greeks and other philosophers of his time too. Aphorisms in Francis Bacon in these essays not only comprise worldly wisdom, but also they are interpretations of human nature and elucidation of existing morality.

Worldly Wisdom in the Aphorisms in Francis Bacon

As far as the question of worldly wisdom is concerned, almost all the topics of the essays are clearly about the worldly wisdom that the readers would benefit from and lead a good life by using these practical points. It is because Ankit Tyagi says, he is a “citizen of the world,” the result is that he would be teaching the worldly wisdom that if a thing is worth seeing, it must be seen until it gives benefit to the seer (525). What he means is that if an object has no utility for a person in this world, it means, it must be shunned as Tyagi has further stated that “Bacon Judges everything from the utilitarian point of view.” (525). Even several of Bacon’s own words testify to his worldly wisdom that makes a person successful in this world and helps him build a career. For example, he considers wives and children as “impediments to great enterprises” (1664). If seen from the pragmatic purpose, it shows that the great people have always no children or only one or two children which show the wisdom of Bacon is a right. Walter R. Davis has also supported this view saying that his ideas for examinations as they are “provisional” or what is said to be used in the existing circumstances (Davis). It means that they are in accordance with the human nature.

Human Nature in Aphorisms in Francis Bacon

Bacon has a deep understanding of human nature which he interprets to tell aphorisms that have long-lasting importance. John Miller in his essay, “Pruning by Study: Self Cultivation in Bacon’s Essay” says that his essays are products of common “anxieties, concerns or socio-economic conditions” of his own time, the reason that they seem as interpretations of human nature (339). As a human being has a private as well as a public life that gives meaning to his life, Bacon, Miller says has divided life in these two parts and has  highlighted the second one that belongs to the public in which the relationship is “necessarily competitive” (342). Moreover, it is but natural for a man to go smoothly through this transition of private and public life which Bacon has amply highlighted in his writings. Bacon says in his essay “Of Great Place” that “Even reproofs from authority need to be grave” (1667). This clearly shows Miller’s point that it is an interpretation of human nature, for if it is not grave, the subordinates will either go unruly or become revengeful. That is why it seems an elucidation of temporal morality.

Aphorisms in Francis Bacon about Temporal Morality

Temporal morality here means the morality that exists at the time that is provisional and ends when the person wins success or the time passes. Lytton Strachey, a renowned British critic has commented on the essays of Bacon regarding his worldly wisdom and temporal morality. He says that he was religious as well as practical but his “philosophy was utilitarian and his deepest interests were fixed upon workings and the welfare of human society” (03). This clearly means that Strachey thinks him showing the “spirit of the age” which is the same as temporal morality which means confirming the morality prevailing at that time and not of the universal one (03). That is why William Sessions has called his essays as “Dispersed Meditations” or visible signs of good knowledge that work at the time when it is needed the most (22) due to aphorisms in Francis Bacon.

Conclusion

In short, Bacon’s essays serve the purpose of showing a true and practical path to the reader that wins only success and nothing else. It is because these short and pithy sentences are fullyof worldly wisdom, teaching the readers of “Preserve the right of thy place” (1667). It is because these short worldly pearls of wisdom are close to human nature. Bacon understands human nature and interprets it according to the spirit of the time. That is why he is considered as elucidating the spirit of that morality of that time. Hence, to say that Bacon reflects the pragmatism of that time is not wrong.

Works Cited
  1. Bacon, Francis Sir. “From Essays.” From The Norton Anthology of English Literature. Gen. ed. Stephen Greenblatt. 9th ed. Vol. F. New York: Norton, 2012. 1662-1689. Print.
  2. Davis, Walter R. “Francis Bacon: Overview.” Reference Guide to English Literature, edited by D. L. Kirkpatrick, 2nd ed., St. James Press, 1991. Literature Resource Center, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GLS&sw=w&u=txshracd2512&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CH1420009027&it=r&asid=8996bf137d4b34c95c57772e2e7b6987. Accessed 28 Oct. 2022.
  3. Miller, John J. “`Pruning by Study’: Self-Cultivation in Bacon’s Essays.” Papers on Language & Literature, vol. 31, no. 4, Fall95, p. 339. EBSCOhost, libaccess.hccs.edu:443/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9512121382&site=ehost-live&scope=site.
  4. Strachey, Lytton. “Bacon as a Man of Letters.” Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800, edited by James E. Person, Jr., vol. 18, Gale, 1992. Literature Resource Center, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GLS&sw=w&u=txshracd2512&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CH1420009031&it=r&asid=e1b32ec0c485c59cca9c99a1516e4cb7. Accessed 28 Oct. 2017. Originally published in Spectatorial Essays, by Lytton Strachey, Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1965, pp. 82-87.
  5. Sessions, William A. “The Essays: Reading Them as “Dispersed Meditacions”.” Francis Bacon Revisited, Twayne Publishers, 1996, pp. 21-56. Twayne’s English Authors Series 523. Twayne’s Authors Series, go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?p=GLS&sw=w&u=txshracd2512&v=2.1&id=GALE%7CCX1590800014&it=r&asid=254d4ab4af5b3a84bcd8e218b160934f. Accessed 28 Oct. 2022.
  6. Tyagi, Ankit. “Francis Bacon’s Philosophy of Life and Morality.” International Journal of English Language, Literature and Translation Studies, vol. 2. no. 3 (2015): 524-527.
Relevant Questions about Aphorisms in Francis Bacon
  1. How do Francis Bacon’s aphorisms in his works, such as “Essays,” serve as a means to distill complex philosophical ideas into concise, memorable statements, and what impact do they have on the reader’s understanding of his philosophy?
  2. Can you provide examples of specific aphorisms in Francis Bacon’s writings that offer insights into his views on knowledge, science, and human nature, and how do these aphorisms contribute to our appreciation of his contributions to these fields?
  3. In what ways do Francis Bacon’s aphorisms exemplify his approach to empiricism and the scientific method, and how do they function as tools for critical thinking and the advancement of human knowledge in the early modern period?

Deconstruction Literary Theory aka Deconstructionism

Deconstruction literary theory is widely recognized and accepted term referring to the critical theory associated with Jacques Derrida.

Introduction to Deconstruction Literary Theory

The common term used in academic discourse is “Deconstruction” or “Deconstruction literary theory.” While both “Deconstructionism” and “Deconstruction” are occasionally used interchangeably, “Deconstruction” is the more widely recognized and accepted term when referring to the critical theory associated with thinkers like Jacques Derrida. It is used to describe the analytical approach that seeks to uncover the inherent contradictions, ambiguities, and complexities within texts.

Etymology of Deconstruction

The term “deconstruction” originates from the French word déconstruction, which itself has its roots in the Latin language. The Latin term “de-” means “to undo” or “to reverse,” while construere means “to build” or “to construct.” Therefore, “deconstruction” is understood as the process of “unbuilding” or “undoing” the structures or assumptions underlying a text or concept.

Meanings of Deconstruction
  1. Textual Subversion: Deconstruction involves the subversion of traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts, emphasizing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.
  2. De-centering Binary Opposites: It challenges binary oppositions and hierarchies present in language and culture, revealing how terms like “good” and “evil” are interconnected and dependent on each other.
  3. Différance: Deconstruction introduces the concept of “différance,” highlighting the constant deferral and difference in meaning, where meanings are deferred from one signifier to another.
  4. Undecidability: It emphasizes the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers.
  5. Textual Playfulness: Deconstruction often employs strategies of wordplay, irony, and paradox to disrupt conventional interpretations and reveal hidden complexities.
  6. Contextualization: Deconstruction considers the historical, cultural, and linguistic context of a text as crucial for understanding its multiple interpretations.
  7. Reader Involvement: It acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning and views interpretation as a collaborative and subjective process.
  8. Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by highlighting its inherent contradictions.
  9. Non-foundationalism: It rejects the idea of foundational truths or fixed meanings, promoting a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.
  10. Interdisciplinary Influence: Deconstruction has influenced various fields beyond literature, including philosophy, linguistics, cultural studies, and the social sciences.
Deconstruction Literary Theory and Deconstructionism: Comparison and Contrast
Deconstruction Literary TheoryDeconstructionism
Developed by Jacques Derrida in the late 1960s and early 1970s.A broader term encompassing deconstruction as a literary theory and its wider implications.
A response to structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.Influenced by Jacques Derrida’s ideas.
Seeks to reveal and challenge underlying assumptions and binary oppositions within a text.Extends beyond literature to other fields like philosophy, social sciences, art, and architecture.
Exposes inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts.Incorporates deconstructive thought across various disciplines.
Emphasizes the instability of language and the constructed nature of meaning.Explores the instability of language and meaning in diverse contexts.
Analyzes how texts deconstruct themselves through contradictions and aporias.Challenges hierarchical binaries and traditional conceptual frameworks.
Questions hierarchical binaries and traditional notions of truth and authorial intention.
Deconstruction Literary Theory/Deconstructionism: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
Origin:
  • Emerged in the mid-20th century as a philosophical and literary movement, primarily associated with French thinker Jacques Derrida.
Theorists:
  • Jacques Derrida: The foremost proponent and theorist of Deconstruction, Derrida’s works, such as Of Grammatology and “Writing and Difference,” laid the foundation for the theory.
Works:
  • Of Grammatology (1967): In this seminal work, Derrida explores the nature of writing and its relationship to speech, challenging the hierarchical distinctions between the two.
  • Writing and Difference (1967): Derrida discusses the concepts of différance, the play of signifiers, and the deconstruction of metaphysical oppositions in language and thought.
Arguments:
  • De-centering of Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction argues against fixed binary oppositions in language, revealing how terms like presence/absence, good/evil, and speech/writing are interconnected and mutually dependent.
  • Différance: The concept of “différance” underscores the constant deferral and difference in meaning, suggesting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.
  • Undecidability: Deconstruction asserts the undecidability of language, challenging the idea of a definitive interpretation and highlighting the perpetual play of signifiers.
  • Reader Involvement: It emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning and acknowledges that interpretations are subjective and context-dependent.
  • Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by exposing its contradictions and the absence of a stable foundation.
Principles of Deconstructionism

These principles guide the deconstructionist approach to literary analysis, highlighting the destabilizing and subversive nature of the theory.

PrinciplesMain Points
1. Language and MeaningLanguage is inherently unstable and lacks fixed or objective meanings. Meanings are constructed through a network of differences and relationships. Traditional notions of truth and stable meaning are questioned and challenged.
2. Binary Oppositions and HierarchiesDeconstruction focuses on revealing and questioning binary oppositions present in texts. Examples of binary oppositions include presence/absence, speech/writing, and literal/metaphorical. Hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking are deconstructed and destabilized.
3. Contradictions and AporiasDeconstruction aims to expose contradictions and aporias (unresolvable tensions) within texts. It reveals the inherent instabilities and ambiguities that undermine the coherence of a text. These contradictions challenge the notion of a single, fixed interpretation or meaning.
4. Authorial Intention and Textual AutonomyThe author’s intention is not the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning. The text has its own autonomy and can generate multiple interpretations. Deconstruction emphasizes the importance of the reader’s active engagement in constructing meaning.
5. Uncovering Assumptions and IdeologiesDeconstruction aims to uncover and interrogate the underlying assumptions and ideologies within a text. It exposes how language and texts reinforce power structures and dominant ideologies. Deconstruction seeks to disrupt and challenge these power dynamics.
6. Playful and Subversive ReadingDeconstruction encourages a playful and subversive approach to reading and interpretation. It involves examining the gaps, silences, and contradictions within a text. Multiple interpretations and perspectives are explored, disrupting fixed meanings.
7. Contextual and Intertextual AnalysisDeconstruction emphasizes the importance of considering the broader context and intertextuality of a text. It examines how texts relate to and influence each other, revealing the interconnectedness of meaning. Contextual and intertextual analysis helps to unveil hidden assumptions and challenge dominant discourses.
Suggested Readings Deconstruction Literary Theory
  1. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
  2. Derrida, Jacques. Positions. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1981.
  3. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008.
  4. Fletcher, John. Introduction to Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2018.
  5. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 2002.
  6. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan, editors. Literary Theory: An Anthology. 3rd ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
  7. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues. Routledge, 1990.
You may read more on Literary Theory below:

Deconstructionism in Literature

Deconstructionism in literature is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily associated with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.

Introduction to Deconstructionism

Deconstructionism in literature is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily associated with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. It challenges traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts by de-centering binary oppositions and revealing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.

Deconstructionism introduces the concept of “différance,” emphasizing the constant deferral and difference in meaning, which leads to undecidability and perpetual play of signifiers. It also acknowledges the reader’s role in constructing meaning and critiques “logocentrism,” advocating a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.

Deconstructionism: Reaction to Structuralism
  • Limitations of Structuralism: Deconstruction emerged as a response to the limitations and assumptions of structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.
  • Challenge to Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction sought to reveal and question the binary oppositions present in texts, which were often emphasized in structuralist analysis.
  • Interrogation of Hierarchies: Deconstruction aimed to deconstruct and destabilize hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking prevalent in structuralist theory.
  • Critique of Fixed Meanings: Deconstruction questioned the idea of fixed and stable meanings proposed by structuralism, emphasizing the inherent instability of language.
  • Exploration of Language’s Constructed Nature: Deconstruction emphasized the constructed nature of meaning, challenging the structuralist view of language as a transparent and objective system.
  • Unveiling Inherent Instabilities: Deconstruction exposed the inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts, undermining the coherence and unity assumed by structuralism.
  • Subversion of Authorial Intention: Deconstruction challenged the notion of the author’s intention as the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning, countering the author-centered approach of structuralism.
Criticism Against Deconstructionism

Here are some common criticisms of deconstructionism:

CriticismExplanation
1. Lack of ObjectivityDeconstructionism’s rejection of objective truth can be seen as a challenge to traditional notions of interpretation. Critics argue that this approach may lead to relativism and subjectivity, making it challenging to establish meaningful interpretations of a text.
2. Overemphasis on LanguageDeconstructionism’s strong emphasis on language has been criticized for disconnecting theory from the real world. Critics argue that this can hinder the application of deconstructionist theory to other fields, such as politics or economics.
3. ObscurityCritics argue that deconstructionist texts can be excessively complex and difficult to understand. This level of complexity can create barriers for readers to engage with the theory and apply it to their own reading practices.
4. Political NeutralityDeconstructionism has faced criticism for its perceived lack of political commitment. Critics argue that this detachment from real-world issues may hinder meaningful political action and engagement.
5. IncoherenceCritics argue that deconstructionism can lead to a fragmented approach to texts, where meanings are constantly in flux and difficult to establish. This lack of coherence may make it challenging to arrive at clear and stable interpretations of a text.
6. Lack of Empirical EvidenceDeconstructionism has been criticized for being based on abstract and speculative ideas rather than empirical evidence. Critics argue that this can make it difficult to evaluate the validity and reliability of deconstructionist claims.

These criticisms and explanations provide a balanced perspective on some of the key concerns raised regarding deconstructionism.

Examples of Deconstructionism

Here are some examples of deconstructionist literary analysis:

  1. Jacques Derrida’s Of Grammatology

It is a classic example of deconstructionist literary theory. In this seminal work, Derrida argues that language is inherently unstable and meaning is constantly shifting. He famously asserts, “The meaning of the outside was always present within the inside, imprisoned outside the outside, and vice versa” (32). By emphasizing the ever-changing nature of meaning, Derrida challenges the notion that a fixed interpretation of a text is a possibility. He urges readers to critically engage with the complex interplay of signifiers, unraveling the inherent contradictions and ambiguities within a text. Of Grammatology exemplifies Derrida’s radical departure from traditional approaches to interpretation, inviting a more fluid and dynamic understanding of literary works through deconstructionist principles.

2. From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

“To be or not to be, that is the question” from Hamlet, when analyzed through the lens of deconstructionist literary theory, reveals the inherent instability and fluidity of meaning. In deconstructionist terms, this iconic phrase challenges the binary opposition between existence and non-existence, suggesting that the distinction between the two is not fixed or objectively determinable. Instead, the line embodies a play of contradictions, as the concept of being is constantly in flux. The word “question” itself introduces doubt and ambiguity, questioning the possibility of a definitive answer. It also shows the multiplicity of interpretations and the various layers of meaning within this line, unveiling the complexities and contradictions that underlie seemingly straightforward statements. By deconstructing the oppositions and hierarchies embedded in the phrase, we recognize that its meaning is not fixed but rather subject to a continuous process of interpretation, reflection, and recontextualization.

3. From Beloved by Toni Morrison

The statement “Freeing yourself was one thing, claiming ownership of that freed self was another” from Beloved challenges the binary opposition between freedom and ownership. It suggests that they are not easily separable or mutually exclusive. In deconstructionist terms, the extract highlights the instability of these concepts and questions the fixed meanings attributed to them. The phrase “freeing yourself” implies an act of liberation, but the subsequent statement complicates this notion by introducing the idea of “claiming ownership.” The use of “claiming” suggests an active effort to assert control and possess something, in this case, the liberated self. However, the juxtaposition of “claiming ownership” with “that freed self” raises questions about the nature of this self and the limits of ownership. Does true ownership of the self exist, or is it an illusion? Furthermore, the extract implies that freedom and self-ownership are not straightforward achievements but rather ongoing processes that entail struggles and negotiations. Deconstructionist analysis encourages us to critically examine the language, assumptions, and power dynamics at play in this extract, challenging fixed interpretations and inviting a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of freedom and selfhood in Morrison’s “Beloved.”

4. From Jorge Luis Borges’ “The Garden of Forking Paths”

Extract: “This web of time – the strands of which approach one another, bifurcate, intersect or ignore each other through the centuries – embraces every possibility. We do not exist in most of them. In some you exist and not I, while in others I do, and you do not.”

A deconstructionist reading of this paragraph reveals the inherent instability and multiplicity of possibilities within the concept of time. The passage suggests a complex web of temporal strands that continuously interact, diverge, converge, or disregard each other throughout the centuries. It implies that this web of time encompasses every conceivable possibility. Also, it challenges the notion of fixed existence by asserting that we do not exist in most of these possibilities. This undermines the idea of a singular, objective reality and highlights the contingent nature of our existence. The passage further disrupts traditional binary oppositions by presenting various scenarios where either the speaker or the listener exists while the other does not.

Keywords in Deconstructionism
  1. Différance: A central concept in Deconstruction, it refers to the constant deferral and difference in meaning within language, highlighting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.
  2. Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction challenges traditional binary pairs (e.g., good/evil, presence/absence) by revealing their interconnectedness and mutual dependence, blurring the boundaries between opposites.
  3. Undecidability: Deconstructionism literary theory asserts the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers and meanings.
  4. Logocentrism: It critiques the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language and thought, exposing the contradictions and absence of a stable foundation in linguistic and philosophical systems.
  5. De-centering: Deconstruction de-centers established hierarchies and challenges the authority of any single interpretation or perspective, emphasizing the need to consider multiple viewpoints.
  6. Textual Subversion: Deconstructionism literary theory involves subverting conventional interpretations of texts, emphasizing their inherent contradictions and ambiguities, often through strategies of wordplay and irony.
  7. Reader-Response: Deconstruction acknowledges the reader’s active role in constructing meaning, highlighting the subjectivity of interpretation and the importance of individual perspectives.
  8. Play of Signifiers: It emphasizes the fluidity of language, where words and symbols continually interact and shift in meaning, making fixed interpretations elusive.
  9. Difficult Reading: Deconstruction often involves complex and challenging readings of texts, requiring readers to engage deeply with the layers of meaning and ambiguity within a text.
  10. Metaphysics of Presence: Deconstructionism literary theory questions the traditional metaphysical assumption that meaning is grounded in a stable, present reality, instead revealing the inherent instability of language and thought.
Suggested Readings
  1. Barthes, Roland. Image-Music-Text. Translated by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977.
  2. Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Cornell University Press, 1982.
  3. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
  4. Derrida, Jacques. Writing and Difference. Translated by Alan Bass, University of Chicago Press, 1978.
  5. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 2002.
  6. Waugh, Patricia. Feminine Fictions: Revisiting the Postmodern. Routledge, 1992.
  7. Wolfreys, Julian. Deconstruction: Derrida and the Humanities. Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.

Asyndetons: Creating and Critiquing Them

Asyndetons serve to create a sense of urgency, emphasize individual elements, or convey a rapid sequence of ideas across different parts of a composition.

Introduction to Asyndetons

Asyndetons are rhetorical devices characterized by the deliberate omission of conjunctions (such as “and,” “or,” or “but”) in multiple series of words, phrases, or clauses within a text. They are employed for various stylistic and rhetorical purposes in academic writing. Asyndetons serve to create a sense of urgency, emphasize individual elements, or convey a rapid sequence of ideas across different parts of a composition. They enhance the flow of text by removing typical connectors and allowing readers to process information more quickly, ultimately contributing to the overall coherence and impact of the written work.

Literary Examples of Asyndetons
ExtractReferenceExplanation as Asyndeton
“So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.” – F. Scott Fitzgerald, “The Great Gatsby”Fitzgerald, The Great GatsbyThis sentence uses asyndetons by omitting conjunctions (such as “and”) to create a sense of continuous, relentless struggle, emphasizing the unending nature of the characters’ efforts.
“You may write me down in history with your bitter, twisted lies.” – Maya Angelou, “Still I Rise”Angelou, “Still I Rise”In this line, the author uses asyndetons to list the oppressive actions against her without pause, emphasizing their resilience and strength in the face of adversity.
“War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength.” – George Orwell, “1984”Orwell, 1984Orwell employs asyndetons to juxtapose contradictory concepts, creating a sense of dystopian absurdity and illustrating the oppressive regime’s manipulation of language.
“Dying is an art, like everything else. I do it exceptionally well.” – Sylvia Plath, “Lady Lazarus”Plath, “Lady Lazarus”Asyndeton is used here to highlight the narrator’s unconventional perspective on death, emphasizing her mastery of this dark “art” without interruption.
“Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice.” – Gabriel García Márquez, “One Hundred Years of Solitude”García Márquez, One Hundred Years of SolitudeThe author employs asyndetons to connect past and present moments in Colonel Buendía’s life, emphasizing the significance of this memory in a continuous flow of time.
“Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Self-Reliance”Emerson, “Self-Reliance”Emerson uses asyndetons to convey a direct and imperative tone, encouraging self-reliance and inner trust without any interruption or hesitation in the message.
How to Create an Asyndetons
  1. Identify the Elements: Determine the words, phrases, or clauses you want to connect without using conjunctions. These elements should be related and serve a purpose in your sentence.
  2. List the Elements: Write down the elements you identified in step 1, placing them in the order you want them to appear in your sentence.
  3. Remove Conjunctions: Go through your list of elements and remove any conjunctions that would normally join them. Replace these conjunctions with commas or other punctuation marks if necessary.
  4. Check Flow and Emphasis: Read the sentence aloud to ensure that the absence of conjunctions creates the desired effect. Asyndetons are often used to increase the pace or impact of a sentence, so make sure it achieves your intended purpose.
  5. Revise and Edit: Review your sentence for clarity and readability. Ensure that the absence of conjunctions doesn’t make the sentence confusing or disjointed. Make any necessary adjustments to maintain the sentence’s coherence.
Benefits of Using Asyndetons
  1. Conciseness: Asyndetons allow you to convey information more succinctly. By eliminating conjunctions, you create shorter, punchier sentences, making your writing more concise and direct.
  2. Emphasis: Asyndetons emphasize a series of words or phrases in a sentence. When conjunctions are omitted, the reader’s attention focuses on each item in the list, making them stand out and giving them added weight.
  3. Increased Pace: The absence of conjunctions creates a sense of speed and urgency in your writing. It encourages a rapid flow of ideas and actions, which is particularly effective in action sequences or when you want to convey a sense of excitement.
  4. Rhetorical Impact: Asyndetons serve as a rhetorical device, emphasizing the connection between elements and reinforcing a point. It makes your writing more persuasive by making your arguments or ideas appear stronger and more interconnected.
  5. Artistic Expression: Asyndetons add an artistic flair to your writing, enhancing its aesthetic appeal. It allows you to experiment with sentence structure and rhythm, creating a unique and memorable prose style.
Asyndeton and Literary Theories
TheoryCritique of Asyndeton
FormalismIt examines how asyndetons impact the text’s aesthetic qualities, such as rhythm and cohesion. It also considers the author’s deliberate choice in employing asyndetons for stylistic effect.
StructuralismIt analyzes asyndetons as part of larger structural patterns within the text. It also explores how it contributes to the overall meaning and organization of the work.
Reader-Response TheoryIt investigates how asyndeton affects the reader’s interpretation, pace, comprehension, and emotional engagement with the text. It also recognizes that different readers may have varied responses to it.
DeconstructionIt examines asyndetons as linguistic tools that disrupt conventional syntax and meaning. It also explores how it highlights the inherent contradictions and ambiguities in language and text.
Feminist TheoryIt considers whether asyndetons reinforce or challenge traditional gender roles and hierarchies within the text. – Examines its role in conveying or subverting gender-related themes and power dynamics.
Suggested Readings
  1. Barthes, Roland. The Rhetoric of the Image. Hill and Wang, 1977.
  2. Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1947.
  3. Kennedy, George A. A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton University Press, 1994.
  4. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.
  5. Quintilian. Institutio Oratoria. Translated by H. E. Butler, Harvard University Press, 1920.
  6. Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
  7. Vickers, Brian. In Defense of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1989.
  8. Weaver, Richard M. The Ethics of Rhetoric. Southern Illinois University Press, 1953.

Asyndeton: A Literary Device

Asyndeton is a literary device characterized by the deliberate omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence or series, creating a sense of urgency, rhythm, or emphasis.

Etymology of Asyndeton

The term “asyndeton” has its origins in ancient Greek. It comes from the Greek word “ἀσύνδετον,” which is pronounced as “asúndeton.” This Greek word is a combination of two components: “a” (meaning “not”) and “syndetos” (meaning “bound together” or “connected”). Hence, “asyndeton” essentially means “not connected” or “not bound together.”

Meaning of Asyndeton

To make things about asyndeton easy, here is a table of all likely meanings.

AspectDescription
ConjunctionsAsyndeton involves the intentional absence of conjunctions that normally connect words or phrases.
EmphasisIt emphasizes each item in a list or series, giving them equal importance and making the text impactful.
Pace and RhythmIt quickens or slows down the pace of a sentence, creating urgency or depending on context.
ConcisenessIt makes sentences concise and to the point by eliminating conjunctions, serving specific writing effects.
Dramatic EffectIt is frequently used in literature and rhetoric to create drama or poetry, drawing attention to individual elements.
ExamplesIts popular examples include “I came, I saw, I conquered” and “The sun, the moon, the stars.”
Contrast with PolysyndetonAsyndeton is the opposite of polysyndeton, which uses multiple conjunctions for emphasis.
Flexible UsageWriters use asyndeton based on goals like creating rhythm, emphasizing lists, or evoking emotional responses.
Common in LiteratureIt is a common stylistic choice in literature, poetry, and persuasive writing, enhancing language impact.
Examples in Everyday LanguageIt is occasionally found in everyday language to describe swift actions or events.
Impactful Writing ToolIt is a powerful tool to manipulate sentence flow and enhance overall writing quality.
Definition of Literary Device of Asyndeton

Asyndeton is a literary device characterized by the deliberate omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence or series, creating a sense of urgency, rhythm, or emphasis. This technique serves to emphasize each element in a list or sequence, enhancing their individual significance and impacting the overall tone and pacing of the narrative. Asyndeton is a common stylistic choice in literature, often used to evoke specific emotional responses from readers and add depth to the text.

Common Features of an Asyndeton
FeatureExplanationExample
ConcisenessAsyndeton creates concise and streamlined sentences or lists by omitting conjunctions, leading to a more direct communication style.“He ran, jumped, laughed, cried.”
EmphasisIt can emphasize each item in a list or series, drawing attention to individual elements.“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Rhythmic EffectAsyndeton can create a rhythmic or staccato effect in writing or speech, adding dynamism and memorability.“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France.”
Dramatic ImpactIt can intensify language, infusing a sense of urgency or intensity, contributing to a more dramatic narrative or speech.“The storm raged, the waves crashed, and our ship sank.”
ClarityIn some cases, asyndeton enhances clarity by highlighting each item in a list without conjunction distractions.“She packed her bags, called a taxi, and headed to the airport.”
Types of Asyndetons
TypeDetailExample
Asyndetons of PhrasesThey omit conjunctions between phrases, creating a quick, staccato effect.“He ran, he jumped, he laughed, he cried.”
Cumulative AsyndetonsThey omit conjunctions in a list of items, building up to a climactic or emphatic conclusion.“They brought gifts, smiles, laughter, love.”
Single-word AsyndetonsThey present individual words or short phrases without conjunctions for emphasis or drama.“Silence. Darkness. Alone.”
Implied AsyndetonsThey omit conjunctions, with their absence implied by the context.“She spoke softly, kindly, compassionately.”
Rhetorical AsyndetonsThey are used in speeches or persuasive writing to create a persuasive or emotional impact.“We must act, we must strive, we must prevail.”
Parenthetical AsyndetonsThey omit conjunctions within parenthetical phrases or clauses for quick, parenthetical remarks.“She spoke, (though no one was really listening), about her dreams.”
Common Examples of Asyndetons
  1. Shopping List: “I need to buy milk, eggs, bread, and butter.”
  2. Task List: “I have to clean the kitchen, vacuum the living room, and do the laundry.”
  3. Instructions: “Mix the ingredients, pour the batter into the pan, and bake at 350 degrees.”
  4. Sports Commentary: “He dribbled the ball, passed it to his teammate, shot, and scored!”
  5. Describing a Vacation: “We went to the beach, built sandcastles, swam in the ocean, and watched the sunset.”
  6. Cooking Recipe: “Chop the onions, sauté them, add the tomatoes, and simmer the sauce.”
  7. Travel Plans: “We’ll fly to Paris, explore the Louvre, visit the Eiffel Tower, and enjoy French cuisine.”
  8. Job Interview Tips: “Prepare your resume, research the company, rehearse your answers, and dress professionally.”
  9. Directions: “Drive straight, turn left at the intersection, and park in front of the store.”
  10. Goal Setting: “My New Year’s resolutions are to exercise regularly, eat healthily, and learn a new language.”
Shakespearean Asyndetons

Shakespeare, one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the English language, frequently used asyndeton in his works to create memorable lines and impactful speeches. Here are some examples of Shakespearean asyndetons from his plays:

  1. Hamlet: “To be or not to be, that is the question.”
  2. Julius Caesar: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
  3. Macbeth: “Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage.”
  4. Romeo and Juliet: “Good night, good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow.”
  5. Othello: “She loved me for the dangers I had passed, and I loved her that she did pity them.”
  6. Henry V: “We few, we happy few, we band of brothers.”
  7. The Tempest: “Hell is empty, and all the devils are here.”
  8. Richard III: “Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this sun of York.”
  9. Twelfth Night: “If music be the food of love, play on.”
  10. As You Like It: “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.”
Suggested Readings
  1. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.
  2. Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. Oxford University Press, 1998.
  3. Fahnestock, Jeanne, and Marie Secor. A Rhetoric of Argument: Text and Reader. McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
  4. Kennedy, George A., and Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Oxford University Press, 2006.
  5. Vickers, Brian. In Defence of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1988.
  6. Heinrichs, Jay. Thank You for Arguing: What Aristotle, Lincoln, and Homer Simpson Can Teach Us About the Art of Persuasion. Three Rivers Press, 2017.
  7. Hocks, Mary E. Understanding Rhetoric: A Graphic Guide to Writing. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2013.
  8. Golden, James L., and Goodwin F. Berquist. The Rhetoric of Western Thought: From the Mediterranean World to the Global Setting. Kendall Hunt Publishing, 2019.

The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy

In the Preface to his famous book, The Crown of the Wild Olive, John Ruskin has taken to task the British statistical economists of that time to argue his case that showing “ciphers” is not an economy and prosperity.

Introduction to the Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

In the Preface to his famous book, The Crown of the Wild Olive, John Ruskin has taken to task the British statistical economists of that time to argue his case that showing “ciphers” is not an economy and prosperity, rather it “consists of substance” which he calls of having “the final worth” for the human being to benefit from (09). Ruskin starts his argument by describing the devastation of natural water springs and scenery in South England, adding that water wells in the backyards of houses are due to the neglect of labor used somewhere else for profitable purposes. He laments mining saying that it is meant for the “joy and health” (05), but the wreckage of clothes, metal, dust, and slime are left in the open which is injurious to the health of the public (05). He builds his argument that the political economy means profit at the expense of health hazards and destruction of natural scenery which is against the teachings of the Bible as well as ethics of the heathens.

Description of Destruction in The Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

Giving horrible destruction of the water sources and nature in the Southern England, Ruskin, in the preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive, says that it is very easy to dispose the remains of the mining by just “Half-a-dozen men, with one day’s work” (5) but the problem is that this labor is capital driven that is done only for installing railing outside of the houses of the rich and then re-railing through iron bars which rust with the passage of time and has no final value. However, the problem with the factory owners and capitalists is that they want profit by producing needs and then products in a way that the life of laborers is spent in producing a “valueless piece of iron” instead of “medicinal fresh air, and pure war” (06) which would prove healthful for the general public. However, the problem is that there is no profit or money involved, the reason that the refuse and remains of mining of iron are left as they are.

Belief System in the Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

Presenting his argument by comparing this work of wiping out refuse with that of a religious person, Rusk argues that exactly like the belief system, corporations and factories work on practical basis and not on the basis of “this assumed belief” of making the world beautiful though the profit makers accept this argument that this is a religious beliefs are correct and do not deny them (10). However, if all the Christians believe in the teachings of the Bible and adhere to it teachings, they may resort to making the world a place worth living instead of reaching out to needless products or selling such useless products. However, the argument arises that life is too short and that it must be used practically. Then, he says, the question looms large that it does not mean “wasting the space” (12). What he means is that the Biblical teachings of “what a man soweth that shall he also reap” (13) could make them to see their follies of this great avarice of money making at whose alter they are destroying the environment.

Symbol of Olive in The Crown of the Wild Olive

He even links it to the Grecian heathens who used to award an olive branch to the winners of the Olympics and that they did not want money which he ironically attributes to their gods that they did not have gold or any other precious metal to offer to the winners. That is why it is in the title of th book, The Crown of the Wild Olive.  In other words, his argument is that that olive branch means the preservation of nature on which the whole of humanity lives and enjoys. If that is done, it means there is “free heartedness, and graciousness, and undisturbed peace” (15), which he states is not possible in the current state of economic thoughts of earning profit only. He declares by the end that these “may be riches; untormenting and divine” (15) which would serve others in life on this earth. This also serves in the context of work, which should be done for the welfare of the people, traffic that should not be used to collect money and the weapons that should not serve to destroy the earth.

Conclusion

Concluding the argument of the preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive, it could be said that Ruskin has tried to awaken the religions conscience of the readers by stating that political economy is too much dependent on things that have no final value, and are only produced to create needs and then produced to meet those artificially created needs. If this production of objects and commodities continue, it means the destruction of the natural resources and also the use of laborers at the behest of the few profit-making factory and mining owners. However, this would have little value for the common public. Contrary to the religion beliefs, this does not fit into the Biblical teachings though life is to face death, but it does not mean that one should just fulfill his desires of making money at the expense of natural destruction and pure sources of health. his three lectures too argue the same principle of peace, love and service to the public. His argument of the Grecian olive branch too hold weight in that it was a symbol of the preservation of nature to satisfy one’s pride and not greed and that is also the major point of his argument for work, traffic and war weapons.

Works Cited
  1. Ruskin, John. The Crown of the Wild Olive; Three Lectures on Work, Traffic and War. The University of Adelaide Library, South Australia, 2014.
Relevant Questions About The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy
  1. In the Preface to The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy, what key insights does Ruskin provide regarding the shortcomings of political economy as a discipline?
  2. How does the Preface in The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy set the tone for John Ruskin’s critique of political economy, and what are the main ideas or arguments he foreshadows in this introductory text?
  3. What historical and intellectual context is essential to understanding the significance of the Preface in The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy in relation to John Ruskin’s broader criticism of political economy in the 19th century?