Month: September 2023

Introduction to The Garden Party and The Yellow Wallpaper

Both major characters of the stories “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Katherine Mansfield and Charlotte Perkins Gilman respectively seem poles apart from each other. Nothing seems common between Laura, a compassionate young girl, and the anonymous wife of John, a doctor. However, being females, both have some common character traits that make them prominent in their respective social settings. Laura and John’s wife of “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” respectively are similar in being imaginative and compassionate and different in their mental conditions, relationships toward their surroundings, and toward their near and dear ones.

Laura and John’s Wife in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

Laure and John’s wife in both “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” are similar in that both use their imaginations and think beyond their settings, demonstrating compassion for others. John’s wife, when he brought her to the mansion, starts writing about the situation she is placed. She does not agree with her husband about the house as she thinks “there is something queer about it (Gilman 52) or “Else, why it should be let so cheaply” (52). She sees some “ghastliness” (53) despite its being the most “beautiful” (53), having a “delicious garden” (59) and everything else that makes it fit for a person like her but she says “I disagree with their ideas” (60). She is not fit in her settings.

Similarities of Female Characters in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

On the other hand, though Laura is enjoying the party, when she hears the news of a death in the vicinity she does not agree with Jose and even with her mother who supports Jose’ idea that it does not matter. She is of the view “But we can’t possibly have a garden-party with a man dead” (Mansfield 54). She is not in sync with other family members thinking “what the band would sound like to that poor woman” (55). When she argues with her mother saying it would seem “terribly heartless of us” (58), she gets the same response as she gets from Jose. However, she, then, joins the party and enjoys making her family members happy and so is with John’s wife that she is doing everything to make her husband happy, as she says “I would not be so silly as to make him [John, her husband] uncomfortable just for a whim” (Gilman 60). She knows that her husband is aware of her “imaginative power” (60) and Laure when reasoned by Mrs. Sheridan thinks when alone “she had another glimpse of that poor woman and those little children” (Mansfield 58) – a evidence of her imaginative power, which is according to her mother “an absurd idea” (59). Both Laura and John’s wife in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”share these two qualities of being imaginative and compassionate and seem unfit in their social surroundings.

Mental Condition of Female Characters in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”

However, both are different in their mental conditions, their relations with their respective surroundings, and their family members in “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”.  Laura is a mentally stable girl; the proof of this is that her mother, Mrs. Sheridan, hands over the entire party to her and her other siblings. “Forget I am your mother. Treat me as an honored guest” (Mansfield 58), she says. Sheridan shows her full confidence in her mental maturity. She does not believe in that “absurd class distinction” (59), “despised stupid conventions” (60), and does not like the way the men were working in the lawn. She does not reason when Jose and her mother confront her ideas of not partying when a man is dead in the neighborhood, but she deals with it in a reasonable manner and realizes during her visit to that family that it was “her mistake” (65) to have come as she felt distraught at the end. However, John’s wife is suffering from some kind of depression, but still, she is not certainly insane. She knows what she is doing and knows that John is treating her and bringing her to this house to make her have “self-control” (Gilman 64) that she does not have, unlike Laura. She takes “pains to control” (57) herself and the yellow wallpaper drives her crazy in that she gets obsessed with it. She is mentally so weak that she knows “I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes” (59) which has marred her relations with her family, though everybody takes care of her. Yet she does not trust them as she deceives Jennie that she is going to sleep. She leaves her alone saying “I must not let her find me writing” (63). She does not tell anybody what she is feeling about the wallpaper though she knows by sharing it would be a “relief” (65). It was because there was some estrangement between her and her husband and her sister-in-law. However, contrary to it, Laura does not reason much when she sees that two, Jose and Mrs. Sheridan are against her. Moreover, she is quite comfortable at home, while John’s wife does not feel comfortable due to the yellow wallpaper that ultimately drives her mad. Even their material situation is not the same as Laura belongs to an elite family, while John’s wife is from a middle-class family which sets apart their thinking. Therefore, both female characters of “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper” are different.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that a similarity exists between Laura and John’s wife in being imaginative and compassionate toward other members and human beings around them and it is that almost all female characters share these traits. However, there is a hell of a difference in their self-control in both stories “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”. The same is the case of their relations with other members of their families, the outside world, and also with their surroundings. Therefore, every character is taken in his/her immediate context to understand real motives, and here Laura and John’s wife have very little in common between them but have a lot of differences.

Works Cited

1. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wall-Paper and Other Stories. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998. 51-76.
2. Mansfield, Katherine. The Garden Party and Other Stories. Penguin, 1997. 53-68.

Three Relevant Questions about “The Garden Party” and “The Yellow Wallpaper”: Laura and John’s Wife

1. How do the characters of Laura in “The Garden Party” and John’s wife in “The Yellow Wallpaper” challenge societal norms and expectations of women’s roles in their respective stories, and what are the consequences of their challenges?
2. Both Laura and John’s wife undergo significant transformations over the course of their respective narratives. How do their initial perspectives and worldviews differ from their final states, and what events or factors drive these transformations?
3. The settings in both stories, the garden party in “The Garden Party” and the isolated room in “The Yellow Wallpaper,” play pivotal roles in the character development and narratives. How do these settings influence the characters’ experiences and perceptions, and how are they symbolic of larger themes within each story?

Introduction in “Politics and the English Language”

George Orwell’s essay “Politics and the English Language,” explains the reasons for the development of the language, stating that the minds of man have increasingly become stagnant by using hackneyed or dying metaphors, trite phrases, meaningless words, and worn-out clichés whereby he shows common errors, but also hopes for healing English writings. He intends to point out several malicious tendencies crept into English writing due to the social and economic transformations in which he states in “Response to Politics and the English Language”that there is a “half-conscious belief that language is a natural growth and not an instrument which we shape for our own purposes” (Orwell). It is, he thinks, not correct. This tendency of thinking has made modern English suffer from ambiguity. This inability and this incompetence of using hackneyed phrases is the mistake of the writers who are mechanically engaged in writing empty phrases hardwired into their processes of writing which does not clarify real meanings to the readers.

Analysis of Language in “Politics and the English Language”

Orwell then brings forward five paragraphs written by different writers to support his thesis of “Politics and the English Language”, saying that the reasons for this vagueness are dying metaphors, verbal false limbs, pretentious diction, and meaningless words. When this process is used to create peace “It becomes ugly and inaccurate because our thoughts are foolish, but the slovenliness of our language makes it easier for us to have foolish thoughts.” However, he does not mean that it will continue but hopes for the regeneration of language stating that if “one gets rid of these habits one can think more clearly” which is a “first step toward political regeneration” (Orwell). Hence, he claims in “Politics and the English Language” it could lead to correct and plain language. Following putting solutions, he rewrites a passage taken from Ecclesiastes and points out the reason for the ugliness of the written language.

Reasons for Using Cliches

            The reason behind this is that he states in “Politics and the English Language” that it is a mechanical habit where thinking is not involved because a writer uses these metaphors and phrases when is not delivering a speech or writing very fast and if “if the writer is not seeing a mental image of the objects he is naming; in other words he is not really thinking” (Orwell). To show this he has given several metaphors and phrases which he states that sometimes writers even do not understand the meanings of and just write for the sake of writing. However, the language written in this way is he says, “It consists in gumming together long strips of words which have already been set in order by someone else and making the results presentable by sheer humbug” (Orwell). It misses two major points; one is the loss of creativity that he says is to go after the words and the second is that the sentences lack rhythms. By loss of creativity, I mean the writer does not have to be engaged in mental rigorous exercises of inventing new phrases and metaphors which make a piece interesting and alive. This is according to him in “Politics and the English Language”  isfound in political writings which are “largely the defence of the indefensible” (Orwell). It is because if these “indefensibles” are defended through plain language, then arguments become highly “brutal for most of the people to face” (Orwell). This is the real truth that political commentators and writers engage in writing vague pieces by using hackneyed phrases and stale metaphors.

Invention of Language

Lastly, the ultimate purpose of Orwell in this essay is to reach out to English writers to convey to them to engage in mental exercises to create and invent language to make it clear instead of engaging in ambiguity. It is also that Orwell himself has shown it clearly in his writing what skillful writing should be stating that “A newly-invented metaphor assists thought by evoking a visual image” (Orwell). He shows this in practice by using the phrase “huge dump of worn-out metaphors” (Orwell) which creates a mental image. In nutshell, in “Politics and the English Language”he has painted an exceptionally good picture of what is writing with modern English writing and how it could be fixed.

Tips for Correct Writing in “Politics and the English Language”

The advice of Orwell in “Politics and the English Language” for writers is to avoid trite and dead metaphors and hackneyed phrases saying that “all needed is to let the meaning choose the word, and not the other way around” (Orwell). He means that when we write, we choose words first and then try to convey our meanings through them. It is because when we imagine something, we immediately go for an existing language that he means metaphors and phrases and rarely go for inventing new ones. He states that we should rather use words after making their meanings clear through “pictures and sensations.” Later on, a person can choose those words and use them in his language for which he has stated clear rules.      

1. He advises avoiding already used and printed words, and figures of speech.
2. He says that a long word should not be used to replace a short one.
3. If a word is useless at some places, cut it out and leave it.
4. Do you ornate your language with foreign words and scientific jargon.
5. You need to break away from these rules and go to hunt down words instead of relying on the same words.

However, he also states that though these rules are basics, it depends on the change of attitude. The reason is that a writer is entrenched in his style and if he has been writing for a long, it is not easy to change this. After all, the use of language is not to confound the readers but to persuade and convince them and it is not “for concealing or preventing thought” (Orwell). As far as my essay about response to “Politics and the English Language”is cornered, I think the first three points; the use of dying or incompatible metaphors, meaningless words, and inflated style to be avoided to stay to the point as this is the requirement in civil engineering not to use ornate or inflated style.

Five Words

1. Decadent: A thing that is declining or become obsolete
2. Pretentious: It means artificial behavior and here it means artificial words or language
3. Inflated: It means greater than what is actually justified at the place
4. Archaism: This is the method or attitude of using old and obsolete words or expressions
5. Evocative: This is a thing that stimulates the memories of the past.

Works Cited

1. Orwell, George. “Politics and the English Language.” 1946. Orwell Foundation.com. Accessed Nov. 20, 2022.

Relevant Questions about “Politics and the English Language”

1. How does George Orwell’s essay “Politics and the English Language” critique the use of language in politics and its impact on thought and communication?
2. In “Politics and the English Language,” what specific examples and techniques does Orwell employ to illustrate the degradation of language and its consequences in political discourse?
3. What practical advice does George Orwell offer in “Politics and the English Language” to writers and speakers to improve the clarity and integrity of their language in both political and everyday contexts?

Introduction to Epic Hero in Gilgamesh

Epic hero in Gilgamesh is a tricky question due to having various incredible characters. There are extraordinary mortals who accomplish great and incredible feats in stories or epics they are set in. They are usually the central figures of myths, legends, or epic poems and generally, they are larger-than-life figures. As epics are usually written and told in flashbacks wherein the narrator takes the stories and starts from the middle and works towards the events happening at the end. The heroes given in epics have been given extra grandeur. They are described through extended similes, wider descriptions, and grand language to enhance specific features of their characters to equal them to their great actions. This is done by incorporating some natural or supernatural occurrences which they have to overcome. Epic heroes are usually people who have divine touch but still have either human faults or some human ancestry. As epic means a majestic poetic piece, the heroes of these stories must wage struggles beyond the power of human beings and inspire favor of the gods or other dues ex machina. The actions of differnet heroes, as far as the epic hero in Gilgamesh is concerned, are grand. However, they are different regarding the role required of the hero at the time when they were present and the culture they belonged to.

Epic Hero in Gilgamesh: Case of Gilgamesh

In most epics, the heroes are in some part divine. Starting about the epic hero in Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh himself seems a hero. He was born to the goddess Ninsun while being blessed with courage and beauty by Addad and Shamash. He was a human being otherwise.  Enkidu, who became his friend after he reached the city, was also of divine birth but lesser in status to him since he was created from clay. He was created to lower Gilgamesh’s arrogance. His role as a hero ends after his death, though it does serve a purpose for Gilgamesh. He undertakes an epic journey to search for the meaning of life. Unlike Enkidu, Gilgamesh possesses all qualities of a hero and eventually makes his nation realize that they cannot escape death which is something inevitable. Odysseus, unlike Gilgamesh, has an earthly birth. His parents Anticlea and Laertes are humans. He is brave and very sharp, using his wit to outwit his enemies like the Cyclops. Therefore, he seems a true epic hero in Gilgamesh.

Differences Between Epic Heroes

On the other hand, Aeneas is the son of Aphrodite, who is also a goddess but from a man. He is very brave and virtuous, something mentioned in the poem The Aeneid on numerous occasions. His virtue is something that Virgil appreciates and wants to drill into his soldiers. Both Aeneas and Gilgamesh, the epic hero in Gilgamesh, are blessed with sacred beauty which aids them during their quests for meanings of life and death. However, Odysseus accomplishes the same feats with his skill with words, intellectual dexterity, and an agile body. He is fast both on his feet as well as his mind, perhaps more so than the other heroes, leading him to return home despite many temptations or obstacles obstructing his path. It is also not correct that other heroes do not possess great intelligence, they do but not to the point where he stands in his situation. Gilgamesh demonstrates it, as he finds Utnapishtim that he is knowledgeable and finds a way to have an access to the immortality plant. In the case of Aeneas case, he is intelligent but unlike Gilgamesh and Odysseus’s there is direct interference from both Jupiter and his mother time and again which saves him on several occasions. Turnus, unlike the previous three, does not have the assistance of the gods and is very arrogant and proud. Aeneas constantly emphasizes his virtue, exclaiming repeatedly to the gods and showing his skills, “Is this the prize for virtue? Is this how you restore our rule?” Turnus, on the other hand, shows no such restraint. He continuously tries to conspire against Aeneas knowing the other is better than him and has an upper hand on him. Virgil also displays virtue and is proud of it. He emphasizes the virtue Aeneas possesses, urging the Roman soldiers to do the same. Turnus has no such virtue. That is why Juno aids him for a while until Jupiter intervenes.

Epic Hero in Gilgamesh and Tribal Loyalties

One thing they all share is the assistance of gods they receive whenever the going gets too tough and when they need help, or cannot deal with hardships anymore. The major difference between all of them lies not in how they are born, or to whom but rather society and culture they belong to and their role in those societies. Gilgamesh has to unite his tribe. When he faces defeat from Enkidu, his best friend and someone he deeply cherishes, he sets out to achieve immortality to break the bondage of death. Odysseus is to lay down the foundations of a nation worthy of greatness when he reaches home and is to save his household and his city; he faces many temptations and attractions on his way back home. His, being an age of mental agility and knowledge, which took precedence over possessing only courage as was shown by the way, he eloquently uses words in a few of his predicaments to get out of a tough spot. Virgil wanted virtue in the men of his empire and Aeneas displays both restraint and virtue which could be glorified, followed and showed how the foundations for a successful empire are laid down. Turnus, unlike him, is an opportunist, impulsive and impatient. He will not be known as a hero despite reaching the stature of one. It is because it was not in his destiny to become a hero because Aeneas was chosen to lay down the foundations of the great nation. The differences between these heroes developed because of their different cultures, the gods from whom they ultimately received assistance, or did not receive favors, and their own roles in the situations they were placed in.

Conclusion

To sum it up, epic heroes are all grand figures. They either enjoy divine births, or are humans that accomplish great feats possessing extraordinary skills. They accomplish awe-inspiring and great things. They also have or earn the favor of the gods who aid them throughout their journeys and help them cross hurdles that they just cannot do on their own. They have all done much for the countries, empires, or cities they belong to. Their differences in how they acted or what they achieved lie in the cultures they belong to, the time they were born in, the nations they came from, and what was expected from them.

Bibliography

1. Gransden, Karl Watts, and Stephen John Harrison. Virgil: The Aeneid. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
2. Homer, Homer. The Odyssey. Xist Publishing, 2015.
3. Kovacs, Maureen Gallery. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Stanford University Press, 1989.

Relevant Questions

1. What are the key differences between Gilgamesh and other epic heroes in terms of their character traits and development throughout their respective narratives?
2. How does Gilgamesh’s journey and transformation differ from that of traditional epic heroes, and what unique challenges does he face that set him apart from other legendary figures?
3. In what ways does the role of friendship and companionship in Gilgamesh’s story differentiate him from other epic heroes, and how do these differences contribute to his characterization as an epic hero with distinct qualities and values?

Introduction to Afrofuturistic Fiction

Although postmodernism has given much significance to time, Afrofuturistic fiction has woven time into the very cycles of human life treating it as non-linear and fluid. In fact, time moves in every direction. It treats all of its manifestations as one lived experience that a person is aware of and that is present. Niama Safia Sandy’s assertion given as a quote, too, points to the same thing that every moment is the present moment and the ‘now’ moment. It means that there is no past, present, or future. Some Afrofuturistic fiction too treat time in the same way and show that it is one of the hallmarks of Afrofuturistic literature. Long Division, “Speech Sounds” and  Parable of the Sorrow, examples of Afrofuturistic fiction , treat time as if it is present and this present represents the ‘now’ moment.

 Long Division: An Example of Afrofuturistic Fiction

If this issue of time is taken in Long Division by Kiese Layman, an example of Afrofuturistic fiction,  it seems that the same problem occurs with the presentation of time. The first thing is that City, the narrator of the novel, is living in the present which is his ‘now’ movement, but he wants to travel in the future with his beloved Shalaya Crump. Although he does not travel in the future and is still in the ‘now’ moment. Therefore, his fantasy of time travel with Shalaya Crump is not just a fantasy but a reality for him, for he is aware of it. Although it seems a feminine quality of making male partner realize the reality of time as she tells City asking him, “City, I could love you if you helped me change the future dot-dot-dot in a special way” (Layman 20). However, the real City narrates that she always means 1986 or 1990 which is the conundrum of the time whether it is present or past. However, both are certain and aware of it that they are in the ‘now’ moment and living in the non-linear timebound world. It is quite interesting that when City wants to talk about love, she immediately cuts him short saying “I’ am talking about the future” (22). Even two of the MCQs given to City at Hamer for punishment contain the same reference that “Past, present and future exist within you” (16). This ‘now’ moment is present in “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler, too, which is another example of Afrofuturistic fiction.

Case of “Speech Sounds” as Afrofuturistic Fiction

The story “Speech Sounds”also presents this ‘now’ moment of its female character, Rye. In fact, as a teacher of history, she has lost her past in her present moment as she cannot record anything now, but she is still present to see the history such as the incident of the bus driver, Obsidian, and the children. Even if he is able to write or read, this record is meaningless as it would stay with her in the present or ‘now’ moment, and nobody would be able to read it. However, as a professor, she also knows that if a society is to move forward, it should have to work in linear time and not in a non-linear and fluid time where only the ‘now’ moment is important. Therefore, her elation skyrockets when she finds that the children know the language and she can speak too. That is where she thinks that speech sounds can make a future for her in the shape of children to let her escape from this ‘now’ moment. This moment is interestingly captured by a female in Parable of the Sorrow as well.

Although the setting is of the near future California, Butler has woven the thematic strand of the present time into the future time as well as into the past time to bring her readers close to the ‘now’ moment of Lauren Olmina whose current concern is survival. The other issues of religion, environment, and communalism are not the issues of the current region; they are the issues of time and that is the ‘now’ moment as they are happening now. Lauren’s conversation with Joe about the future “You can’t read the future” and then (Butler 47) her dialog of surprise about Donner that he is just a “symbol of the past for us to hold on to as we’re pushed into future” (48). Even why, what, and wherefore of God asked later about Earthseed is part of the time that it does not seem linear and that it is fluid.

Themes in Afrofuturistic Fiction

In short, Afrofuturistic fiction shows time fluid. All the times, past, present and future are bound in the ‘now’ moment. Long Division shows this ‘now’ moment of City through his beloved while Rye in “Speech Sounds” sees this moment through the speech of the children. On the other hand, Lauren sees this moment when talking to Joe and Donner. In short, time’s fluidity becomes a great theme of this type of fiction.

Works Cited

1. Butler, Octavia. Parable of the Sorrow. New York: ASPECT, 2000.
2. . —. “Speech Sounds.” UNL. n. d. https://www.unl.edu/english/docs/englishweek17/engl200-speechsounds.pdf. Accessed 13 May. 2019.
3. Layman, Kiese. Long Division. Chicago: BOLDEN, 2013.

Relevant Questions about Issue of Time in Afrofuturistic Fiction

1. How do “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon use Afrofuturistic fiction to explore and redefine the concept of time, particularly in the context of African and African diaspora cultures?
2. In Afrofuturistic fiction, such as “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon, how is the manipulation of time used as a narrative device to address historical trauma, cultural continuity, and the impact of colonialism and slavery?
3. What role does the concept of “time travel” or temporal displacement play in Afrofuturistic fiction as seen in works like “Speech Sounds” by Octavia Butler and “Long Division” by Kiese Laymon, and how does it allow authors to envision alternative pasts, presents, and futures for marginalized communities?

Introduction to Communism in “The Garden Party”

Communism in “The Garden Party” by Katherine Mansfield is perhaps the first trace of this leftist perspective shown suppressed by the family and friends so successfully that Laura also has to conclude that “It was simply marvelous” (Mansfield). It means she has shown a great deal of resistance to class privilege and benefits. Yet, she has to succumb to pressure and above all the festivities of the party. From the very start, she demonstrates that she is not susceptible to class consciousness. When the laborers reach her home to work, she immediately recognizes and mingles with them and their cultural nitty-gritty. However, when she speaks to her mother, brother, and family members, she is constantly reminded that she is of the elite class and must behave likewise. Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, her journey from awareness and resistance to final acceptance witnesses three stages; the awareness of humanity, an awareness of her class, and resistance to it she puts up at her own expense.

Laura’s Awareness in “The Garden Party”

Regarding communism in “The Garden Party”, the first awareness of her class comes to her mind when she hears her mother saying that she is “determined to leave everything to you children” (Mansfield). This is where she knows the first taste of autonomy and independence that is a typical feature of such elite classes. However, she is made up of some other stuff and everybody knows that she is an “artistic one” (Mansfield). It means she knows a lot more than others and possibly becomes easily aware of such familial privileges. She knows and also enjoys life like all others and she has a likeness for tastes (Mansfield). After all, they belong to the Sheridan family. When the laborers come, everybody at home feels the same as they used to but she does not feel easy, and when she says “Good morning” (Mansfield) it “sounded so fearfully affected” to her (Mansfield). Yet, it does not make any difference to others. This is the point where she starts showing something different in her character from all others. However, it is also that her upbringing makes her feel surprised at this. Even when the tall man smells lavender she is surprised to see it but she could not show she is feeling at home (Mansfield). This is the stage of her awareness about humanity that a single streak runs through all souls. It also shows traces of communism in “The Garden Party” that the tall and short are made of the same stuff, and she is also among them.

Resistance and Communism in “The Garden Party”

However, her resistance, a love for communism in “The Garden Party”, emerges when she sees the Sheridans treating all others differently. She sees that her mother as well as her brother are full of affection. When Cook comes and says that “There’s been a horrible accident” (Mansfield), all others think of the party instead of the dead man and his family. However, Laura is different from all of them. She stares at Godber’s man and then she informs Jose that they are going to stop the garden party. However, the privileges say that they cannot as they are from the upper family, and their response to her resistance is indifference (Mansfield). What others think about them is very beautifully summed up in the story in that they “were the greatest possible eyesore” with no right to live in such a neighborhood (Mansfield). In fact, she shows her true colors of belonging to the same humanity. That is why her mother warns her and makes her realize that this is a trivial issue. Her mother clearly tells in response to her surprise to a death that “my dear child, use your common sense” (Mansfield).  But her response is quite curt that it is “terribly heartless” (Mansfield). However, when she is told from every side from her brother to her father, sisters, and mother that she needs not worry about the dead man in the neighborhood and that she must enjoy her party,  she slowly starts succumbing to these pressures though with misgivings “Is mother right?” (Mansfield). This is the stage of communism in “The Garden Party”where it starts getting blurred and unreal and it is the point where she is going to stop resisting.

Conclusion

She starts accepting it when she is being mocked at this by her mother and she is made to feel odd about those poor people, showing traces of communism in “The Garden Party”. Her mother tells everybody in a mocking tone that “Laura insisted we should put it off” (Mansfield). It is where she starts accepting that she is from the upper class and when her mother asks to bring her a basket to send eatables to the family of the dead person, she has taken full circle in realizing her status “mother, do you really think it’s a good idea?” (Mansfield). Her mother has to make her realize that people in this class are impressed by such gestures and this is what she “couldn’t realize it” (Mansfield). She brings that basket and reaches there. She hands over it to that lady and when she questions herself “Am I being extravagant?” (Mansfield) and this is the point where she has realized that it is a part of life which she said at the end to her brother. This is how she has resisted and finally accepted it.

Work Cited

1. Mansfield, Katherin. “The Garden Party”. Katherine Mansfield Society. n.d. Web. 08 April 2014. http://www.katherinemansfieldsociety.org/assets/KM-Stories/THE-GARDEN-PARTY1921.pdf. Accessed Nov. 22, 2021.

Relevant Question about Communism in “The Garden Party”

1. How does Mansfield’s portrayal of the Sheridan family’s extravagant garden party reflect the social hierarchy of the time, and what parallels can be drawn between this class divide and the critiques of privilege often associated with communist ideology?
2. In “The Garden Party,” the Sheridan family’s affluence and detachment from their less privileged neighbors are evident. How might this stark contrast between the Sheridans and their neighbors resonate with discussions of social inequality and the class struggle, which are central to communist thought?
3. While “The Garden Party” doesn’t explicitly delve into communism, how does Mansfield’s narrative treatment of the Sheridan family’s luxurious lifestyle and their interaction with the lower-class workers prompt readers to contemplate broader societal issues, including economic disparities and the potential for class-consciousness?

Introduction of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”                                             

The expressions “early modern” and “Renaissance” sometimes, undergo confusion in usage with being alternatives of each other, specifically, in the arena of the literary studies or critiques of the literary texts appearing during that period. In the literary world, however, there is a slight difference between “early modern” and “Renaissance” in that whereas “early modern” connotes an emphasis on “economic continuity between periods” (Dubrow and Dolan, 1994, p. 1025), Renaissance seems to give “privileges to certain groups of culture” (1025). Yet, an early modern term not only points to mercantilism in the rural centers but also large “historical divisions” instead of minor or small divisions (1026) which it interestingly presents a ready “badge,” facilitating critics to select texts (1026) of that specific period. It means that the term early modern in the phrase “early modern” and “Renaissance” mostly refers to the period that roughly falls in the late fifteenth and early sixteen century during the Tudor dynastic rule in England marked with “humanism” and stress on “for goodness in humans” (Allegretti, n. d.). Some historians, other than the literary ones, also call it the period of spreading globalization (de Vries, 2010, p. 710), while regarding literary output, Scott Robinson argues that early modern writers “sought to appropriate, to reinvent, or to repudiate romance, in the effort to reimagine a changing world” (2007, p. 02). His stress is on the changing world about “early modern” and “Renaissance”. The argument that the Renaissance, too, changed the world causing globalization, stands in the way of this difference that could resolve with the polemic of Renaissance as an inclusive, exclusive as well as broad period compared to the term, early modern.

Inclusivity of Renaissance in “early modern” and “Renaissance”

Whereas inclusivity of Renaissance is concerned in “early modern” and “Renaissance”, it is the hallmark of this period not only in terms of the inclusion of art and literature but also different regions such as the French and English regional emergence following the Italian contributions (Robin et al. 2007, p. xv). Yet some also suggest the use of “early modern” in “early modern” and “Renaissance” for the same period, adding it is “less encumbered by the cultural baggage of the past” (p. xv). This shows the interesting distinction that seems broad in that it includes regionalities as well as inclusive humanistic, ethical, and epistemological advances spreading throughout Europe (p. xv). Some, on the other hand, put it as a complete field of studies as it “produced a new transnational cultural formations” with new ways to analyze the “modernity” of entire Europe (Robinson, 2007, p. 15).

Vastness of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”

This shows that it means not only just one field of study but various others, including philosophy and economics, and cultural values across different cultures. It is clear from Jerry Brotton”s argument that “National museums and art galleries are the most obvious places” to understand the phenomenon of “The Renaissance” (2006, p. 02). Despite its historical relevance to the multifarious phenomena in other cultural fields, in the scholarly and academic arena it led to studia humanitatis which included the whole humanity and social sciences of today (p. 03). After recounting all the diverse fields that prospered during this period, Brotton concludes that the term refers to “profound and enduring upheaval and transformation” from “1400 to 1600” (p. 09). Yet, he has refrained from the periodization of this phenomenon. Brotton refers to Michelet to explicate it further, saying it was not only the age of the discovery of the world but also of the discovery of man (10). With its double distinctive features, he states that it broke with the Middle Ages and led to a “modern understanding of history” (p. 10).

Differences between “Early modern” and “Renaissance”

A cursory glance at these arguments shows that there does not seem much difference yet Leah Marcus (1992) not only differentiates but also puts both “nomenclatures” for each other, saying it is a “conceptual reconfiguration” with tracing of the features that are “precursors” of our own period. Then, he highlights the contestation of the terminological polemic arguing that whereas Renaissance scholars are not concerned with periodization, the scholars using the early modern term strictly adhere to periodization (p. 42). Despite playing with the significance and dilution of this significance of the literary studies, he continues saying that early modern is less hierarchical and less energy-consuming in terms of terminological initiation (p. 42) as the lovers of Renaissance term do. Yet, he has objections to its elitism (p. 43), when he underlines the stress on the quantitative method of the early modern period with further emphasis on “the common place lives of the common people” (p. 44). Although he argues that the interest and his research about both terms is to redraw “disciplinary boundaries,” he states that both have special purposes while the objective of the usage of the term, early modern, is “preservation of literature” (p. 56). Interestingly, he seems consistent in preferring early modern and jettisoning Renaissance when he adds studies with it in another article “Cyberspace Renaissance” (1995) showing difference between “early modern” and “Renaissance”. In this article, he argues that that as Renaissance”s glorification of despotism and intellectual hierarchies have missed the community or a huge segment of the population, and states that now literary critics call it an “early modern era” because Renaissance, as a term, is too hegemonic and too titular to leave its holistic, inclusive and exclusive tendencies to include specifics of literature under its banner (p. 388). Therefore, his contention seems appropriate when he argues that most of the usages of “Renaissance” are full of discomfort to be used freely for every other study or field (p. 389). Hence, the early modern term wins the contest and becomes one of the terms having no negative or positive, inclusive or exclusive, upbeat or low-beat connotations as Renaissance has, yet it has its own usage in literary studies referring to specific periodization as well as the specific emphasis on “the common lives of the common people” (Marcus, 1992, p. 44).

References

1. Allegretti, C. (n. d.). The Early Modern Period. Eastern Connecticut University, Retrieved September 28, 2021, from https://www.easternct.edu/speichera/understanding-literary-history-all/the-early-modern-period.html
2. Brotton, J. (2006). The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, UK.
3. de Vries, J. (2010). The limits of globalization in the early modern world. The Economic History Review, 63(3), 710-733.
4. Dubrow, Heather, and Frances E. Dolan. “The Term Early Modern.” PMLA 109, no. 5 (1994): 1025–27. https://doi.org/10.2307/462969.
5. Robinson, B. (2007). Islam and Early Modern English Literature: The Politics of Romance from Spenser to Milton. Palgrave, MacMillan, New York, America.
6. Robin, D. M., Larsen, A. R., & Levin, C. (2007). Encyclopedia of women in the Renaissance: Italy, France, and England. Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-CLIO.
7. Marcus, L. S. (1992). (1992). Renaissance/Early Modern Studies. Redrawing the Boundaries: The Transformation of English and American Literary Studies, ed. Stephen Greenblat and Giles Gun, The Modern Language Association of American, New York, 41-63.
8. _____ (1995). Cyberspace Renaissance. English Literary Renaissance, 25(3), 388-401.

Relevant Questions about “Early Modern” and “Renaissance”

1. How do scholars and historians distinguish between the terms “Early Modern” and “Renaissance,” and what specific characteristics define each period in the context of intellectual, cultural, and societal changes?
2. When examining the transition from the “Renaissance” to the “Early Modern” era, what key shifts in thought, art, and governance mark this transformation, and how do these changes shape our understanding of these two distinct periods?
3. In the study of history and literature, how does the nuanced exploration of “Early Modern” and “Renaissance” periods enhance our comprehension of the evolving intellectual and cultural landscape, and what critical aspects help demarcate one from the other?