Day: September 26, 2023

Critical Race Theory: Application to Literature

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary framework developed in legal scholarship during the late 20th century that examines the pervasive role of race and racism.

Introduction

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary framework developed in legal scholarship during the late 20th century that examines the pervasive role of race and racism in shaping social, political, and legal structures.

It asserts that racism is not just an individual act but a systemic, institutionalized phenomenon, aiming to uncover and challenge the ways racial hierarchies are embedded in law, policies, and societal norms.

CRT scholars analyze power dynamics, privilege, and the intersections of race with other social identities to promote a deeper understanding of racial injustices and advocate for equitable change.

Criticism Against Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory is a framework developed in the legal field to examine the intersection of race, power, and the law. It has since been applied to various fields, including education, sociology, literature and political science. However, CRT has also been met with criticism from various perspectives. Here are some of the criticisms against CRT:

  1. Essentialism: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory relies on essentialist assumptions about race, which means that it sees race as a fixed, inherent characteristic that defines a person’s experiences and perspectives. This criticism argues that it fails to acknowledge that race is a social construct and that individual experiences vary.
  2. Divisiveness: Some critics argue that it promotes divisiveness by framing everything in terms of power struggles between different racial groups. Critics argue that this can lead to a more polarized society and further marginalization of certain groups.
  3. Lack of Evidence: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory lacks empirical evidence to support its claims, and that it relies on anecdotal evidence and personal narratives instead. Critics argue that this makes CRT less objective and less rigorous as a scholarly discipline.
  4. Rejection of Objectivity: Some critics argue that it rejects the idea of objectivity and neutrality in favor of subjective interpretations of reality. Critics argue that this makes CRT less reliable as a scholarly discipline, and that it undermines the credibility of objective research.
  5. Ideological Bias: Some critics argue that it is ideologically biased and that it promotes a particular political agenda. Critics argue that this makes it less objective and less useful as a scholarly discipline.
  6. Overemphasis on Race: Some critics argue that it overemphasizes the role of race in shaping society and ignores other important factors such as class, gender, and culture. Critics argue that this can lead to a narrow and incomplete understanding of social issues.
Examples of Critical Race Theory
  1. The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison: In this novel, Critical Race Theory critiques how characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and social status. For example, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, is a young B**ck girl who believes that having blue eyes would make her more beautiful and desirable. Critical Race Theory critiques how Pecola’s desire for blue eyes reflects internalized racism and how her lack of power in society contributes to her self-hatred.
  2. Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison: In this novel, it criticizes how the protagonist’s experiences are shaped by his race and his encounters with institutional racism. For example, the protagonist is expelled from college for exposing the racist practices of the institution. It critiques how the institution’s response to the protagonist’s actions reflects the ways in which institutions use their power to silence dissenting voices.
  3. The Negro Speaks of Rivers by Langston Hughes: In this poem, Critical Race Theory analyzes how the speaker’s experiences are shaped by his identity as a B**ck person. For example, the poem begins with the line “I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins,” which it interprets as a reference to the long history of B**ck people and their contributions to human civilization. Critical Race Theory critiques how the poem celebrates B**ck culture and history in the face of systemic oppression.
  4. Everyday Use by Alice Walker: In this short story, Critical Race Theory assesses how the characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and their understanding of heritage. For example, the protagonist, Mama, has two daughters: Dee, who has embraced a more mainstream version of B**ck culture, and Maggie, who has retained a connection to their rural roots. It critiques how the story explores the tension between different interpretations of B**ck culture and heritage and how this tension reflects the larger issues of power and control in society.
  5. The Color Purple by Alice Walker: In this novel, it examines how the characters’ experiences are shaped by the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality. For example, the main character, Celie, is a B**ck woman who faces abuse and oppression from both B**ck men and white society. CRT critiques how the novel portrays the ways in which racism, sexism, and heterosexism intersect to shape the experiences of B**ck women.
Keywords in Critical Race Theory

Here are some keywords and concepts commonly used in Critical Race Theory:

  1. Racialization: The process of categorizing individuals based on race, leading to disparities.
  2. Intersectionality: Intersection of social identities (e.g., race, gender) in shaping experiences of oppression.
  3. Structural Racism: Systemic practices that perpetuate racial inequalities.
  4. White Supremacy: Belief in white superiority, leading to discrimination.
  5. Microaggressions: Subtle, unintentional acts conveying discrimination.
  6. Colorblindness: Ignoring racial differences, perpetuating inequality.
  7. Critical Consciousness: Awareness of systemic racism, commitment to change.
  8. Counter-Narratives: Alternative stories challenging dominant racial narratives.
  9. Institutional Racism: Discriminatory policies within institutions, harming minorities.
  10. Racial Equity: Achieving fairness by addressing racial disparities.
Suggested Readings
  1. Crenshaw, Kimberlé, et al., editors. Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings That Formed the Movement. New Press, 1995.
  2. Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. 3rd ed., New York University Press, 2017.
  3. Ladson-Billings, Gloria, and William F. Tate IV, editors. Education Research in the Public Interest: Social Justice, Action, and Policy. Teachers College Press, 2005.
  4. Lopez, Ian Haney. White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York University Press, 1996.
  5. Matsuda, Mari. Words That Wound: Critical Race Theory, Assaultive Speech, and the First Amendment. Westview Press, 1993.
  6. Solorzano, Daniel, and Tara J. Yosso. Critical Race Methodology: Counter-Storytelling as an Analytical Framework for Education Research. Qualitative Inquiry, vol. 8, no. 1, 2002, pp. 23-44.
  7. Williams, Patricia. The Alchemy of Race and Rights. Harvard University Press, 1991.
You may read more on Literary Theory below:

Critical Race Literary Theory

The term Critical Race Literary Theory emerges from the fusion of Critical Race Theory and Literary Theory.

Introduction

The term Critical Race Literary Theory emerges from the fusion of Critical Race Theory and Literary Theory. Critical Race Theory, originating in late 20th-century legal scholarship, focuses on racial inequality, structural racism, and intersections of race with other social identities. Simultaneously, integrating Critical Race Theory principles into literary studies yields this theory. This interdisciplinary approach applies Critical Race Theory to literary analysis, exploring race, racism, and racial identities in literary narratives. Thus, Critical Race Literary Theory melds Critical Race Theory’s critical lens with literary scrutiny, revealing the intricate relationship between race, culture, and literature in societies marked by racial disparities.

Meanings of Critical Race Literary Theory
PointMeaning
Intersectional AnalysisIt uses an intersectional approach to examine how race intersects with other social identities such as gender, class, and sexuality in literary narratives.
Racial RepresentationIt focuses on the representation of race, racial stereotypes, and the construction of racial identities within literature, highlighting how authors portray and challenge these aspects.
Structural RacismThis theory delves into the exploration of structural racism, both explicit and implicit, as it is reflected in literary texts, shedding light on systemic inequalities and injustices.
Counter-NarrativesCritical Race Literary Theory also emphasizes the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant racial ideologies and provide alternative perspectives on racial experiences.
Cultural CritiqueIt engages in a critical examination of the cultural implications embedded in literary works, considering how literature contributes to and reflects broader societal attitudes towards race and racism.
Social Justice AdvocacyBeyond analysis, it often advocates for social justice by addressing issues of racial inequality and fostering discussions on racial equity through literature.
Historical ContextIt contextualizes literary texts within their historical timeframes, recognizing the influence of past racial ideologies and events on contemporary narratives.
Authorial PerspectivesThis theory explores how an author’s own racial identity and perspective influence the portrayal of race and racial themes in their works.
Reader ReceptionCritical Race Literary Theory also considers how readers, based on their own racial backgrounds and experiences, interpret and engage with literary texts, highlighting the role of the audience in meaning-making.
Pedagogical ToolIt is frequently used as a pedagogical tool in literature courses to encourage critical thinking about race and racism in society through the analysis of literature.
Critical Race Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Key Arguments
Origin:
  • Emergence in Late 20th Century: It emerged in the late 20th century as an extension of Critical Race Theory, which originated in legal studies. It gained prominence in literary scholarship as a response to issues of racial inequality and discrimination.
Theorists:
  • Toni Morrison: Renowned author and scholar whose works, such as Beloved and The Bluest Eye, are often analyzed through this lens for their exploration of African American experiences.
  • Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Scholar known for his examination of African American literature and culture, offering insights into race and identity through a literary perspective.
  • Frantz Fanon: Though not exclusively a Critical Race Literary Theorist, Fanon’s works like B**ck Skin, White Masks have influenced the field with their exploration of racial identity and colonialism.
  • Cheryl Harris: Legal scholar whose concept of “whiteness as property” has been incorporated into Critical Race Literary Theory discussions on racial privilege and power.
Works:
  • Beloved (1987) by Toni Morrison: This novel is a central text in Critical Race Literary Theory, exploring themes of slavery, trauma, and the legacy of racial injustice.
  • The Souls of B**ck Folk (1903) by W.E.B. Du Bois: Though written before the emergence of Critical Race Literary Theory, this work remains influential for its early exploration of racial identity and the “double consciousness.”
  • The Signifying Monkey (1988) by Henry Louis Gates Jr.: This work explores African American literary traditions and the role of language in shaping racial identity and resistance.
  • B**ck Looks: Race and Representation (1992) by bell hooks: An important text for its analysis of media and popular culture in perpetuating racial stereotypes.
Key Arguments:
  • Racial Representation: Critical Race Literary Theory argues that literature plays a significant role in shaping and challenging racial representations, stereotypes, and identities in society.
  • Structural Racism: This theory highlights how literature reflects and perpetuates systemic racial inequalities and injustices, shedding light on the impact of racism on characters and narratives.
  • Counter-Narratives: Critical Race Literary Theory emphasizes the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant racial ideologies and provide alternative perspectives on racial experiences.
  • Intersectionality: It adopts an intersectional approach, examining how race intersects with other social identities, such as gender, class, and sexuality, within literary narratives.
  • Cultural Critique: This theory engages in a critical examination of the cultural implications embedded in literary works, considering how literature contributes to and reflects broader societal attitudes towards race and racism.
Principles of Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a complex and multifaceted framework that incorporates many principles and concepts. However, some of the key principles of CRT include:

Main FeaturesExplanation
IntersectionalityIt recognizes that race intersects with other social categories, such as gender, class, and sexuality, leading to complex forms of oppression and privilege.
Social Construction of RaceIt views race as a socially constructed concept rather than a biologically determined characteristic, highlighting its historical and political origins.
Permanence of RacismIt argues that racism is an enduring and systemic feature of society, operating at individual, institutional, and structural levels.
Interest ConvergenceIt suggests that racial progress is more likely when the interests of marginalized communities align with those in power.
Counterstorytelling and Marginalized VoicesIt values the narratives and perspectives of marginalized individuals and communities, challenging dominant narratives and centering their experiences.
Critique of Meritocracy and ColorblindnessIt questions the notions of meritocracy and colorblindness, highlighting how they can perpetuate racial inequalities by disregarding structural barriers and systemic racism.
Social Justice and ActivismIt calls for the dismantling of racial hierarchies and the pursuit of social justice through legal and policy changes and grassroots activism.
Critical Race Theory or Critical Race Literary Theory?
Critical Race Theory (CRT)Critical Race Literary Theory
Originated in the legal field in the 1970s and expanded into various disciplines.Applies the principles of CRT to the analysis of literature
Examines how race intersects with systems of power, law,and society to perpetuate racial inequality and discrimination.Explores how race and racism are represented, reinforced, or challenged in literary texts
Aims to uncover the underlying assumptions, structures,and practices that contribute to racial oppression.Analyzes how literature reflects and shapes social perceptions of race,
power dynamics, and racial hierarchies
Explores both explicit and implicit forms of racism,institutional practices, cultural norms, and individual biases.Engages with racial identity, social justice, and racial politics through the examination of authors, characters, and narratives
Often calls for social justice and activism to challenge racism and create a more equitable society.Incorporates interdisciplinary approaches, drawing from literary theory, cultural studies, and social sciences.

While CRT is a broader framework that examines the intersection of race, power, and society, Critical Race Literary Theory specifically applies these principles to the analysis of literature, focusing on how race and racism are represented in literary texts.

Suggested Readings
  1. Delgado, Richard, and Jean Stefancic. Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York University Press, 2017.
  2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford University Press, 2014.
  3. Harris, Cheryl. Whiteness as Property. Harvard Law Review, vol. 106, no. 8, 1993, pp. 1707-1791.
  4. hooks, bell. B**ck Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press, 1992.
  5. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Knopf, 1987.
  6. Spillers, Hortense J. “Mama’s Baby, Papa’s Maybe: An American Grammar Book.” Diacritics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1987, pp. 64-81.
  7. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Beacon Press, 1994

African American Theory

African American Theory is a critical framework that analyze literature produced by African American writers in their unique experiences.

Introduction African American Theory

African American Theory is a critical framework that analyze literature produced by African American writers within the context of their unique experiences and cultural heritage. Rooted in the need to challenge traditional narratives that often marginalized African American voices, this theory emphasizes authentic representation, identity exploration, and the examination of themes such as resistance, cultural preservation, and social justice. It acknowledges the intersectionality of race with other social categories and draws from various literary and interdisciplinary traditions to provide a comprehensive lens for analyzing African American literature. Ultimately, African American Theory enriches our understanding of the rich and diverse literary contributions of African Americans, shedding light on the complexities of their narratives throughout history.

Criticism Against African American Theory
  • Lack of attention to intersections of race, gender, sexuality, class, and other social identities in this theory.
  • Criticisms of the use of Western literary theory as the framework for African American literary theory
  • Arguments that African American literary theory is too focused on canonized works and neglects popular culture and other forms of expression
  • Accusations of a narrow focus on the United States and neglect of the global context of African diasporic literature
  • Debates over the relationship between African American literary theory and the B***k Arts Movement, with some arguing that the former fails to adequately address the political and social dimensions of B***k cultural production.
Examples of African American Theory
WorkApplication of African American Literary Theory
Toni Morrison’s BelovedAfrican American Theory analyzes the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison, focusing on its portrayal of the experience of slavery and its enduring effects on the characters. It also examines the central role of memory and its significance in the lives of African Americans within the narrative.
Langston Hughes’ “I, Too, Sing America”African American Theory can be applied to Hughes’ poem, “I, Too, Sing America,” to explore themes of racism, identity, and the African American experience. The analysis delves into the poem’s language and literary devices, deciphering how they convey these themes within the context of African American culture.
Alice Walker’s The Color PurpleIt could be used to analyze Alice Walker’s novel, The Color Purple, emphasizing its portrayal of the experiences of African American women in the early 20th-century South. Additionally, it delves into themes of race, gender, and identity, examining their relevance to the African American experience.
Gwendolyn Brooks’ “We Real Cool”African American Literary Theory examines Gwendolyn Brooks’ poem, “We Real Cool,” through the lenses of race, identity, and the African American experience. The analysis explores Brooks’ use of language and literary devices to convey the perspectives and experiences of her community.
Countee Cullen’s “Incident”This poem is analyzed through this theory as a commentary on the persistence of racist attitudes and actions in American society, despite supposed progress post-slavery. The analysis highlights the speaker’s shock and confusion when confronted with a racial slur, emphasizing the insidious nature of racism and the vulnerability of even seemingly secure African Americans to discrimination.
Keywords in African American Theory
  1. Double consciousness: A concept introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois in which African Americans have to navigate the cultural expectations and values of both their African heritage and their American experience.
  2. Afro-pessimism: A theoretical framework that focuses on the ongoing and pervasive effects of anti-b***kness, oppression, and violence in the lives of African Americans, as well as the limitations of traditional approaches to addressing these issues.
  3. Signifyin(g): A technique used in African American literature in which words and phrases are used in a way that communicates multiple meanings and subverts dominant cultural norms and expectations.
  4. Intersectionality: A framework for understanding how different aspects of identity, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and interact to shape an individual’s experiences of privilege and oppression.
  5. B***k feminism: A branch of feminism that centers the experiences and perspectives of b***k women and emphasizes the ways in which race, gender, and other social identities intersect and affect their experiences of oppression and resistance.
  6. Neo-slave narrative: A genre of literature that reimagines and reinterprets the experiences of enslaved Africans and African Americans in a contemporary context, often emphasizing themes of resistance, agency, and survival.
  7. Cultural nationalism: An ideology that emphasizes the importance of preserving and celebrating one’s cultural heritage and values, often in the face of assimilation and oppression.
  8. B**k aesthetics: An approach to art and literature that emphasizes the unique cultural and aesthetic traditions of African Americans and their contributions to the broader cultural landscape.
Suggested Readings
  1. Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford UP, 2007.
  2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford UP, 1989.
  3. Harris, Trudier, et al. The Oxford Handbook of African American Literature. Oxford UP, 2014.
  4. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Vintage, 1993.
  5. Neal, Larry. The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2005.
  6. Smethurst, James Edward. The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s. Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2005.
  7. Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem Renaissance. Indiana UP, 1995.
  8. West, Cornel. Race Matters. Beacon Press, 2010.

African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory is a framework for analyzing literature by African American writers.

Etymology of African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory is a framework for analyzing literature by African American writers.

  • Nomenclature & Identity: Derives from the intersection of African American culture, history, and literature, signifying authors’ racial and cultural identity within the United States.
  • Influences: Draws from literary traditions like African oral traditions, the Harlem Renaissance, B**ck Arts Movement, and the Civil Rights era.
  • Themes & Goals: Explores race, identity, oppression, resistance, and cultural heritage in African American literature, illuminating the African American experience throughout history.
African American Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
Origin of African American Literary Theory
  • Emerged during the 20th century as African American writers gained prominence in American literature.
  • Rooted in the need for critical frameworks that acknowledge the unique African American experience.
Prominent Theorists
  • W.E.B. Du Bois: Known for his influential work The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois introduced the concept of double consciousness and explored the struggle for identity among African Americans.
  • Langston Hughes: A celebrated poet, Hughes’s works, including The Negro Speaks of Rivers, emphasize cultural heritage, racial pride, and resilience.
  • Toni Morrison: Renowned for her novels, especially Beloved, Morrison examined the enduring impact of slavery on African American identity and familial bonds.
  • Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Notable for his essays and criticism, Gates has focused on African American literary history and cultural studies in works like The Signifying Monkey.
Key Works in African American Literary Theory
  • Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk addresses issues of race, identity, and inequality within African American communities.
  • Hughes’s poetry, such as The Negro Speaks of Rivers, explores the rich cultural heritage and resilience of African Americans.
  • Morrison’s novel Beloved delves into the haunting legacy of slavery and its profound impact on African American families.
  • Gates’s essays, found in The Signifying Monkey, delve into African American literary traditions, folklore, and their significance.
Core Arguments
  • African American Literary Theory seeks to highlight the unique cultural and historical context of African American writers.
  • It emphasizes themes of racial identity, oppression, resistance, and the preservation of cultural heritage.
  • This critical framework challenges dominant narratives and fosters a deeper understanding of African American literary contributions to American literature.
Principles of African American Literary Theory
PrincipleExplanationExample
Representation and VoiceChallenges traditional narratives, emphasizes authentic representation, and amplifies African American experiences.In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, the novel portrays the haunting legacy of slavery through the voice of African American characters.
Identity and Racial ConsciousnessExplores complexities of African American identity, including race, ethnicity, and cultural heritage, within the context of social categories.In Langston Hughes’ poetry, he navigates the intersections of being African American and his identity as a poet and artist.
Resistance and LiberationExamines how literature addresses and challenges systemic oppression, racial inequality, and social injustice.Richard Wright’s Native Son portrays the protagonist’s resistance against racial injustice in 1930s Chicago.
Cultural and Historical ContextsHighlights the significance of cultural and historical contexts, including the legacies of slavery and the Civil Rights Movement, in interpreting literature.Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God is deeply rooted in the cultural context of the Harlem Renaissance.
Intersectionality and Interdisciplinary PerspectivesRecognizes interconnectedness of social identities and employs interdisciplinary approaches.In Alice Walker’s The Color Purple, the intersectionality of race and gender is explored through the character Celie.
Community and SolidarityEmphasizes communal aspects, explores unity, resilience, and cultural preservation within African American communities.August Wilson’s The Pittsburgh Cycle portrays the African American community’s struggle and solidarity in different decades.
Relevant Theoretical Frameworks and Concepts
Critical Race Theory and Its Application to African American Literature
  • It shows an understanding of the role of race and racism in society and how it shapes African American literature.
  • It shows how power structures and social hierarchies affect the production and reception of African American texts.
  • It also examines how African American authors challenge and subvert dominant racial narratives through their literary works.
Postcolonial Theory and its Impact on African American Literary Theory and Literature
  • It explores the connections between African American literature and the history of colonization and imperialism.
  • It helps analyze how African American authors negotiate and resist the legacy of colonialism in their works
  • It also helps examine themes of identity, cultural hybridity, and decolonization in African American literary texts
Feminist and Gender Theories within African American Literary Criticism
  • It helps examine the intersection of race and gender in African American literature
  • It helps analyzes how African American women writers explore issues of power, agency, and identity within their works
  • It also seeks to investigate how African American women challenge and disrupt traditional gender roles and stereotypes through their writing
Intersectionality and the Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class
  • It helps understand how multiple social categories intersect and shape the experiences of African Americans
  • It helps analyze how race, gender, and class intersect and interact in African American literary texts
  • It also seeks to explore the complexities and nuances of identity and social oppression within the African American community
African American Literary Criticism and Aesthetics
  • It shows the politics of representation in African American literature.
  • It questions the authenticity and the “B***k experience.”
  • It also aestheticizes resistance and the use of language as a tool for empowerment.
  • It also shows the role of folklore, spirituality, and cultural traditions in African American literature
Contemporary Developments and Debates
  • African American speculative fiction and Afrofuturism
  • Queer Theory and its intersection with African American Literature
  • Global Perspectives on African American Literature and diasporic connections
  • Discussions on the canon, inclusion, and diversity in African American literary studies
Suggested Readings about African American Literary Theory
  1. Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford UP, 2007.
  2. Gates Jr., Henry Louis. The Signifying Monkey: A Theory of African-American Literary Criticism. Oxford UP, 1989.
  3. Hughes, Langston. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Vintage, 1995.
  4. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Vintage, 1993.
  5. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.
  6. Walker, Alice. In Search of Our Mothers’ Gardens: Womanist Prose. Mariner Books, 2004.
  7. Wright, Richard. Native Son. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2005.
  8. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
  9. Wilson, August. The Pittsburgh Cycle. Theatre Communications Group, 2013.
  10. Wall, Cheryl A. Women of the Harlem Renaissance. Indiana UP, 1995.

Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens

The advent of the Industrial Revolution not only played havoc with human emotions but also with conjugal lives as marriages in Hard Times show.

Introduction to Marriages in Hard Times

The advent of the Industrial Revolution not only played havoc with human emotions but also with conjugal lives as marriages in Hard Times show. The family lives and characters faced disruption in the shape of incompatible marriages as well as spoiled marriages along with heartless and emotional flirtations. Although some people emerged as prosperous and well-to-do with newly earned wealth, the moral values lost their strength. The major thematic strand of marriages in Hard Times by Charles Dickens is the devastation of the conjugal lie, relationships, and matches as well as the elimination of human emotions even outside of married lives.

Marriages in Hard Times and Wealth

The first attack of the newly acquired wealth is on the conjugal life. This includes the existing marriages as well as the marriages that are yet to take place, new marriages, and divorces to get rid of unhappy marriages. The example of the existing marriage is that of Mr. Gradgrind with Mrs. Gradgrind where there is no love and no emotion. Mr. Gradgrind’s philosophy of “nothing but Facts!” (Dickens 06) runs in his married life including his relationships with his kids to whom he does not want to learn poetry when Mrs. Gradgrind suggests about it. His reply is that it must be the bad influence of the presence of circus girl, Sissy Jupe. He is so much blinded by his mantra of facts that he is ready to marry his daughter Louisa to Mr. Bounderby, the man more than double of her age, merely because he is a self-styled wealthy bachelor. However, what he fails to understand is that he has not taught humanistic feelings to his children, the reason that his daughter fails to adjust to new married life with Mr. Bounderby, and his son becomes rather a thief. This shows the impact of wealth on marriages in Hard Times.

Common Marriages in Hard Times

The second example of marriage, devastated by the onslaught of industrialism and newly acquired wealth leading to exploitation of others, is of Stephen Blackpool who, despite finding a very good and compassionate friend Rachael, cannot get rid of his old wife. It also counts among the worst marriages in Hard Times. It is because divorce was very difficult to get during the Victorian period, for the laws are legislated to benefit the rich, while the poor are reeling under the debt. Mrs. Blackpool is not only very lascivious but also bad-tempered, and this Hand, who works hard and honestly, has no way out except her death or his own death, which happens in any case before he could experience the blissful conjugal life with Rachael. Still another example is the marriage of Louisa with Bounderby which is based on the convenience of the business world but proves disastrous for Louisa, for she does not have any feelings for the old self-made factory owner who claims to have “born in a ditch” (47). Although it shows another disastrous or must-have-been disastrous marriage, for his claim that his mother “ran away from me” (47) proved wrong by the end when it is proved that the old beggar lady is his mother, Mrs. Pegler and that she has not left him; rather he has thrown her out after acquiring wealth. However, this marriage has not been shown in the novel.

Other Marriages in Hard Times

The example of Louisa’s marriage with Bounderby proves disastrous. She does not know romance and passions involved in conjugal life, as she does not express her emotions when she is told, “you are subject of a proposal of marriage” (132), but then the subject of love is debated in such a hard-facts manner that it proves entirely useless until Mr. Gradgrind has to ask her to “consider this question” (133). The interesting thing is that even after living for sometime together, Louisa is devoid of any emotions to her husband. That is why she is lured to Mr. James Harthouse to whom she goes to meet and is implicated by Mrs. Sparsity. By the end, she is so much devasted that Mr. Gradgrind refuses to send her to Mr. Bounderby, showing utter failure of the marriage.

The episode of Mr. Harthouse showing and showering love on Louisa is an example of emotionless and amoral youths of the Victorian period who are hellbent on enjoying life instead of establishing the institution of married life. He himself is not aware of this flirtation with Louis and leaves after required by Sissy Jupe. Therefore, his example of love is the example of not-happened marriages in Hard Times.

On the other hand, the circus people and Sissy Jupe has been placed in contrast to marriages in Hard Times. Sissy Jupe displays not only compassion and understanding of emotions, but also munificence and generosity in forgiving. Her marrying somebody and having children to be taken care by Louisa shows that circus life represents a world of human beings devoid of “facts” (06) and money represented by Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby. Her arrangement for Tom to leave the town and the help she gets from the circus people Mr. Sleary to make his escape possible shows that salvation lies not in hard facts, money and mechanized life. It rather lies in helping and being helped and loving and being loved. Initially hated and spurned in the household of Mr. Gradgrind, Sissy Jupe becomes a cynosure of the eyes of all the characters whom she saves in the end from going to the prison and helping to have feelings. For both of his children, Mr. Gradgrind finds a helping hand which he has spurned his entire life.

Conclusion

To cut the argument short, almost all marriages in Hard Times ar based on money, social status, lasciviousness and greed produced by the ravishing industrialism utterly fail. However, the poor fellows who are spurned, exploited and even tortured prove successful in marriage and having children, which is an example that life lived in wealth and devoid of feelings is an utter disaster. However, those who have exploited the poor but lived a seemingly successful married life prove utter failure in making their children’s conjugal lives or careers a success. Tom and Louisa’s lives are a case in point. Louisa ends up serving Sissy Jupe and Tom ends up living abroad, away from his homeland as well as his parents. Bounderby proves a hoax, having left his mother after getting wealth. In short, only the circus people seems to have succeeded in winning hearts of the readers due to their help and service in saving the prime institution, the married life.

Works Cited
  1. Dickens, Charles. Hard Times. Adelaide Library, Ebook. 2014.
Relevant Question about Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens
  1. How do the different marriages in “Hard Times” reflect the societal norms and values of the Victorian era, and what commentary does Dickens provide on the institution of marriage during that time?
  2. The marriage of Mr. Bounderby and Louisa Gradgrind is central to the novel’s plot. How does this marriage serve as a critique of utilitarianism and its impact on personal relationships, and what consequences does it have on the characters involved?
  3. In “Hard Times,” there is a stark contrast between the marriages of the factory workers, such as Stephen Blackpool and Rachael, and those of the upper classes, like Mr. and Mrs. Gradgrind. How does Dickens use these different marriages to highlight the class divide and the struggles of working-class individuals in matters of love and family?

Lulu Lamartine: Indianness in Love Medicine

Introduction to Lulu Lamartine

Despite having various faults as seen from the social comments about and against her “as a flirt” with “Tongues less kind” (105), Lulu Lamartine reconnects the males in various indigenous Indian ways. She expresses it herself that “I was in love with the whole world,” (272) demonstrating the passion lying behind her supposed or real promiscuity. It has moved the tongues and stirred commentaries about her. Her feminine power, however, lies not in her promiscuity or loving nature; rather, it lies in that she has “never shed one solitary tear” and not felt “sorry” for what she has done (273). These moves reassure not only her but also others as she has demonstrated it when dealing with her different lovers and her eight sons who “were of one soul” (114) with her. She also demonstrates her sagacity in choosing her husband between Bev and Henry when they met the first time. The centrality of her role about different characters shows her multidimensional Indianness. In fact, not only does Lulu Lamartine provide necessary love medicine to different Indians by demonstrating her traditional Indian femininity and empowerment, but she also tries to reconnect the people when it comes to her relationship with Bev and Lipsha Morrisey.

Love of Lulu Lamartine

As far as love is concerned, Lulu Lamartine seems an embodiment of love who not only seeks love for herself but also showers love on others. In her narrative, Lulu asserts, “I was in love with the whole world” (272) including nature as well as men. She further adds that “I loved what I saw” (273). It means that she is hungry for love as she did it during her childhood when she could not win Nector. She demonstrates this love that attracts men, provides them comfort, reconnects them as well as heals them. When it comes to attracting men, she goes for Moses Pillager when she sees that Nector Kashpaw, her “first love” (273), has left her for another woman. She demonstrates this love again when she marries Henry, for she gets the reaction when dealing with both brothers in a card game (112). She demonstrates it again through her gestures which are “subtle magnets” (113) that Bev immediately forgets his mission of getting Henry back and enters her bedroom which is “the sacred domain of her femininity” (116). He even does not feel that he has lost his mission of dealing with her diplomatically (116) that he has come with determination. This is a specific Indian trait of loving that if you do not win one love in one way, you go after it another way. Although she becomes the talk of the town in this effort of her to find love, it does not matter to her. Therefore, it must have happened in the choice of her husband that she is pragmatically loving, for she must have seen her survival in marrying one after the other. In one way, this also shows her courage in dealing with them.

Courage of Lulu Lamartine

Where courage is concerned, it is Indian courage of femininity that Lulu Lamartine demonstrates in love as well as in providing a healing touch of love to others. For example, she has clearly provided this healing touch to Bev who almost forgets his mission when he visits her to bring his son but gets entangled in her love. He automatically enters her bedroom (113) after forgetting everything about his mission of taking his son. Again, when they talk about things and their first meeting, he is shocked when he hears that it was Lulu who decided to marry which brother and it was “bold even for Lulu” (111) herself. He again observes this femininity when he sees the boys. In the case of boys, this love mixes with respect as well as obedience and Bev sees that “the younger boys obey” her “perfectly” (114). This femininity also goes into providing a healing touch to Lipsha Morrisey who does not know his real mother but when Lulu drags him to tell this fact about who his real mother was, he says, “I’ll respect her from now on” (299). He comes to know her sincere and true motive after this. Not only is this a bold move on the part of Lulu, but also this provides real healing touch to Lipsha who has all along been entirely ignorant of his real father and mother. This entirely depends on the courage of Lulu and only Lulu could do it. It is also that Lipsha starts believing that Lulu has a “near-divine healing touch,” (299) the reason that she has provided it to him on time. This shows the courage that Lulu has due to her Indian femininity that reaches out to all others who encounter her.

Relationships of Lulu Lamartine

In both of her relationships with Bev and Lipsha, Lulu Lamartine also provides a link to them to reconnect to their families. In one way, these prove healing touches, and, in another way, both reconnect to their loved ones and their Indian roots. For example, in the case of Ben, she has waited for him for so long that when she hugs him as he enters, he feels this love. She proves this when he senses “some sweet apprehension of their kinship” (114) and when he seems to have “no plans at all” (115) for his son, Henry Juniors, though he has plans to take him with him before meeting her. This is purely her presence that reconnects Bev to his family of nephews and his son in a way that it “hardly mattered who was what” (116). For Bev, it is a reconnection as well as a healing touch. Almost the same is the case of Lipsha Morrisey who believes in her divine healing touch after he comes to know about his real father and mother. He becomes fully convinced of her divine powers like that of another lady, Germain, as he says, “If she had some kind of power, I wasn’t one to doubt” (299). Bev, too, sees that Lulu has connected all her sons into one soul as they act together. He enviously looks at them working and obeying her “bound in total loyalty” (114) like they were in their youthful period. This tradition of reconnection runs deep into the Indian femininity demonstrated by Lulu and identified as well as appreciated by Bev. He sees that they were also connected to their siblings in the same way though he does not mention the femininity that held them together – which of course is his own mother. Lipsha, too, appreciates the same when he comes to know about his family.

Conclusion

Putting it briefly, the pure Indian character of Lulu Lulu Lamartine or Nanapush proves her Indianesses when it comes to providing love, showering love, attracting men, asserting femininity, and reconnecting the Indians to their Indian roots. She has demonstrated her love for everything be it, men, or women. She has showered love on her first love, Nector, and turned to Moses when Nector flees. She, then, provides the loving comfort of a wife to her every husband even if it means a title of flirt for her with some additional comments against her. She has demonstrated this love toward her siblings, creating a sense of unity and love among them that they act like they are part of a single organism. She again demonstrates this love when she deals with Bev when he comes to take his son away. In a way, she has always shown love to attract men or patriarchy toward her feminine power. This feminine power emerges to unite the Indian males as well as inform them about their family and family roots. She reconnects both Bev and Lipsha to their families and both acknowledge it. This reconnection of people having lost family connection and consequently Indianness is in a way an Indian indigenous act of reconnecting the individuals to the organism – the Indianness. It proves a healing touch to those whom she connects. Bev feels it when he comes to meet her and sees the boy acting in unison with love as they have acted in their childhood. Lipsha feels gratitude for her when she reconnects him to his family. In short, Lulu Lamartine is a magnet around whom the entire Indian culture revolves, and she provides it necessary subtlety, resilience, and surviving power to overcome the deracination of modern US culture.

Works Cited
  1. Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. New and Expanded Version. New York: Holt, 1993.
  1. How does Lulu Lamartine’s Ojibwe heritage and cultural background influence her relationships with other characters in “Love Medicine,” and what role does her Indianness play in shaping her identity within the story?
  2. Throughout the novel, Lulu Lamartine is depicted as a symbol of sensuality and allure. How does her Indianness contribute to the portrayal of her as a powerful, magnetic figure, and how do others in the narrative respond to her as a result?
  3. Lulu Lamartine’s character navigates the complexities of preserving Ojibwe traditions while existing in a world influenced by white American culture. How does her struggle to reconcile these two worlds highlight the challenges faced by Indigenous individuals in maintaining their cultural identity in a rapidly changing society?

Infanta in Le Cid: Character Analysis

Infanta in Le Cid, a great play, is a highly important character as se serves as a catalyst for the occurrence of numerous events.

Introduction to Infanta in Le Cid

Infanta in Le Cid, a great play, is a highly important character as se serves as a catalyst for the occurrence of numerous events. It needs to be stressed that her actual name is Donna Urraque. She the aughter of an esteemed Don Ferdinand. Despite the fact that in most modern stage enactments, her character is either not highlighted or eliminated altogether, Infanta remains a pivotal character of Le Cid. In fact, an in-depth analysis of the play reveals that Infanta can be regarded as Chimene’s foil — the female protagonist of the play. Her personality attributes serve as a direct contrast to Chimene’s behavioral traits. As opposed to Chimene, Infanta is not driven by passion or impulse; rather she is pragmatic and places high value on integrity and social responsibility. In other words, Infanta endorses a collectivistic social system and hence, she makes decisions that would serve the interests of her community. Due to this emphasis on social responsibility, Infanta does not pursue or profess the immense love she feels for Don Rodrigue — the protagonist. As opposed to her emotions, she follows logic and reason. Although Infanta could have easily pursued and lured Don Rodrigue, her personal values and social conscience prevents her from doing so. Therefore, Infanta can be regarded as a prototype of all those individuals who possess foresight and social wisdom. As a devoted citizen, Infanta in Le Cid believes that retribution should be ordained in order to safeguard social or communal interest and not merely for satiating one’s desire for vengeance.

Awareness of Infanta in Le Cid

Infanta’s awareness of the overpowering appeal of love becomes evident when she acknowledges to her governess, Leonor that “Love is a tyrant who spares none, I fear / This young knight, this lover, aided here, / I love” (L e Cid Act-I Scene-I) which itself is an admission of an extraordinary determination.Nonetheless, as asserted earlier, Infanta desists herself from pursuing a love that is bound to be doomed. She is acutely conscious of her royal stature that of a princess; hence, her loyalty and her strong sense of duty towards her state compel her to renounce her quest of the young warrior, thereby willfully abandoning herself to her duties as a royal member. It is actually this sense of duty that urges her to unite the esteemed warrior, the object of her desire- Don Rodrigue — with Chimene. She says to Chimene, “Dry your tears, Chimene, and free of sadness” (Act-V Scene-VII) adding “receive him from the hands of your princess” (Act-V Scene-VII). When Chimene is consumed by the desire to avenge her father’s murder by penalizing Don Rodrigue, Infanta advises her against it. She attempts to persuade Chimene to reconsider her desire for revenge by stating that if she complies with the law, the good of the country lies in this.

Royal Character of Infanta in Le Cid

Like a devoted member of the state, Infanta in Le Cid manifests perfection in terms of both personal and royal integrity. Instead of ensuring her own happiness at the expense of the happiness of the majority, she adheres to the belief that it is far more honorable to safeguard the happiness of another. Thus, she does not use her stature and influence as a princess to perpetuate her self-interest rather she wants to “seek in the good of another” in the very first scene adding further that this “marriage means so much to all three” (Act-I Scene-I).Thus, like a devout princess or a considerate monarch, she believes in the spirit of self-sacrifice when it comes to the prosperity of her subjects.

Rationality of Infanta in Le Cid

There are numerous instances in the play where instead of resorting to manipulative tactics, Infanta in Le Cid adopts a more rational and moderate approach vis-à-vis her love for Don Rodrigue. However, being human, Infanta suffers from instances of weakness. During one of these moments of weakness, she states to her governess, Leonor “the effect of reason, / When the heart is touched by subtle poison!” (Act-II, Scene-III) is quite weak and not strong. What she means is that reason does not work. When Chimene is undergoing extreme anguish and turmoil with regard to whether she should forgive Don Rodrigue- the chivalrous hero who has saved the kingdom of Castille, she says to Chimene, “Be calm, Chimene, calm your mind’s disturbance, / Be steadfast in the face of this mischance, / You’ll find fresh peace after this brief storm”  (Act-II Scene-III).Thus, instead of exploiting Chimene’s anger and benefitting from it to form a union between herself and Don Rodrigue, Infanta advises Chimene to be patient and to postpone making any decision till her anger subsides.

Actions of Infanta in Le Cid

 Furthermore, Infanta persuades Chimene to vanquish her desire of seeking Don Rodrigue’s blood in return for her father’s slaying and also expresses her determination that “I’ll help you quench your desire” ( Act-V Scene II). Thus, Infanta plays a quintessential role in minimizing the feelings of aversion and animosity between the two lovers and insists that “Even the King agrees, the truth is plain,/ That in Rodrigue your father lives again; / If you’d have me explain it in a breath, / You pursue public ruin through his death (Act-IV Scene-II).  In fact, she has made her realize that “What was right then is not so today. / Rodrigue is now our sole support” (Act-IV Scene-II). And she Chimene demurs, she makes it clear that “But it’s a deed of a higher order / To put the public good before a father” (Act-IV Scene-II). Moreover, she tries to rip to pieces Chemine’s rigid notions about reclaiming family honor by advocating forgiveness and asserting;

“Why should this public notice so pain you?

This young Mars, they praise, once pleased you;

Possessed your soul; was subject to your law”. (Act-V Scene-II) 

It is noteworthy that although she herself does not adhere to the emotional demands her heart places upon her, Infanta urges Chimene to follow her heart’s desire stating that therein lies true honor that is in honestly acknowledging the desires of one’s heart as opposed to one’s adherence to societal and familial notions of honor. This shows that for Infanta, love can only be pursued between individuals who belong to relatively compatible social classes. 

Conclusion

In the final analysis, it can be asserted that Infanta upholds the status quo. She acts as a mediator between Le Cid, the renowned warrior and Chemine. She does not let herself get swayed by her passionate love for Don Rodrigue. Acting in a manner that would guarantee her subjects’ prosperity, she deliberately tries to extinguish her feelings of love, and instead channelizes her energy in convincing Chemine to forgive Don Rodrigue thereby preventing the loss of an integral state hero. For Infanta, the existence of a state hero- an ideal and exemplary warrior- is more significant than retribution. Therefore, she questions and redefines the entire notion and theoretical framework of preserving family honor. For Infanta, the state supersedes personal and familial interests. Her rational self persistently reminds her that as a princess, she can only cherish a long-term union with a member of another royal family. Thus, Infanta in Le Cid shows rationalism and pragmatism. This enables her to use her persuasive skills and her worldly wisdom to prevent the occurrence of unnecessary bloodshed. Therefore, she can be regarded as a central character of Le Cid, without whom the play would lose its coherence.

Works Cited
  1. Corneille. “Le Cid.” 06 June 2007. Poetry In Translation. Translation by A. S. Kiln. Web. 20 March 2014 <http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/French/LeCid.htm>.
Relevant Questions about Infanta in Le Cid
  1. What is Infanta’s role in the plot of Le Cid and how does she influence the story’s events?
  2. How does Infanta’s character develop or change as the play Le Cid progresses?
  3. What is the nature of the relationship between Infanta and Rodrigue, and how does it impact the overall narrative of Le Cid?

Jose Marti: A Pragmatic Romantic Latino Voice

Jose Marti, the father of the Cuban Revolution is one of the most popular and emphatic faces of the modernist and later romantic Latino literature face.

Introduction to Jose Marti

Jose Marti, the father of the Cuban Revolution is one of the most popular and emphatic faces of the modernist and later romantic Latino literature face. Born in Havana, Marti soon became a powerful literary figure of the Hispanic language who has staunchly opposed Spanish imperialism and worked to bring the American rulers to join hands against the onslaught of imperialism. Termed as a Latino Whitman, Marti’s output has been tremendous both in terms of volume as well as impact. Several of his works have won him everlasting acclaim as the face of the revolutionary America, or Latino American revolutionary. However, pitted in-between the romanticism and modernism styles, Jose Marti has demonstrated versatility in writing everything under the sun depicting not only his talent but also the richness of Latino literature. He has a very keen eye for nature as well as a keen sense and intellect for pragmatism to suggest political acumen. Almost every other work of Marti shows both schools amalgamating within him somewhere here and there. True to his nature as a romantic as well as modernism, his essay “Our America” shows Marti at his best by showing a revolutionary spirit in the beginning as well as the pragmatism of collecting people on the single platform on the other hand. In the same way, he has also shown the same spirit in his poem “Coney Island” where he again talks of America both as rich in resources and materialistic greed. Marti’s writings not only show his revolutionary spirit but also his pragmatic statesman as well as a lover of nature.

Revolutionary Spirit of Jose Marti

Whereas his revolutionary spirit is concerned, various of his works demonstrate his skill in creating a revolutionary spirit. Armed with great mind and writing skills, he asserts in his essay “Our America” that whatever the situation is, weapons of mind should never be left behind. He adds that “Barricades of ideas are worth more than the barricades of stones” over the Spanish and European imperialism of the Latin American colonies (324). He urged all the American republics to join hands to defeat the onslaught of imperialism and attackers. However, he also stressed upon the political stability at home removing discrimination of race and color which he sees as great impediments for the people to attain heroic status for their love for freedom. He is of the view that the time for the mobilization is there when there is any attack on the motherland occurs and this is the time that all the others should join hands with everyone else to defeat the attackers. In this connection, he is not only colonialism but also expansionism as he has attacked the Americans fighting abroad and asked them to fight for their country. He is in favor of the power of the natives as he has claimed in the same essay that “Government must originate in the country” (325) by which he means that the natives are capable enough to form their own government and run their own country. His revolutionary spirit is actually the same spirit of romanticism that has traveled from Europe to America and has crept into Latino literature too. It is evident in his other essay “Coney Island” where he again praises America saying “Does this colossal nation contain ferocious and terrible elements?” (130), adding that it lacks nothing but only that it is engulfed in materialism. This also shows his socialist spirit but that is engulfed in his fervor for revolution.

Colonialism and Jose Marti

However, it is quite interesting that he is standing at the verge of modernism where pragmatism rules the roost over the writers as well as thinkers about the future as well as the freedom from colonialism. Colonialism was raging at that time when Marti rose against the Spanish occupation of Cuba due to which he went to America and traveled to New York and other cities. That is why he has given the lesson of pragmatism of modernism to the politicians of Latino American countries and states. Due to the onslaught of colonialism, he knows that the one state or country or race cannot fight the invaders and that for that “Whatever is left of that sleepy hometown in America must awaken” adding that “uncultured masses are lazy and timid in the realm of intelligence” (326) which is a pragmatic approach when analyzing the people who are to govern themselves. At the same time, he has also seen that America, too, is going to involve itself in these things to which he alludes a little and goes to the root cause of progress and justice that he calls as knowledge as he says “Knowing is what counts” but quickly adds “To know one’s country and government it with that knowledge is the only way to free it from tyranny” (327). In his essay “Coney Island” the impacts of this pragmatic approach during the romantic period could be traced at the same time when he praises the verdant beauty of the North American region and also addresses the newspapers and unions. He shows it in another place when he says that “Other peoples—ourselves among them—live in prey to a sublime inner demon that drives us to a relentless pursuit of an ideal of love or glory” (133). This could be said only by a romantic one who is living in the modern age too and knows everything about both of them.

Jose Marti as Poet of Nature

At the same time, Jose Marti is a poet and loves nature which is evident not only in his prose but also in his poems. He even goes on to say in one of his poems “I am an honest man / From where the palm tree grows” (Lines 1-2) where his love for nature is evident. It shows that he loves nature for the sake of nature and knows that love for nature makes a person pure and honest. That is why honesty is parallel to trees. In the same way, it is also clear in his essay “Our America” which starts with a villager who lives close to nature. He, at the same time, holds everything natural as close to the heart of a natural man or man living in the state of nature. In this attempt, he has also used natural metaphorical language to depict different emotional states such as the metaphor of tiger and octopus but his attention is more on the natural man, his rights, and the justice and the impact of this justice on the local people to rise up against oppression. That is why he has advised his readers in his essay “Our American” that they should shun racial discrimination for in the state of nature all men are equal and of the same color. He has stressed upon it for the Americans to rise up against Spanish colonialism as he says “There can be no racial animosity, because there are no races” (329). Although it is also a pragmatic claim that he has made in this essay, for at that time he wants to bring the United States to stop Spain and get his homeland freed, still it shows his love for nature and love for equality.

Conclusion

Briefly stating, it could be said that Jose Marti has been a middle face of Latino literature who was steeped in both the movements; romanticism as well as modernism. He has written not only in the romantic vein but also in modern strain. He has been a revolutionary spirit and political soul. He has dibbed his fingers in everything but has always shown pragmatic tendencies. His essays “Our America” and “Coney Island” have ample evidences which show that as a romantic, he has shown his love for nature, his love for freedom and his love for equality. As a modern, he has shown political acumen to make the people rise up, to join hands with other countries to free his homeland, and to end racial discrimination. It is also that he has written much and has traveled widely, he is considered as one of the most popular Latino writers to have wider impacts on the whole Latino American region. He is considered as the pioneer of revolutionary Latino literature in America.

Works Cited
  1. Marti, Jose. Selected Writings. Edited and Translated by Esther Allen. New York: Penguin Books, 2001.
  2. ___. “Our America.” From The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature edited by Ilan Stavans. WWNorton, 2016. 628-639.
Relevant Questions about Jose Marti A Pragmatic Romantic Latino Voice
  1. How did Jose Marti’s upbringing and early life experiences shape his identity as a pragmatic romantic Latino voice?
  2. In what ways did Jose Marti’s writings and activism contribute to the promotion of Latino cultural identity and unity in the late 19th century?
  3. Can you explain some of the key themes and ideas in Jose Marti’s work that reflect his status as a pragmatic romantic, and how did these ideas resonate with the Latino community during his time and beyond?