Day: September 27, 2023

Archetypal Criticism

Archetypal criticism is a literary theory that examines the underlying universal symbols, themes, and character archetypes found in literature across different cultures and historical periods.

Introduction to Archetypal Criticism

Archetypal criticism is a literary theory that examines the underlying universal symbols, themes, and character archetypes found in literature across different cultures and historical periods.

It is rooted in the work of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, who proposed that these archetypes are part of the collective unconscious shared by all humans. Archetypal critics analyze texts to reveal the deeper, often mythic, layers of meaning and to explore how these archetypal elements resonate with the human experience. This approach offers insights into the enduring and cross-cultural significance of certain narrative patterns and symbols in literature.

Criticism Against Archetypal Criticism
1. Overgeneralization and Reductionism:
  • Critics argue that archetypal literary theory tends to oversimplify complex characters and narratives by reducing them to basic, pre-defined archetypes. This oversimplification can lead to a lack of depth and nuance in the analysis done from this perspective.
2. Lack of Empirical Evidence:
  • One of the main criticisms against archetypal literary theory is its reliance on universal, innate symbols and patterns without substantial empirical evidence to support its claims. The theory often relies on subjective interpretations rather than concrete data.
3. Cultural and Historical Limitations:
  • Archetypes are often based on Western cultural and historical perspectives, not applicable or relevant to all literary works, especially those from diverse cultural backgrounds. This limitation can lead to a narrow understanding of non-Western literature.
4. Disregard for Individuality and Originality:
  • Critics argue that archetypal criticism tends to overlook the uniqueness and individuality of literary works and authors. By focusing on recurring patterns, the theory may neglect the specific artistic intentions and innovations of writers.
5. Ambiguous Archetypal Definitions:
  • The definitions of archetypes can be vague and open to multiple interpretations. This ambiguity can lead to varying analyses and potential misinterpretations of literary works, causing disagreements among scholars.
6. Incompatibility with Modern and Postmodern Literature:
  • Some critics assert that archetypal literary theory is better suited for analyzing traditional and classical literature rather than modern and postmodern works, which often challenge or subvert traditional archetypal patterns.
7. Neglect of Socio-Political and Historical Contexts:
  • Archetypal criticism may place less emphasis on the socio-political and historical contexts in which literary works are created, leading to an incomplete understanding of the complexities and influences shaping the texts.
8. Lack of Authorial Intent Consideration:
  • The theory may not adequately address the intentions and conscious choices of authors, as it focuses more on underlying patterns than the author’s specific creative decisions.
9. Subjective Interpretations:
  • Archetypal literary theory allows for subjective interpretations, which can result in varying and potentially biased analyses based on the personal beliefs and experiences of the critic.
10. Ignores Evolution of Meanings and Symbols:
  • Critics argue that archetypal theory can neglect the evolution of symbols and meanings across different historical periods and cultures, leading to an anachronistic analysis of certain works.
Notable Critics Against Archetypal Criticism

Criticism against archetypal criticism as a literary theory includes the following:

  1. Roland Barthes: French literary theorist and philosopher who argued that the idea of a universal, shared set of archetypes is a myth and that meanings are created through social and cultural practices rather than innate human experiences.
  2. Raymond Williams: Welsh cultural theorist who criticized archetypal criticism for being ahistorical, and argued that the meaning of literary works is always shaped by the social and historical context in which they were produced.
  3. Michel Foucault: French philosopher and historian who challenged the idea of a universal, shared set of archetypes, arguing that knowledge is always shaped by power relations and historical context.
  4. Edward Said: Palestinian-American literary critic who criticized archetypal criticism for being Eurocentric and failing to take into account the cultural traditions of non-Western societies.
  5. Homi Bhabha: Indian cultural theorist who argued that archetypal criticism is limited by its emphasis on fixed, universal meanings, and that the meanings of literary works are always shaped by the process of cultural translation and negotiation.
Examples of Archetypal Criticism
  1. The Hero’s Journey in The Lord of the Rings: Archetypal critics often analyze J.R.R. Tolkien’s epic fantasy series, The Lord of the Rings, through the lens of the hero’s journey archetype. Frodo’s quest to destroy the One Ring exemplifies the stages of a hero’s journey, including the call to adventure, trials and challenges, and ultimate transformation.
  2. The Trickster Archetype in The Catcher in the Rye: In J.D. Salinger’s novel The Catcher in the Rye, the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, can be seen as embodying the trickster archetype. He challenges societal norms and engages in rebellious behavior, reflecting the trickster’s tendency to disrupt the status quo.
  3. The Mother Archetype in Beloved: Toni Morrison’s novel Beloved explores the mother archetype through the character of Sethe, who exhibits both nurturing and destructive maternal qualities. Archetypal analysis reveals the complexity of motherhood and its impact on the characters and their lives.
  4. The Quest for Identity in The Great Gatsby: F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby can be examined through the archetype of the quest for identity. Jay Gatsby’s relentless pursuit of the American Dream and his reinvention of himself highlight the universal theme of seeking one’s true identity and place in society.
  5. The Heroine’s Journey in Jane Eyre: Charlotte Brontë’s novel Jane Eyre offers an example of the heroine’s journey archetype. Jane’s development from an orphaned, mistreated child to an independent and self-assertive woman follows a narrative pattern that resonates with the journey of female protagonists in many classic works of literature.
Keywords in Archetypal Criticism
  1. Archetype: A universal symbol or motif that recurs across different cultures and time periods, representing a fundamental human experience or trait.
  2. Collective Unconscious: A concept in Jungian psychology, referring to the inherited pool of shared experiences, memories, and symbols that all humans share and that influence our behavior and perceptions.
  3. Myth: A traditional story or narrative that conveys deep cultural, religious, or psychological meaning through archetypal symbols and motifs.
  4. Symbolism: The use of symbols to represent complex or abstract ideas, emotions, or themes.
  5. Characterization: The process of creating fictional characters who embody archetypal qualities or who serve as representations of larger symbolic concepts.
  6. Allegory: A literary work in which characters, events, or settings serve as symbolic representations of abstract ideas or moral lessons.
  7. Journey/Quest: A recurring motif in archetypal criticism that refers to the hero’s journey, a narrative pattern in which a character embarks on a physical or spiritual journey to achieve a goal or gain knowledge.
  8. Transformation: The process of a character undergoing a fundamental change in personality, identity, or worldview, often as a result of encountering archetypal symbols or undergoing an archetypal experience.
  9. Mythic Criticism: A subset of archetypal criticism that focuses specifically on the analysis of mythic elements and motifs in literature.
  10. Jungian Criticism: A school of criticism that uses the theories and concepts of Carl Jung, a prominent psychoanalyst and psychologist, to explore the archetypal and symbolic dimensions of literature.
Suggested Readings about Archetypal Criticism
  1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Bollingen Foundation, 1949.
  2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
  3. Jung, Carl G. Man and His Symbols. Dell Publishing, 1968.
  4. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Princeton University Press, 1970.
  5. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. American Folklore Society, 1958.
  6. Samson, Maud Bodkin. Archetypal Patterns in Poetry: Psychological Studies of Imagination. Oxford University Press, 1934.
  7. Segal, Robert A. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.
  8. Stevens, Anthony. Archetype: A Natural History of the Self. Routledge, 1982.
  9. Wheelwright, Philip Ellis. Metaphor and Reality. Indiana University Press, 1962.
  10. Zimmer, Heinrich. Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton University Press, 1946.

Archetypal Literary Theory / Criticism

Archetypal literary theory, also known as archetypal criticism, analyzes literature focusing on archetypes, symbols, characters, motif etc.

Introduction

Archetypal literary theory, also known as archetypal criticism, is an approach to analyzing literature focusing on the identification and interpretation of archetypes—universal symbols, themes, characters, and motifs—that recur across cultures and periods.

Derived from the concept of the collective unconscious proposed by Carl Jung, archetypal theory strives to go deep into the innate human experiences and instincts that shape the narratives.

By exploring these recurring patterns and symbols, archetypal critics seek to uncover the deeper psychological, cultural, and mythological meanings embedded within literary texts, providing valuable insights into the fundamental aspects of human existence and storytelling across the ages.

Etymology Archetypal Literary Theory / Criticism
  • The term “archetypal” comes from the Greek word “archétypos,” meaning “original pattern” or “model.”
  • “Criticism” is derived from the Greek word “krinein,” which translates to “to judge” or “to analyze.”
  • “Archetypal criticism” involves the analysis and interpretation of original patterns and universal symbols present in literature and other storytelling mediums.
Etymology Archetypal Literary Theory: Origin, Key Theorists, Works and Arguments
Origin of Archetypal Literary Theory:
  • Emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily in the field of literary criticism.
  • Rooted in the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung and his concept of archetypes.
Key Theorists in Archetypal Literary Theory:
  • Carl Jung: The foundational figure in the development of archetypal theory. His work on the collective unconscious and archetypes greatly influenced literary scholars.
  • Joseph Campbell: A prominent scholar who popularized the concept of the hero’s journey and its connection to archetypal patterns in world mythology.
  • Northrop Frye: An influential literary critic who incorporated archetypal elements into his theory of literary genres and mythic patterns.
  • Maud Bodkin: Known for her work on the archetypal dimensions of poetic language in Archetypal Patterns in Poetry.
Notable Works in Archetypal Literary Theory:
  • The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious (1950) by Carl Jung: In this seminal work, Jung explores the concept of archetypes and their relevance to psychology and culture.
  • The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1949) by Joseph Campbell: Campbell’s book outlines the monomyth, or hero’s journey, as a universal narrative structure found in myths and stories from various cultures.
  • Anatomy of Criticism (1957) by Northrop Frye: In this work, Frye discusses archetypal patterns in literature, particularly within the context of literary genres.
  • Archetypal Patterns in Poetry (1934) by Maud Bodkin: Bodkin examines the presence of archetypal symbols and themes in poetry, emphasizing their emotional and psychological impact.
Main Arguments in Archetypal Literary Theory:
  • Existence of Universal Archetypes: Archetypal theorists argue that certain symbols, themes, and character types are universal and recurrent across cultures and time periods.
  • Collective Unconscious: Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious suggests that these archetypes are inherited and shared by all humans, influencing their thoughts, emotions, and creativity.
  • Mythic Patterns and the Hero’s Journey: The theory identifies recurring mythic patterns, such as the hero’s journey, which reflect fundamental human experiences and transformations.
  • Interpretation of Literature: Archetypal criticism involves interpreting literature through the lens of these archetypes, exploring the deeper meanings and psychological resonances within texts.

Archetypal Literary Theory continues to be a significant approach in the study of literature and storytelling, offering insights into the universal themes and symbols that shape human narratives.

Principal of Archetypal Literary Theory
PrincipleExplanationExample
1. Universality of ArchetypesArchetypal literary theory posits that certain symbols, themes, and character types are universally present in human cultures and storytelling traditions across time and geography.The archetype of the hero can be found in ancient Greek epics like The Odyssey and modern superhero narratives like Spider-Man.
2. Collective UnconsciousThis theory is rooted in Carl Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious, suggesting that archetypes are innate and inherited elements of the human psyche that influence creative expressions, including literature.The archetype of the “shadow” representing the darker aspects of the human psyche can be seen in works like Robert Louis Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
3. Archetypal Patterns and MotifsArchetypal critics identify recurring patterns, motifs, and symbols, such as the hero’s journey, the mother figure, or the trickster, which carry deep and shared meanings in literature.The hero’s journey, as seen in Joseph Campbell’s monomyth, is evident in stories like J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings with Frodo’s quest.
4. Mythic and Symbolic InterpretationArchetypal analysis focuses on uncovering the mythic and symbolic layers of literary works, exploring how archetypal elements enrich the interpretation of narratives.The symbolic use of a journey to represent personal growth and transformation is found in Paulo Coelho’s The Alchemist.
5. Psychological and Emotional ImpactArchetypal literary theory emphasizes the profound psychological and emotional resonance of archetypal symbols and themes, both for authors and readers.The archetype of the “mother” can evoke feelings of nurturance and comfort, as seen in the character of Molly Weasley in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series.
6. Exploration of the Human ExperienceIt seeks to understand how archetypes reflect fundamental aspects of the human experience, including growth, transformation, and the universal quest for meaning.The quest for identity and self-discovery is a common theme, exemplified by the archetype of the “orphaned hero” in works like Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations.
7. Integration of Myths and CulturesArchetypal theory draws from a wide range of myths, folklore, and cultural narratives to demonstrate the presence of archetypal elements in diverse literary works.The archetype of the “trickster” can be found in various cultural myths, such as the Norse god Loki or the Native American Coyote.
8. Depth and Multilayered InterpretationArchetypal critics engage in deep, multilayered interpretations of literature, delving beyond surface narratives to uncover the archetypal subtext.Analyzing Shakespeare’s Hamlet through an archetypal lens reveals the archetype of the “tragic hero” struggling with inner conflict.
Suggested Readings
  1. Bachelard, Gaston. The Poetics of Space. Beacon Press, 1994.
  2. Bodkin, Maud. Archetypal Patterns in Poetry: Psychological Studies of Imagination. Oxford University Press, 2015.
  3. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
  4. Estés, Clarissa Pinkola. Women Who Run with the Wolves: Myths and Stories of the Wild Woman Archetype. Ballantine Books, 1996.
  5. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
  6. Jung, Carl Gustav. Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious. Routledge, 2014.

Queer Literary Theory in Litrature

Queer Literary Theory is a critical framework that examines literature through the lens of queer perspectives and experiences.

Introduction to Queer Literary Theory

Queer Literary Theory is a critical framework that examines literature through the lens of queer perspectives and experiences. It challenges traditional norms and binary categories related to gender and sexuality, emphasizing fluidity, diversity, and the performative nature of identity.

This theory explores how LGBTQ+ themes and voices are represented in literature, offering insights into the social and cultural contexts that shape queer narratives. By interrogating the intersections of literature, identity, and society, Queer Literary Theory enriches our understanding of the complex and evolving landscape of queer literature.

Criticism Against Queer Literary Theory
CriticismExplanationExample
Overemphasis on IdentityCritics argue that it excessively focuses on identity, potentially overshadowing other valuable interpretations within complex literary works. This can narrow the scope of analysis to LGBTQ+ themes at the expense of broader literary nuances.Example: In analyzing a novel, it may prioritize the protagonist’s sexual orientation over other crucial aspects of the story, leading to an imbalanced interpretation that neglects intricate narrative elements.
Stereotyping and ReductionismSome critics assert that it may unintentionally perpetuate stereotypes by simplifying and essentializing queer experiences. This reductionism can overlook the rich diversity of LGBTQ+ communities and fail to represent the complexity of individual narratives.Example: A queer analysis might generalize the experiences of LGBTQ+ characters, unintentionally reinforcing clichéd tropes or narratives, which can undermine the unique and multifaceted aspects of queer individuals’ lives.
Ignoring Authorial IntentCritics contend that Queer Literary Theory occasionally neglects an author’s original intent and historical context. This may result in imposing contemporary understandings of sexuality and gender onto works from different eras, potentially distorting the author’s intended message.Example: Analyzing a 19th-century novel using it might lead to interpretations of queer themes that were not within the author’s intended scope or historical context, potentially misrepresenting the work and its cultural significance.
ExclusivityThere is criticism that Queer Literary Theory can be exclusive, occasionally dismissing non-queer perspectives or interpretations. This exclusivity can limit the diversity of critical dialogue and perspectives, potentially leading to a narrower range of insights.Example: Queer discussions that exclude or downplay heteronormative or non-queer interpretations of a text may unintentionally silence valuable insights and miss opportunities for a more comprehensive analysis of the work.
Political AgendasSome argue that Queer Literary Theory may become overly focused on advancing specific political agendas, potentially overshadowing the primary goal of nuanced literary analysis. This politicization can shift the emphasis away from the literary aspects of a work.Example: If queer analyses prioritize advocating for particular LGBTQ+ political causes over examining the literary quality and techniques employed in a novel, the critical discussion may become one-sided and less focused on the literary merits of the work.
Lack of Empirical RigorCritics claim that Queer Literary Theory can sometimes lack empirical rigor, with analyses relying heavily on subjective interpretations rather than empirical evidence. This can lead to interpretations that are less grounded in objective analysis.Example: A queer analysis that primarily draws on personal interpretations and feelings about a text, without substantial evidence from the text itself or external sources, may be less credible and persuasive to readers seeking a more rigorous approach to literary criticism.
Marginalization of Non-Western VoicesThere is criticism that Queer Literary Theory predominantly draws from Western literature and experiences, often marginalizing non-Western queer narratives and perspectives. This bias can limit the diversity of voices represented within the theory.Example: Queer discussions that focus primarily on Western queer literature may overlook valuable contributions from non-Western LGBTQ+ authors and communities, inadvertently perpetuating a Eurocentric perspective within the theory.
Overly Academic LanguageSome argue that Queer Literary Theory‘s use of complex academic language can make it less accessible to a broader audience, potentially limiting its impact and relevance beyond academic circles. This can hinder wider engagement with the theory’s ideas.Example: Queer writings that use dense, jargon-heavy language and terminology may be challenging for non-academic readers to understand and engage with, reducing the theory’s potential to influence a broader cultural and social discourse.
Tension with Other Literary TheoriesCritics contend that Queer Literary Theory can sometimes clash with other literary theories, creating tensions and limiting interdisciplinary engagement. This can result in a fragmented approach to literary analysis.Example: When Queer principles conflict with those of other literary theories, such as Feminist or Marxist literary theory, scholars may face challenges in integrating these diverse perspectives, potentially leading to fractured critical dialogues and incomplete analyses.
Examples of Queer Literary Theory
WorkCritique of Queer Literary Theory
Toni Morrison’s BelovedCritique: Queer Literary Theory offers valuable insights into Sethe’s complex relationships, particularly her deep bond with Paul D. However, it tends to overshadow other crucial aspects of the narrative. For instance, it neglects the haunting legacy of slavery and the impact of mother-daughter relationships on the characters, resulting in a simplified interpretation of the novel’s richness.
Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian GrayCritique: It provides a meaningful lens through which to analyze the character of Dorian Gray and his hidden desires. However, it sometimes imposes contemporary understandings of queerness onto a work from the late 19th century. This leads to a misrepresentation of Wilde’s original intent and the historical context in which he writes.
Virginia Woolf’s OrlandoCritique: It illuminates Orlando’s exploration of gender identity and fluidity, but it tends to overshadow Woolf’s broader commentary. Orlando’s journey is not solely about queerness but also about the passage of time, artistic expression, and historical transformations. An exclusive focus on LGBTQ+ themes results in a limited analysis that fails to capture the depth of Woolf’s narrative.
James Baldwin’s Giovanni’s RoomCritique: Queer Literary Theory offers valuable insights into David’s same-sex relationships. However, it tends to reduce the character solely to his LGBTQ+ identity. Such an exclusive focus overlooks Baldwin’s broader critique of race, identity, and personal conflicts in the novel. A more holistic analysis is necessary to fully appreciate David’s complexity and the nuances of his interactions.
Jeanette Winterson’s Oranges Are Not the Only FruitCritique: It provides a lens for understanding Jeanette’s journey of lesbian identity in a religiously oppressive environment. However, an exclusive focus on LGBTQ+ themes tends to overshadow the complexity of her personal growth. Jeanette’s story is also about resilience and self-discovery beyond her queerness, and a more nuanced analysis should encompass these aspects to provide a comprehensive understanding of the character’s development.
Literary Pieces Depicting Queer Literary Theory
  1. Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides: This novel tells the story of Cal, an intersex protagonist who explores questions of gender identity and sexuality. It delves into the complexities of identity formation and challenges traditional notions of gender.
  2. Two Boys Kissing by David Levithan: In this young adult novel, several gay teenagers navigate love, relationships, and queer identity. It explores themes of visibility, acceptance, and the power of community.
  3. Aristotle and Dante Discover the Secrets of the Universe by Benjamin Alire Sáenz: This coming-of-age novel tells the story of two Mexican-American boys, Aristotle and Dante, as they navigate their friendship and explore their identities, including their sexual orientations. It beautifully explores themes of self-acceptance, friendship, and the search for personal truth.
  4. Poetry is Not a Luxury by Audre Lorde: In this poem, Audre Lorde, a prominent queer poet and activist, emphasizes the importance of poetry as a tool for self-expression, resistance, and empowerment. It challenges societal norms and highlights the liberating potential of artistic expression.
Key Concepts in Queer Literary Theory
  1. Heteronormativity: Heteronormativity refers to the societal assumption that heterosexuality is the norm and that relationships and identities outside of this norm are marginalized or considered deviant.
  2. Performativity: Performativity, as developed by Judith Butler, suggests that gender and sexuality are not inherent traits but are constructed through repeated actions and behaviors, effectively “performing” one’s identity.
  3. Queer Temporality: Queer temporality challenges linear notions of time, exploring how queer experiences may exist outside of traditional temporal structures, such as heteronormative life narratives.
  4. Intersectionality: Intersectionality recognizes that an individual’s identity is shaped by the intersection of various factors, including race, gender, sexuality, and class, and that these intersections influence one’s experiences and challenges.
  5. Subversion: Subversion involves challenging or undermining established norms, often through literature and art, to disrupt conventional understandings of gender, sexuality, and power.
  6. Homosociality: Homosociality refers to same-sex relationships and bonds that may not necessarily be sexual but are central to understanding queer dynamics within literature.
  7. Resistance Literature: Resistance literature explores how queer authors use their works to resist and challenge societal oppression, discrimination, and norms, often with a political or activist agenda.
  8. Queer Aesthetics: Queer aesthetics encompass the unique artistic styles and forms that emerge from queer experiences, often characterized by a rejection of traditional norms and the embrace of alternative modes of expression.
  9. Transgressive Narratives: Transgressive narratives break societal taboos and boundaries, often exploring themes of sexual exploration, non-conformity, and rebellion against normative values.
  10. Normalization: Normalization refers to the process through which LGBTQ+ identities and relationships are integrated into mainstream culture, often at the expense of radical or non-conforming expressions of queerness.
Suggested Readings
  1. Halberstam, Judith. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York University Press, 2005.
  2. Jagose, Annamarie. Queer Literary Theory: An Introduction. New York University Press, 1996.
  3. Muñoz, José Esteban. Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity. New York University Press, 2009.
  4. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. University of California Press, 1990.
  5. Warner, Michael. The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life. Harvard University Press, 1999.

Queer Theory in Literature

Queer theory is a critical and interdisciplinary framework that challenges conventional notions of gender, sexuality, and identity, seeking to understand social norms and power structures.

Introduction to Queer Theory

Queer theory is a critical and interdisciplinary framework that challenges conventional notions of gender, sexuality, and identity, seeking to understand and dismantle social norms and power structures.

Emerging in the late 20th century, queer theory embraces a fluid and expansive understanding of sexuality and rejects the binary categorizations of gay/straight, male/female, and homosexual/heterosexual.

It also examines how societal norms and institutions shape and regulate sexual and gender identities, highlighting how individuals and communities face marginalization and oppression.

By exploring the intersections of race, class, and other social categories, queer theory aims to deconstruct heteronormativity and promote inclusivity, social justice, and liberation for all individuals regardless of their sexual orientation or gender identity.

Etymology and Meanings of Queer Theory
Etymology of Queer TheoryMeanings of Queer Theory
Emergence in Academia: Queer theory had its inception in the early 1990s, drawing inspiration from feminist and LGBTQ+ activism and scholarly discourse. It emerged as a response to the need for a more nuanced understanding of sexuality and gender identity.Interrogating Normativity: It engages in a rigorous examination of societal norms pertaining to sexuality, gender, and identity. It adopts a critical stance, aiming to deconstruct established categories and binaries in order to uncover underlying power dynamics.
Reclamation of “Queer”: The term “queer,” originally derogatory, was reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community as a self-identifier. This reclamation is a pivotal aspect of queer theory, challenging conventional heteronormative and binary concepts of sexuality and gender.Fluidity and Complexity: It underscores the fluid and intricate nature of sexualities and genders. It posits that these aspects of human identity exist along spectrums, resisting fixed definitions and instead embracing a spectrum of possibilities.
Intersectionality: It extends its reach by intersecting with other critical theories, such as feminism and critical race theory. This interdisciplinary approach explores how various forms of oppression and privilege intersect and mutually shape individuals’ experiences.
Social and Political Activism: It serves as a cornerstone for LGBTQ+ activism, advocating for equal rights, anti-discrimination laws, and the broader societal acceptance of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
Academic Discourse: Queer theory exerts a substantial influence within academic circles, notably impacting fields including cultural studies, literature, sociology, and anthropology. Its academic presence encourages the exploration of LGBTQ+ themes and perspectives in scholarly work.
Queer Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
Origin of Queer Theory:
  • Emergence in the Early 1990s: Queer theory emerged in the early 1990s as an intellectual response to the need for a more nuanced understanding of sexuality and gender identity. It sought to challenge established norms and perceptions regarding these aspects of human identity.
  • Influenced by Feminist and LGBTQ+ Activism: Its development was significantly influenced by feminist and LGBTQ+ activism, which highlighted the need for academic exploration and social deconstruction of heteronormative and binary concepts of gender and sexuality.
Notable Theorists in Queer Theory:
  • Michel Foucault: In his seminal work The History of Sexuality, Foucault challenged the idea of fixed sexual identities. He emphasized how power and discourse shape our understanding of sexuality, urging critical examination of societal norms.
  • Judith Butler: Butler’s groundbreaking work, Gender Trouble, introduced the concept of gender performativity. This work deconstructs fixed gender identities, highlighting that gender is socially constructed and performed, not inherent.
  • Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick: Sedgwick’s Epistemology of the Closet is a foundational text in Queer Theory. It challenges binary notions of sexuality and calls for the embrace of multiple sexualities and resistance against heteronormativity.
  • José Esteban Muñoz: Muñoz’s work, notably Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics, focuses on the experiences of queer people of color and explores the intersections of race, class, and sexuality in shaping their lives.
  • Jack Halberstam: Through works like Female Masculinity and In a Queer Time and Place, Halberstam explores non-normative gender and sexual identities. They challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity, emphasizing alternative expressions of gender.
  • Gayle Rubin: Rubin’s influential essay Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality critically examines the social construction of sexuality and hierarchies of sexual behaviors. It emphasizes the need to challenge sexual hierarchies.
  • Teresa de Lauretis: In Technologies of Gender, De Lauretis explores the intersections of gender, sexuality, and technology. She examines how technology and media contribute to the construction of sexual identities and discusses the importance of queer subjectivity in challenging traditional gender norms.
Primary Arguments in Queer Theory:
  • Deconstruction of Fixed Sexual Identities: Queer theory challenges the notion of fixed sexual identities, emphasizing the fluidity and diversity of human sexuality.
  • Examination of Power and Discourse: It critically analyzes how power dynamics and societal discourse shape and regulate sexuality and gender, revealing the social construction of these concepts.
  • Social Construction of Sexuality: Queer theory emphasizes the social construction of sexuality, advocating for the recognition that societal norms and structures influence our understanding of sexuality.
  • Gender Performativity: Through the concept of gender performativity, Queer Theory highlights that gender is not predetermined but rather a social role that individuals perform.
  • Fluidity and Complexity: Queer theory underscores the fluid and complex nature of sexualities and genders, acknowledging that they exist on spectrums and resist fixed definitions.
  • Intersectionality: Queer theory intersects with other critical theories, such as feminism and critical race theory, to explore how various forms of oppression and privilege intersect and affect individuals’ experiences.
  • Advocacy for LGBTQ+ Rights: It serves as a foundation for LGBTQ+ activism, advocating for equal rights, anti-discrimination laws, and social acceptance of diverse sexual orientations and gender identities.
  • Influence on Academic Discourse: Queer theory has a significant presence in academia, influencing the exploration of LGBTQ+ themes and perspectives across various fields, including cultural studies, literature, sociology, and anthropology. It has broadened academic discourse, encouraging a more inclusive examination of human experiences and identities.
Principles of Queer Theory
PrincipalExplanationExample
Non-EssentialismIt rejects the belief that identity categories like “male” or “female” are inherent or natural, emphasizing their socially constructed nature.Example: Queer Theory challenges the assumption that only two genders exist and recognizes that gender identity is shaped by societal norms and expectations.
Deconstruction of BinariesIt challenges binary concepts such as “straight” and “gay,” fostering a more fluid understanding of sexuality and gender.Example: It explores how individuals can identify as non-binary, acknowledging that gender and sexual orientation exist on a spectrum beyond fixed categories.
IntersectionalityIt recognizes the interplay of sexuality and gender with other identity aspects, like race and class, promoting a more inclusive understanding.Example: Queer Theory explores how the experiences of a queer person of color may differ from those of a white queer person, highlighting the importance of acknowledging multiple identities.
Power DynamicsIt highlights how power influences societal norms related to sexuality and gender, aiming to challenge and diversify these norms.Example: Queer Theory analyzes how historical power structures have shaped societal perceptions of “normal” sexuality, advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices.
Performance of IdentityIt underscores the performative aspect of identity, acknowledging the role of language, culture, and social interactions in shaping queer identities.Example: Queer Theory examines how individuals may perform their gender or sexuality differently in various contexts, highlighting the fluidity of identity expression.
ActivismIt aligns closely with political activism, advocating for social change to create an equitable society regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.Example: Queer activists have fought for legal rights, marriage equality, and anti-discrimination laws, pushing for a more inclusive and just society for all LGBTQ+ individuals.
Queer as Political IdentityIt acknowledges “queer” as a political identity that challenges normative assumptions and aligns with resistance and subversion.Example: The term “queer” has been reclaimed by the LGBTQ+ community as a political identity that challenges societal expectations and promotes self-acceptance.
Affect and EmotionIt recognizes the significance of emotions in identity formation and social change, considering the emotional impact of discrimination and the role of emotions like love and desire.Example: Queer Theory explores how the emotional experiences of love, desire, and discrimination shape an individual’s understanding of their own identity and the larger queer community.
Reclaiming RepresentationIt challenges mainstream representations of sexuality and gender, seeking more diverse and authentic depictions that reflect queer experiences.Example: Queer Theory critiques media portrayals that rely on stereotypes, advocating for more accurate and respectful representations of LGBTQ+ individuals in film, TV, and literature.
Creativity and ResistanceIt acknowledges the historical tradition of creativity and resistance within queer communities, utilizing forms of cultural production to express and advocate for queer identities and social transformation.Example: Queer artists, writers, and activists have used creative expressions like art, literature, and performance to challenge societal norms and promote acceptance and equality.
Suggested Readings
  1. Bersani, Leo, and Adam Phillips. Intimacies. University of Chicago Press, 2008.
  2. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
  3. Edelman, Lee. No Future: Queer Theory and the Death Drive. Duke University Press, 2004.
  4. Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. Duke University Press, 1998.
  5. Muñoz, José Esteban. Cruising Utopia: The Then and There of Queer Futurity. New York University Press, 2009.
  6. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. University of California Press, 1990.
  7. Warner, Michael. The Trouble with Normal: Sex, Politics, and the Ethics of Queer Life. Harvard University Press, 1999.
  8. Wittig, Monique. The Straight Mind and Other Essays. Beacon Press, 1992.

“The Brown Wasps”: Life of Comfort, Memory and Illusion

The essay the Brown Wasps” by Loren Eiseley shows various features of life that if explored demonstrate something hidden in living things.

Introduction to “The Brown Wasps”

        In his essay, “The Brown Wasps”, Loren Eiseley has shown a myriad features of life, which if explored in depth, demonstrate something hidden in the deep recesses of the psyche of living things. These could be desires for food, a refuge from looming threats, or mind-jolting memories of the past. He has beautifully compared and contrasted human life with that of brown wasps, of field mice, and pigeons, concluding that certain features are common in the lives of human beings and animals, for they are rooted in their respective natures. The mortality demands that all living things should strive for comfort and for illusions to cling to having a sense of protection and for prodding of the memories of the past, Eisely argues. However, the world changes fast from the present to the past and welcomes the future. Amid this change and cacophony of transformative voices, life continues to live by the ruins of the past, trying to mold itself to the changes of the future. This essay argues that living things do not leave their comfort zones, their memories of the past and their illusions to live by even if there is no hope.

“The Brown Wasps” and Nature of Animals

        Every living thing passes a certain time of its life at a certain place that becomes its home. It is the same with animals, insects, and human beings. They never leave this comfort zone even with impending doom. Loren Eiseley has cited examples of wasps that are not ready to leave their hive despite freezing temperatures and the risk of being dropped “away into the white oblivion of the snow” (Eiseley pr. 1). It is the same case with human beings. The officer shoves away the old man from the station, but he never leaves and comes again. It is his comfort zone or home. The field mouse, he says, is not ready to leave the room of the author, for it has been living at that place, which Eiseley says, matters the most. Eiseley argues, “It is the place that matters, the place at the heart of the things” (6). The same is the case of pigeons that have been living at the station, a home for them. Therefore, they are not ready to leave it. Even, we, as human beings, do not become ready to leave the comforts of our homes until there is a dire need to do so.

“The Brown Wasps” and Memories

        Another feature of human beings and living things is to be attached to memories. It is surprising that memories work for human beings as well as animals. It is the nostalgia that makes a person or an animal feel a need for the past event or home. For example, Eiseley argues that “We cling to a time and place because without them man is lost, “for he has known that he is referring wasps, slugs, mice and pigeons too and that they are also part of this journey of life (pr. 7). The wasps cannot go anywhere, for it is snowing and it is the only place they know. The field mouse sees that the place is taken over. Therefore, it leaves to take refuge in the author’s room but does not leave the place, for “It was the only place he knew” (pr. 11). The arrival of the pigeon again on the railway station, when it witnesses ruination, is a “curious instance of the memory of living things” (pr. 18). And above all, Eiseley himself returns to his old home to see the tree for his and his father’s memories. Therefore, the memories and nostalgia of the past is the mainstay of the mortal life on this earth, which provides an impetus to live by. The same is the cause with other human beings too. It is because a person always gives importance to his memories. He keeps in his mind where he has passed his life. This association with memories and nostalgia about the past makes him revert to his past again and again like animals.

“The Brown Wasps” and Dreams

           Illusions and fantasies play an important role in making a person continue living with the hope of finding them one day exactly like he lives by his dreams. If there are no illusions and no fantasies, a person becomes disillusioned and desperate. Life does not look worth living. These are dreams to live one’s life sticking to them for his entire life. Eiseley argues in “The Brown Wasps”, in the case of a field mouse, these are invisible dreams which come to use in every other shape (pr. 15). He says these dreams are necessary to live peacefully and hopefully in this world. The pigeons return after a few days with the illusion that the river would have flown after a “momentary drought” (pr. 17). In the same way, about the blind man, he says that he continues sitting over there in hopes that all will be well. The writer himself continues harboring the same illusion for the cottonwood sapling he and his father watered when he was a boy. He comments that “Life disappears or modifies its appearances so fast that everything takes on an aspect of illusion” that is to fade quickly (pr. 9). Sampling, in his mind, is a “part of [his] orientation” without which he could not have survived (pr. 23). This has been an illusion for him. He has passed his entire life for it. These illusions make up almost half of the life of human beings.

Conclusion

          Loren Eiseley has beautifully summed up the role of the comfort zone, memories, and illusion in the life of living things in “The Brown Wasps”. However, he has created a little distinction in that the animal world only sees comfort and food, but human beings have unique feelings of nostalgia that drive them madly in love with their past. His visit to his former home, around 2,000 kilometers away, just to see that tree is part of the same nostalgic feelings he had had for his father and that place. Maybe the pigeons have the same feelings, the reason they return, but it is not proven. In fact, he is of the view that time passes quickly, but living things continue living with memories, with the love of the place they get food from and the memory of that loving place. It is how life continues on this earth.

Works Cited

Leiseley, Loren. “The Brown Wasps.” The Naturalist. n. d. Web. 05 Aug. 2016.

Survival in Maus by Art Spiegelman

The name of first chapter of the novel shows survival in Maus through its title “Mouse Hole”, which gives an impression that the characters are trapped like mice in the holes.

Introduction to Survival in Maus

The name of first chapter of the novel shows the theme of survival in Maus through its title “Mouse Hole”, which gives an impression that the characters are trapped like mice in the holes, which was exactly what happened to Valdek in that village. The scene described in these pages is that of the escape of the hero, Valdek, who is a courageous man, making efforts for his family’s survival from the Nazis, who are on the lookout for the Jews to exterminate them. The scene takes place in a ghetto, where they all have been imprisoned to be segregated. Anja, the wife of Valdek is hysterical before they leave this place. These comics show how they leave this ghetto to Sosnowiec, presenting theme of survival in Maus.

Escape of Valdek is Survival in Maus

This page gives a full picture of the escape of Valdek for his survival in Maus. All the panels on this page are arranged in a sequence except the first two where the first one is a bit smaller than the second one, which is a bit larger than all of the rest. Almost all the panels have borders, separated with a gutter, and descriptions in captions given with some as in the case of first five where the dialogue is clear “Anja and I did not have where to go.” The dialogues are clearly given in the speech bubbles as in the sixth panel “It was nowhere we had to hide.” However, there is no tier as it is on some other pages in the novel. The captions are very short as supposed to be to give voice to what Valdek says in this episode.

Images of Survival in Maus

As far as the images are concerned, the characters are the same Valdek and his wife, Art himself and Miloch, while Art’s father appears in the last penal, showing theme of survival in Maus. They are also engaged in survival from this ghetto. They are trying to find a way out. The images resemble the characters throughout the novel. However, the Nazi symbol given in the second last panel, shows that wherever they may go, everything is under the feet of the Nazis who are constantly in search of them.

Narrative of Survival in Maus

As far as narrative elements are concerned, first page tells a story of a desperate escape. The context of this story is that the Nazis are bringing all the Jews to Auschwitz to put them into gas chambers. This is the village of Srodula where the ghetto is located. Valdek along with his wife and fifteen others are imprisoned over there. Some have been killed in their attempt to flee this prison. Pesach tells the other members that they have bribed guards to flee, but that is not easy. This page opens with Valdek saying that they are only a handful, and there are no guards, but they need to leave it. Therefore, they would have to arrange clothes and IDs for them to escape. Miloch meets them on the way to where Valdek leaves a letter to fix the next meeting place. It also shows that one of them, Avram and his wife, were deceived, when their money was finished, while Valdek and his wife Anja did not find any place to go.

Dialogue and Survival in Maus

The dialogues in this narrative are beautiful and tell the whole story, while the rest is done by the captions which fill the gaps. The dialogues are not only short and crispy but also full of meaning. They show that they are desperate in search of some safe place, some shelter but they find nothing to go. Specifically, the situation of Avram and his wife tells us that even friends cannot be trusted. The second last image shows the image of the Gestapo police of the Nazis, which shows how they were spread in all directions to hunt for the Jews. This is a symbol of cruelty and barbarism. The overall theme of this page is escape from oppression and barbarism which is amply clear from the dialogues.

Conclusion

In short, the page shows a full picture of the cruelty committed against the Jews in Auschwitz, showing their survival in Maus at stake. It shows how they are hunted down by the Nazis in their own villages. The images of the characters in animal faces, the dialogues, and the symbols create a powerful impact on the readers and the audiences about the barbarism committed against the Jews during the Holocaust. Captions also contribute to this acute sense of oppression the Jews had to go through these troubling times.

Works Cited

  1. Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory and Fiction. New York, Routledge. 1988. Print.
  2. Spiegelman, Art. Maus. New York: Penguin, 2001. Print.
Relevant Questions about Survival in Maus by Art Spiegelman
  1. How is the theme of survival in Maus portrayed differently for Vladek and Art Spiegelman, shedding light on their unique perspectives on surviving the Holocaust?
  2. What specific survival strategies and coping mechanisms are exemplified in survival in Maus, and how do they shape the characters’ resilience in the face of the Holocaust?
  3. In what ways does survival in Maus delve into the emotional and psychological aspects of survival, offering insight into how characters like Vladek and Art navigate the enduring impact of their traumatic experiences?

Postmodernism in Maus by Spiegelman

Postmodernism in Maus shows the presence of the multiplicity of thematic strands, making it the most popular graphic novel on holocaust.

Introduction Postmodernism in Maus

Postmodernism in Maus shows the presence of the multiplicity of thematic strands, making it the most popular graphic novel. Yet, it seems very hard to understand this abstruse text of animal images representing human beings and then presenting the theme of the holocaust through these images; a colossal event of human history being represented through animal images in such a broken way. This, itself, becomes a postmodern technique where the text or presentation becomes a symbol of the avant-garde about which Linda Hutcheon has talked much in her book saying it offers a model of “contesting the fixity of the borders between art and life” (218). Art Spiegelman manipulated the same avant-garde of art and exploited it to write this graphic novel on the pattern of weaving some narratives to dislodge the reader about his faith in a master narrative that drives the characters (229). Maus even shows various other features of postmodern fiction even during a single reading. Leaving aside the comics and use of images, the stories within this story emerge after the first reading that a reader forgets that it is talking about the Holocaust and gets interested in the story of Vladek and Art but when it comes back to the Holocaust, then it makes readers startle over this story within a story and then within a story technique, which is truly modern. Not only does postmodernism in Maus peeps through, but also shows the author’s search for truth and reality, use of various narratives, search for identity, and use of pastiches; to name a few postmodern features of a work of fiction.

Postmodernism in Maus as Manipulation of Avant-Garde

One of the features of postmodern fiction is that it manipulates the modern concept of literary avant-garde which Linda Hutcheon says having no borders for literary genres (218). It means that one genre is mixed and merged into another and vice versa or many genres are mixed into each other in such a way that they try to present meanings of historical events. Art Spiegelman has tried to derive meanings of the Holocaust through the comical narrative of his father merged with his own narrative of writing this comic. For example, when Vladek is telling Art about Haskel, and how he survived the war, he feels short of breath and has to tell his son that he is have feeling difficulty though he has nitrostate, a type of medicine. This is the narrative of Art Spiegelman and how he tackles getting master narrative from his father which he into comics. To come back to the master narrative again, his father asked Art “What was I telling you” to which he reminded him of the incident of Haskel (111). At another place, he says it clearly that he visited his father to get more information which means to continue his narrative (42). Even his story of visiting his psychiatrist, too, is a merger in the master narrative, though the psychiatrist is also a Holocaust survivor. However, it is also a point that this entire game of narratives within narratives without applying specific genres is due to man’s eternal search for truth as shown in the novel when analyzed through postmodernism in Maus.

History and Postmodenrism in Maus

The search for truth through such a method and reference to history is not new, but it is a specific feature of postmodernism in Maus. Art Spiegelman has applied this feature to his novel Maus. Although he wants to know the truth about his father’s survival and escape, his mother’s death, and his brother’s life, he gets involved in his own truth about his own life and how he feels guilty of neglecting his father. The art of mixing different genres and then continuing with them parallel with the master narrative is just the same search for truth. It is because Art Spiegelman is looking for morality behind the past events by presenting them in the present through oral telling of the real characters. This is a sort of search for reality behind another reality where reality is blurred in the present. That is why Linda Hutcheon has stated that this is the problem of modern fiction that it questions the relationship between history and reality and then even of both with the language (15). Perhaps that is the very reason that Spiegelman has tried to present the reality of history through comic figures to make it presentable when it is analyzed through postmodernism in Maus.

Postmodernism in Maus through Metanarrative

However, the problem of modern fiction is that not only there are many sides of the story and story within a story with a metanarrative, but also that the narrators are sometimes unreliable. Art Spiegelman interviews his father at different times to construct the real story of his survival but then turns to his own story of neglecting his father at times when he needs Art the most. Even both fight over smoking and pedaling blaming each other that the problem of shortness of breath is due to the one’s smoking or the other’s pedaling. This builds up a tension where Art sometimes feels that he has neglected his father abut at other times tries to use him to get notes for his comic story (Spiegelman 91-92). This, somewhat builds tension in which he visits his psychiatrist and the story takes a new turnabout familial relations and guilt, another tension. Both of these conflicts lead to the unreliability of the main narrator as well as the secondary narrator. This is feature of the postmodern that a story is inserted with the more stories or a metanarrative is interrupted through various other narratives going on parallel with the metanarrative. In fact, this is a search for identity that the Jews lost during their escape.

Identity and Postmodernism in Maus

Although Art Spiegelman seems to be in search of his Jewish identity, this is not a specific trait of postmodernism in Maus. In fact, it is the loss of identity that postmodern fiction portrays. Jews lost their identity when the German soldiers were looking for them and killing them on one or the other pretext. Although during the initial stages of the German occupation and segregation of the Jews, they mostly helped each other as Ilzecki helps Vladek in setting up business. However, as soon as life becomes uncertain, the Jews stopped showing themselves as Jews and helping each other. The instinct of survival overcame the identity of being Jewish. Several Jews became informers of the police on the promise that they would be spared. Even Haskel, his cousin, refused to take Jews to Auschwitz without money (114-115). The only answer Vladek to his cousin’s hunger for money was “You don’t understand” as it “was everybody to take care of himself” (114). Now to find his Jewish identity, Spiegelman tries to revisit history and build the same narrative. It is, however, very important to know that Spiegelman has tried to build his identity in this modern age when nothing seems real, even the language. Therefore, the use of pastiche in narrative a la art comes in handy to him and peeps through when postmodernism in Maus is specifically explored.

Although pastiche is used in art, Spiegelman has employed this technique through comics in this novel. As he has used two narratives at the same time, it blurs a difference between the past history and the present history, making him merge both in panels. For example, at one place, he is hearing his father telling him tale of his escape, but at the next moment, he asks “Art you ready for walk again?” and then start the story again (119). Furthermore, the use of only two colors and animal, mouse, to show Jewish people and their situation as mousetrap. In the same way, he has presented Germans as cats which points to the cat and mouse game of the Jews and their escape for survival. The way of presenting this historical even through comic symbols of animals is truly a show of postmodernism in Maus.

Conclusion

In short, Maus is a representative postmodern fiction display various postmodern traits used in fiction as well as art. It is because it is the demand of the time and age to use these techniques to convey this to modern readers. It is also that the colossal events of the Holocaust could not be conveyed so impressively and effectively only through language which has become an unreliable medium and the situation of Jewish suffering could not be conveyed just through the depiction of human beings undergoing torture until they are further belittled to animals and then treated like animals. This is the search for reality which has been blurred and it could be narrated through various narratives. This is also a search of identity when it is lost. The use of pastiche and comic animals has further strengthened the postmodernism in Maus.

Works Cited
  1. Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory and Fiction. New York, Routledge. 1988. Print.
  2. Spiegelman, Art. Maus. New York: Penguin, 2001. Print.

Relevant Questions about Postmodernism in Maus by Spiegelman

  1. How does the graphic novel Maus by Art Spiegelman subvert conventional narrative structures and historical representation through its postmodern elements?
  2. What is the role and significance of metafiction within the context of Maus by Art Spiegelman, and how does it contribute to the work’s postmodern character?
  3. In what ways does the use of animal allegory in Maus challenge established notions of identity and representation, reflecting its postmodern narrative?