September 2023 - Page 18 of 23

Pentameter: Creating and Critiquing It

Pentameter in poetry is a rhythmic pattern widely used in English ballads and poems, creating a natural and pleasing cadence for musicality.

Introduction to Pentameter

Pentameter is a literary device that consists of a line of verse containing five metrical feet. Each foot typically consists of two syllables, and the most common form is iambic pentameter, where the stress falls on every second syllable. This rhythmic pattern is widely used in English poetry and serves to create a natural and pleasing cadence in verse.

How to Create Pentameter

Creating it involves establishing a consistent metrical pattern of five feet per line. The most common type of pentameter in English poetry is iambic , which consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable in each foot. Here are some steps to help you create iambic pentameter:

Determine Subject and Tone: It is common in various poetry forms, such as sonnets, blank verse, and heroic couplets. It is often used for serious or contemplative subjects but can also work for lighthearted or humorous themes.

Establish Iambic Meter: Each line should contain five metrical feet, with each foot consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one. Use rhythmic tools like a metronome to establish the meter.
Experiment with Variations: While iambic is standard, you can explore other pentameter variations like trochaic, dactylic, or anapestic pentameter to create different effects and moods.
Consider Word Choice and Syntax: Adjust word order and word choice to maintain the rhythm. Pay attention to word stress patterns and select words that fit the meter.

Read Aloud: Reading your work aloud helps you hear the rhythm and flow. Make necessary adjustments to ensure consistency throughout your piece.

Creating it takes practice and experimentation, so don’t hesitate to make mistakes and explore different variations until you find the right rhythm and flow for your work.

Benefits of Pentameter

Using pentameter in poetry or prose can offer several benefits, such as:

Rhythm and Flow: Pentameter creates a consistent rhythm and flow in writing that can enhance the musicality and appeal of the work. The regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables can make the writing more pleasing to the ear and easier to read aloud.
Memorability: The regularity can make it easier to remember and recite, which can be useful for poems or passages meant to be performed or memorized.
Emphasis: The use of stressed and unstressed syllables can create emphasis and draw attention to certain words or phrases, allowing the writer to convey a specific message or feeling.

Expressiveness: The use of meter can enhance the expressiveness of the writing, allowing the writer to evoke certain moods or emotions through the use of rhythm and flow.
Tradition: Pentameter has a long history in English poetry, dating back to the works of Chaucer and Shakespeare. Using pentameter can connect a writer to this tradition and allow them to tap into its rich history and influence.

Pentameter and Literary Theory

Pentameter is a prominent feature of many literary traditions and forms, and it can be analyzed and interpreted through various literary theories. Here are a few examples:

Theory	Critique	Example
Formalism	Analyzes pentameter as a formal feature, examining its use and effects in relation to a work’s structure and style.	In Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18,” the use of iambic pentameter contributes to the sonnet’s formal and structured tone, highlighting the poet’s admiration for the subject’s timeless beauty.
New Criticism	Emphasizes close reading and analyzes pentameter as a specific literary device, exploring its role in conveying meaning and themes.	In John Donne’s “Holy Sonnet 10,” the use of iambic pentameter reinforces the speaker’s argument about the inevitability of death, creating a sense of urgency and emphasizing the theme of mortality.
Historical Context	Considers the historical context to interpret its usage, examining how it relates to social and cultural norms of the time.	In Christopher Marlowe’s “Doctor Faustus,” the use of iambic pentameter reflects the conventions of Elizabethan drama, aligning with the theatrical practices and expectations of the Renaissance period.
Postcolonial Theory	Analyzes pentameter in terms of power dynamics and representation, exploring how it may symbolize cultural imposition or subversion.	In Derek Walcott’s “A Far Cry from Africa,” the use of pentameter reflects the complex colonial history of Africa, with the poet’s engagement with this traditional form serving as a commentary on colonialism’s impact.

These examples illustrate how different literary theories can provide unique perspectives on the use and significance of pentameter within various literary works.Top of Form

Pentameter: A Literary Device

Pentameter, as a poetic device, constitutes a metrical framework used in poetry. It constructs lines with five metrical feet, each typically consisting of a stressed syllable followed by one or more unstressed syllables.

Etymology of Pentameter

The word “pentameter” comes from the Greek word, pentametros, which means “having five measures.” Penta means “five,” and metros means “measure.” The term was first used about the meter used in ancient Greek and Latin poetry, which consisted of five feet or units of measure.

Meanings of Pentameter

Poetic Meter: Pentameter is a term used in poetry to describe a specific metrical pattern or rhythm in verse.
Five Feet: The “penta-” prefix means “five,” indicating that pentameter consists of five metrical feet in each line of poetry.

Metrical Foot: Each metrical foot within pentameter typically comprises one stressed syllable followed by one or more unstressed syllables.
Rhythmic Structure: Pentameter defines the rhythmic structure of a line of poetry, specifying the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Common in Verse: It is a common metrical pattern used in various forms of poetry, including Shakespearean sonnets and blank verse.

Versatile: Pentameter can be adapted to different languages and poetic styles, making it a versatile choice for poets.

Pentameter in Grammar

Grammatical Classification: Pentameter is a noun in the realm of grammar, serving as a particular type of word.
Definition in Poetry: In the context of poetry, it refers to a specific type of meter used in verse.

Five Metrical Feet: Pentameter consists of five metrical feet or units within a line of poetry.
Adjective Usage: The term can also function as an adjective to describe a line of poetry that utilizes this specific meter.
Examples: Common examples include “iambic pentameter” and “trochaic pentameter,” where “pentameter” functions both as a noun, referring to the meter type, and as an adjective, modifying the type of meter employed in the poetry line.

Definition of Pentameter

As a poetic device, it constitutes a metrical framework used in poetry. It constructs lines with five metrical feet, each typically consisting of a stressed syllable followed by one or more unstressed syllables. This device actively serves to structure and regulate the rhythm of a poem, enabling poets to actively shape the flow, cadence, and emphasis of their verses, thus playing an active role in crafting the overall poetic experience.

Types of Pentameter

There are several types, including as follows:

Type	Definition and Explanation	Example
Iambic	The most common form in English poetry, with each metrical foot comprising an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.	Used extensively in Shakespeare’s plays.
Trochaic	Features metrical feet consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. Less common in English poetry.	Found in Longfellow’s “The Song of Hiawatha.”
Dactylic	In each metrical foot, a stressed syllable is followed by two unstressed syllables. More common in Greek and Latin poetry.	Occurs occasionally in English poetry.
Anapestic	Metrical feet consist of two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. Relatively rare in English poetry.	Seen in Byron’s “Don Juan.”
Spondaic	Each metrical foot contains two stressed syllables. Extremely rare in English poetry, used for emphasis or specific effects.	Limited use for emphasis or unique effects.

Literary Examples of Pentameter

Example	Reference	Explanation
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”	William Shakespeare, Sonnet 18	This line is an example of iambic pentameter, characterized by five iambs, each consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter creates a rhythmic and emotionally expressive pattern.
“Double, double, toil and trouble”	William Shakespeare, Macbeth	This line is an example of trochaic, featuring five trochees, with each trochee consisting of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable. Trochaic pentameter creates an irregular, unsettling rhythm, ideal for conveying unease or tension.
“This is the forest primeval, the murmuring pines and the hemlocks”	Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “Evangeline”	This line exemplifies dactylic, composed of five dactyls, where each dactyl contains a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed syllables. Dactylic pentameter imparts a flowing, melodious rhythm, suitable for evoking beauty or tranquility.
“But a raven, sitting lonely on the placid bust, spoke only”	Edgar Allan Poe, “The Raven”	Anapestic pentameter is showcased in this line, with five anapests, each comprising two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable. Anapestic pentameter generates a lively and energetic rhythm, conveying excitement or urgency.
“Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!”	Alfred Lord Tennyson, “Break, Break, Break”	Spondaic pentameter is demonstrated here, containing five spondees, each consisting of two stressed syllables. Spondaic pentameter creates a heavy and emphatic rhythm, emphasizing weight or importance.
“To be or not to be, that is the question”	William Shakespeare, Hamlet	This line represents blank verse, which is unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse is commonly used in Shakespeare’s plays and other dramatic works, offering a natural and conversational style of speech while maintaining a regular and easily followed meter.

Ambiguity in Literature & Theory

Ambiguity is a literary device that creates multiple possible meanings or interpretations of a text, often through the use of language that is intentionally vague or unclear.

Ambiguity in Literature: Etymology

The word ambiguity in literature comes from the Latin word “ambiguitas,” which means “doubtfulness” or “uncertainty.” The Latin root word “ambigere” means “to be uncertain” or “to doubt.”

Meanings of Ambiguity in Literature and Literary Theory

Aspect of Ambiguity in Literature	Explanation
Multiple Interpretations	Texts, characters, or events with multiple possible understandings, leading to diverse interpretations.
Intentional Language Use	Deliberate use of language with multiple meanings to enhance complexity and depth within a text.
Challenging Conventions	Using ambiguity in literature to challenge or subvert traditional literary norms and cultural assumptions.
Reader’s Perspective	The role of ambiguity in shaping the reader’s interpretation and influencing the derived meaning from the text.
Exploration of Themes	Utilizing ambiguity to delve into intricate themes such as identity, power, or morality.
Literary Device Interaction	The interplay between ambiguity and other literary devices, including irony, metaphor, or symbolism.
Creating Suspense	Utilizing ambiguity to generate tension and suspense by leaving readers uncertain about the true meaning of a situation or event.
Interpretation and Analysis	The significance of ambiguity in literature in the interpretation and analysis of literature, and how readers and critics engage with ambiguous texts.

Explanation of Ambiguity in Literary Theories

Ambiguity also plays a significant role in other literary theories, such as:

Literary Theory	Description
Postmodernism	Postmodern literary theory emphasizes the ambiguous nature of language and meaning. It highlights how texts resist straightforward interpretation and fixed meaning. Ambiguity is seen as a central feature of postmodern literature, challenging traditional literary conventions and cultural norms.
Reader-response theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting and creating meaning in a text. Ambiguity is viewed as a key factor in shaping the reader’s understanding. The reader’s experiences and perspectives significantly contribute to the meaning they derive from a text, with ambiguity encouraging active engagement and interpretation.
Deconstruction	Deconstruction is a critical approach that uncovers underlying assumptions and contradictions in a text. It uses ambiguity to expose these tensions, emphasizing the inherent instability of language and the potential for multiple interpretations. Ambiguity in literature reveals the complexity and multiplicity of meaning within a text.
Feminist theory	Feminist literary theory explores the construction and reinforcement of gender roles and stereotypes through language and representation. Ambiguity plays a role in challenging traditional gender norms and expectations. It is used to explore the complexity and diversity of human experiences and identities.

Ambiguity as a Literary Device

Ambiguity is a literary device that creates multiple possible meanings or interpretations of a text, often through the use of language that is intentionally vague or unclear.

It can be used to add complexity to a text, to reflect the uncertainty and complexity of real life, and to encourage readers to engage more deeply with the text.
Ambiguity can take many forms, including:
- Double meanings: words or phrases that can be interpreted in more than one way, such as puns, homonyms, or metaphorical language.Unclear pronouns: using pronouns like “he,” “she,” or “it” without clear referents, leading to ambiguity in meaning.Ambiguous syntax: using sentence structures that can be interpreted in more than one way, such as sentences with multiple possible subjects or verbs.Open endings: endings that leave the reader uncertain about the outcome of the story or the fate of the characters.Multiple narrators: IT means using multiple narrators with conflicting or incomplete perspectives, leading to showing ambiguity in literature and uncertainty about the truth of events.
- Symbolism: using symbols that have multiple possible interpretations, leading to showing ambiguity in literature in the meaning of the text.

Examples of Ambiguity in Literature

Literary Work	Literary Theory	Description
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	Modernism	The poem utilizes ambiguity to mirror the fragmented and uncertain nature of modern life. The speaker’s internal monologue is filled with conflicting and elusive images, creating disorientation and alienation. Lines like “Do I dare / Disturb the universe?” and “In the room, the women come and go / Talking of Michelangelo” challenge fixed meanings and reader assumptions, aligning with the hallmark of modernist literature, which aimed to break from tradition and capture the complexities of the modern world.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Feminist Theory	The novel employs ambiguity to explore motherhood, race, and identity complexities. Sethe is portrayed ambiguously as both a victim and perpetrator of violence, challenging traditional notions of femininity and motherhood. The novel’s title, *Beloved*, has dual interpretations, referring to both a literal ghost and the psychological burden of slavery. This ambiguity allows exploration of how women navigate oppressive societal structures and the enduring impact of the past on the present.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Reader-Response Theory	The story shows the use of ambiguity in literature to engage and encourage interpretation by the reader. An unreliable narrator and an ambiguous ending leave the reader uncertain about the protagonist’s madness and overall meaning. The protagonist’s ambiguous relationship with the wallpaper allows for multiple interpretations, such as a symbol of her oppression or a reflection of her mental state. Ambiguity challenges traditional gender roles and highlights power dynamics in marriage and medicine.
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Postmodernism	The novel utilizes ambiguity in literature to challenge the American Dream and traditional narrative structures. Enigmatic and multi-dimensional characters, along with a fragmented, non-linear plot, reflect the elusive nature of the Dream. The ambiguous ending, leaving Gatsby’s dream and Daisy’s feelings unresolved, permits multiple interpretations and challenges readers’ assumptions about love, wealth, and success in America.
“Hamlet” by William Shakespeare	Deconstruction	The play employs ambiguity in literature to reveal contradictions and tensions in language and meaning. Hamlet’s character is replete with paradoxes and ambivalences, challenging the traditional hero archetype. The ambiguous ending leaves readers uncertain about the story’s true interpretation. For instance, Hamlet’s soliloquy “To be, or not to be” contains multiple ambiguities, questioning the meaning of “being” and the implications of “not being.” Ambiguity deconstructs language and meaning hierarchies and exposes underlying contradictions in human experience.

Suggesting Readings

Empson, William. Seven Types of Ambiguity. New Directions, 2004.
Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Cornell University Press, 1983.

Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Penguin, 1992.
Prince, Gerald. Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 1987.
Ricœur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language. Routledge, 2004.

Shklovsky, Viktor. Theory of Prose. Dalkey Archive Press, 1991.
Warhol, Robyn R., and Diane Price Herndl (Eds.). Feminisms: An Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism. Rutgers University Press, 1997.
Wolf, Werner (Ed.). Metareference across Media: Theory and Case Studies. University of Michigan Press, 2009.

Canon in Literature & Literary Theory

Canon, in the realm of literature and the arts, comprises a select and culturally sanctioned collection of works that are deemed exemplary, influential, and indispensable in a specific literary tradition

Etymology of Canon

The term “canon” in literature refers to a collection or list of works considered to be authoritative, exemplary, or culturally significant in a specific literary tradition, genre, or period. The etymology of the word “canon” in this context could be traced back to ancient Greek and Latin:

Ancient Greek: The Greek word “κανών” (pronounced “kanón”) originally meant a straight rod or bar used for measuring or alignment. It was also used metaphorically to refer to a standard or rule. In the context of literature, “canon” drew from this metaphorical usage to denote a set of standard or accepted works.
Latin: The Latin language adopted the term “canon” from Greek, and it retained a similar meaning of a rule or standard. In Latin, “canon” was used in various fields, including religion and law, to refer to authoritative texts or doctrines.

Meanings of Canon

A straight rod or bar used for measuring or alignment, originally in ancient Greek.
Metaphorically, a standard or rule, also derived from ancient Greek.
In Latin, it continued to mean a rule or standard, applied in various fields.

In literature, a collection or list of works considered authoritative, exemplary, or culturally significant within a particular tradition, genre, or period.

Definition of Canon as a Theoretical Term

Canon, in the realm of literature and the arts, comprises a select and culturally sanctioned collection of works that are deemed exemplary, influential, and indispensable in a specific literary tradition, genre, or cultural milieu. These works establish fundamental benchmarks, shaping aesthetic and thematic criteria while also reflecting the prevailing values and norms of their time or community. The concept of a literary or artistic canon holds significant sway in guiding critical discourse, shaping scholarly analysis, and contributing to cultural identities and heritage.

Canon Used by Theorists

Theorists:

T.S. Eliot: Eliot discussed the literary canon as a means to define and uphold the cultural and literary traditions that contribute to the continuity and coherence of a society.

Harold Bloom: Bloom explored the concept of the Western literary canon and introduced the idea of the “anxiety of influence” regarding how later writers engage with established canonical works.
Michel Foucault: Foucault examined the idea of the literary and cultural canon as a tool of power, demonstrating how it can be used to shape and control cultural discourse.

Works Associated with Canon:

“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Eliot, In this poem, drew on various canonical works and literary traditions to create a complex and allusive modernist masterpiece.

The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages by Harold Bloom: Bloom, In this book, presents his influential ideas about the Western literary canon and its enduring importance.
The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences by Michel Foucault: Here Foucault explored how the concept of a cultural and literary canon has been used historically to classify and regulate knowledge.

Arguments About Canon:

Preservation of Cultural Heritage: Theorists argue that the canon in literature preserves important cultural and literary heritage, ensuring that future generations have access to foundational texts.

Gatekeeping and Exclusion: Critics also argue that the canon can be exclusive, perpetuating biases and overlooking marginalized voices and works.
Evolution and Expansion: Some theorists advocate for an evolving and expanding canon in literature that reflects changing societal values and includes a broader range of voices and perspectives.

Canon and Literary Theories

Theory	Canons
Marxist Literary Theory	– Economic Determinism: Emphasizes the role of economic structures and class struggle in literature. – Social Context: Analyzes how literature reflects and reinforces societal class divisions and power dynamics. – Material Conditions: Examines how the material conditions of society influence the creation and reception of literature. – Ideological Critique: Focuses on exposing and critiquing the ideologies embedded in literary works.
Feminist Literary Theory	– Gender Representation: Analyzes how literature portrays gender roles, stereotypes, and the experiences of women. – Patriarchy Critique: Investigates how literary texts may perpetuate or challenge patriarchal norms and power structures. – Intersectionality: Considers how race, class, and other factors intersect with gender in literature. – Recovery and Redefinition: Aims to recover and reinterpret the voices and contributions of marginalized female authors.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Colonial Legacy: Examines the impact of colonialism on literature, identity, and culture. – Subaltern Voices: Highlights the perspectives and voices of colonized or marginalized peoples. – Hybridity: Explores the blending of cultures and identities in postcolonial literature. – Resistance and Decolonization: Focuses on literature as a tool for resistance and decolonization.
Queer Literary Theory	– Sexuality and Gender Identity: Analyzes how literature represents and challenges normative notions of sexuality and gender. – Queer Reading: Interprets texts from queer perspectives, emphasizing non-normative sexualities. – Subversion of Norms: Explores how literature can subvert heteronormative narratives and binaries. – LGBTQ+ Representation: Examines how LGBTQ+ characters and themes are depicted in literature.
New Criticism	– Close Reading: Emphasizes a detailed analysis of the text itself, disregarding authorial intent or historical context. – Formal Elements: Focuses on the formal aspects of literature, such as structure, imagery, symbolism, and language. – Autotelic: Regards the literary work as self-contained and self-sufficient, with intrinsic value. – Objective Criticism: Strives for objectivity in the interpretation of literature.
Structuralist Literary Theory	– Structural Analysis: Concentrates on the underlying structures and systems in literature. – Language and Signs: Examines how language and signs function in literature. – Narrative Structures: Analyzes the underlying narrative patterns and conventions in literary texts. – Semiotics: Draws on semiotic theory to understand the sign systems at play in literature.

Canon as a Literary Device

As a literary device, “canon” refers to the deliberate inclusion or reference to a specific set of texts, ideas, or cultural elements within a literary work. Authors use this device to establish authority, create intertextual connections, explore themes, or make cultural commentary. It serves to enrich the depth and meaning of the narrative while contributing to character development and the overall context of the story.

Canon in Literature

Feature	Representative Work	How it is a Canon
Foundational Texts	Representative work: Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”	“Hamlet” is considered a foundational text in the Western literary canon, essential for understanding the development of drama and the complexities of human psychology.
Authoritative Influence	Representative work: Homer’s “The Odyssey”	“The Odyssey” by Homer has exerted authoritative influence on epic poetry and adventure narratives, setting stylistic and thematic standards for subsequent works.
Enduring Relevance	Representative work: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	*Pride and Prejudice* remains relevant due to its exploration of social class, relationships, and individualism, speaking to universal human experiences.
Cultural Significance	Representative work: Dante’s “Divine Comedy”	“The Divine Comedy” reflects the cultural and religious values of medieval Italy and has become a symbol of Italian literature and identity.
Exclusivity and Controversy	Representative work: James Joyce’s Ulysses	“Ulysses” is known for its controversial content and exclusion from some educational curricula, sparking debates about its place in the modernist canon.
Evolution and Revision	Representative work: Toni Morrison’s Beloved	*Beloved* challenged the traditional canon by introducing African American voices and narratives, prompting a reevaluation and expansion of literary canons.
Educational Importance	Representative work: Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn	*Huckleberry Finn* is a staple in literature courses, shaping curricula and providing a foundation for discussions of race, identity, and American culture.
Diversity and Inclusivity	Representative work: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	*Things Fall Apart* is instrumental in diversifying canons by introducing African literature and perspectives into global literary studies.
Interpretative Framework	Representative work: Aristotle’s “Poetics”	Aristotle’s “Poetics” serves as a foundational text for understanding the structure and principles of dramatic literature, providing an interpretative framework for analysis.

Alterity in Literary Theory

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself.

Etymology of Alterity

The term “alterity” traces its origins to the Latin word alter, meaning “other” or “different.” It emerged in philosophical discourse during the 20th century, notably associated with the works of philosophers such as Emmanuel Levinas and Jacques Derrida.

Alterity refers to the concept of encountering and recognizing the inherent otherness or difference in individuals, cultures, or entities beyond oneself. It serves as a foundational concept in existentialism and post-structuralism, highlighting the importance of acknowledging and engaging with the distinctiveness of the other as a means to understand the self and navigate complex intersubjective relationships.

Meanings of Alterity

Aspect	Description
As the State of Being Different or Other:	– Alterity refers to the fundamental concept of being different or distinct from something else. – It encapsulates the idea that entities or experiences can be perceived as “other” in relation to one’s own identity or perspective.
Philosophical Notions:	– In philosophy, alterity delves into the existential experience of encountering the Other as a separate and distinct entity. – Philosophers often explore questions related to how individuals perceive and engage with the Other, reflecting on the nature of self and otherness.
Social and Cultural Contexts:	– Alterity is frequently used to describe the experience of difference and otherness in social and cultural settings. – It encompasses how individuals and groups perceive and interact with those who have distinct cultural, social, or personal backgrounds.
Alterity in Postcolonial Theory:	– Postcolonial theory employs alterity to analyze how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture. – It examines power dynamics, stereotypes, and narratives that contribute to the marginalization and subjugation of colonized groups.
Marginalization and Exclusion of Marginalized Groups:	– Alterity can also be applied to elucidate how marginalized groups are systematically excluded or treated as different within larger social structures. – It highlights the mechanisms that perpetuate discrimination and inequality based on perceived differences.
Linguistic Usage of Alterity:	– In linguistics, alterity manifests through the use of second-person pronouns to address someone as “other” or “different” from oneself. – This linguistic phenomenon underscores the role of language in expressing and reinforcing notions of alterity.
Challenging Dominant Narratives and Emphasizing Difference:	– Alterity serves as a tool for challenging or destabilizing dominant narratives and identities. – It emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing differences, promoting inclusivity, and resisting homogenizing or hegemonic perspectives in society.

Definition of Alterity

In literary theory, alterity refers to the representation of “otherness” in literature, where authors depict characters or cultures as distinct from the norm, often to explore themes of difference, identity, and power dynamics. This concept examines how texts portray and engage with the unfamiliar or marginalized, shedding light on the broader societal implications of these representations. Alterity plays a pivotal role in deconstructing dominant narratives and fostering critical analysis of literature’s socio-cultural and political dimensions.

Theorists on Alterity

Theorist	Work	Explanation of Alterity
Emmanuel Levinas	*Totality and Infinity*	Levinas explores ethical responsibility in relation to the Other, emphasizing the irreducibility of the Other and the demand for radical ethical responsibility.
Jacques Derrida	*Of Grammatology*	Derrida deconstructs binary oppositions and hierarchies in language and thought using alterity, challenging traditional structures and opening new possibilities for thought and language.
Homi Bhabha	*The Location of Culture*	Bhabha uses alterity to examine colonialism, identity, and hybridity, asserting that alterity challenges the dominance of imperial power and offers avenues for cultural and political change.
Mikhail Bakhtin	*Rabelais and His World*	Bakhtin explores language, dialogism, and carnival through alterity, highlighting the ambivalent nature of the world of carnival and the creation of new meanings through interaction.
Martin Heidegger	*Being and Time*	Heidegger delves into being and authenticity, positing that alterity is essential to understanding one’s own existence and the potential for authentic being.

Alterity in Different Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Extract and Work	Explanation of Alterity
Postcolonial Theory	Edward Said – Orientalism	Postcolonial theory examines how colonized peoples and cultures are constructed as “other” by the dominant culture. Said’s work shows how alterity is used as a tool of power and how it can challenge dominant discourses and representations.
Feminist Theory	bell hooks – Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center	Feminist theory explores questions of identity, power, and difference using alterity. hooks’ work demonstrates how alterity has historically been used to create and reinforce dominant narratives and identities, and how it can be used to challenge these structures.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Jacques Lacan – Écrits	Psychoanalytic theory delves into identity, desire, and the unconscious. Lacan’s work emphasizes how alterity is central to the formation of identity and subjectivity, allowing exploration of the complexities of human experience.
Reader-Response Theory	Wolfgang Iser – The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response	Reader-response theory explores how readers engage with texts and negotiate their identities and experiences. Iser’s work highlights how alterity is central to the reader’s experience of the text and interpretation.
Queer Theory	Judith Butler – Gender Trouble	Queer theory investigates sexuality, gender, and identity. Butler’s work reveals how alterity is used to construct and police dominant norms of gender and sexuality, as well as how it can challenge these structures.
Marxist Theory	Louis Althusser – Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays	Marxist theory examines power, class, and social change. Althusser’s work illustrates how alterity is used to construct and reinforce dominant power structures and can be used to challenge these structures.
Cultural Studies	Stuart Hall – Cultural Identity and Diaspora	Cultural studies explores identity, representation, and cultural production. Hall’s work argues that cultural identity is constructed through a process of difference and othering, influencing how individuals perceive themselves and others.

Examples in Literature

Literary Work	Full Extract	Explanation of Alterity
*1. Heart of Darkness*	“The horror! The horror!” – Kurtz’s last words	In *Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness*, the character Kurtz embodies the enigmatic and foreign aspects of colonial Africa. Kurtz’s final words allude to his confrontation with a reality beyond human understanding, pushing him into madness.
*2. Beloved*	“She is a friend of my mind. She gather me, man. The pieces I am, she gather them and give them back to me in all the right order.”	In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, Beloved represents the haunting legacy of slavery. This quote illustrates Beloved’s ability to connect with Sethe on a profound level, transcending conventional boundaries of identity and experience.
*3. The Metamorphosis*	“He lay on his armor-hard back and saw, as he lifted his head up a little, his brown, arched abdomen divided up into rigid bow-like sections.”	In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect symbolizes alterity. The description of his unfamiliar body emphasizes his alienation from his humanity and identity.
*4. The Stranger*	“I felt that I had been happy and that I was happy again.”	In Albert Camus’s The Stranger, alterity is explored through Meursault’s detachment from societal norms. This quote suggests that Meursault discovers a peculiar form of happiness in his indifference to conventional values.
*5. The Sound and the Fury*	“They endured.”	In William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury, the Compson family grapples with their past and the relentless passage of time, reflecting alterity. This quote underscores their ability to persevere despite their alienation.
6. Waiting for Godot	“Nothing to be done.”	Samuel Beckett’s “Waiting for Godot” explores alterity through the absurdity of waiting and uncertainty. The quote highlights the characters’ powerlessness to change their situation, emphasizing the fundamental alterity of their existence.

Alienation in Literary Theory

We live in a time where there’s an alienation factor. There’s a certain disconnection. We don’t have any real sense of community. Alan Ball

Etymology of Alienation

The term “alienation” finds its roots in Latin and Old French, where alienare and aliéner respectively meant “to transfer” or “to estrange.”

In an academic context, the concept gained prominence in the writings of Karl Marx, particularly in his exploration of the estrangement of laborers from the products of their labor under capitalism.

This etymological origin reflects the core notion of alienation as a process of separation, detachment, or estrangement, often referring to the disconnection of individuals from their labor, society, or even their own sense of self.

Different Meanings of Alienation in Literary Theory

These different meanings of alienation in literary criticism highlight the varied ways in which the theme of alienation can be explored in literature.

Types of Alienation	Definition	Literary Depiction
Social Alienation	– Refers to disconnection or isolation from society or social norms. – Depicted in literature through characters estranged from their communities or struggling to find belonging.	– Characters feeling estranged from their communities. – Struggles to find a sense of belonging.
Self-Alienation	– Refers to disconnection or estrangement from oneself, often due to trauma or psychological distress. – In literature, it is shown through characters struggling with identity or loss of agency.	– Characters experiencing disconnection from themselves. – Identity struggles and loss of agency.
Political Alienation	– Indicates disconnection or disillusionment with political systems or institutions. – In literature, it is depicted through characters resisting oppressive regimes or feeling powerless in political corruption.	– Characters resisting oppressive political regimes. – Feelings of powerlessness in the face of political corruption.
Cultural Alienation	– Denotes disconnection or separation from one’s cultural heritage or identity. – In literature, it is portrayed through characters navigating cultural clashes or torn between different traditions.	– Characters navigating cultural clashes. – Struggles when torn between different cultural traditions.
Ecological Alienation	– Involves disconnection or detachment from the natural world. – In literature, it is represented through characters struggling with environmental destruction or seeking a deeper connection to nature.	– Characters grappling with environmental destruction. – Desires for a deeper connection to nature.

These categories of alienation offer a framework for exploring various forms of disconnection and estrangement in literature and society.

Definition of Alienation

Alienation in literary theory refers to a multifaceted concept, comprising estrangement or disconnection individuals experience from various facets of their existence. It manifests as social alienation wherein characters feel isolated from their communities; self-alienation, marked by a detachment from one’s own identity often due to trauma; or political, cultural, and ecological alienation, where individuals experience disillusionment or detachment from political systems, cultural heritage, and the natural world, respectively.

Within literary analysis, alienation serves as a critical lens to examine characters’ experiences of detachment and the societal and psychological implications thereof.

Explanations of Alienation

Alienation refers to a sense of disconnection or separation from society, work, oneself, or others.
Alienation can be caused by various factors, including social, economic, psychological, and cultural factors.

Alienation can manifest in different forms, such as social isolation, loss of agency, psychological distress, or cultural clashes.
Alienation can be a product of structural or systemic factors, such as capitalism or social inequality, as well as personal experiences, such as trauma or loss.
Alienation can be a powerful tool for analyzing social, political, and cultural dynamics and for exploring the ways in which individuals and communities negotiate their relationships with the world around them.

Alienation is a prominent theme in modern literature, particularly in works that deal with social and political issues, such as dystopian novels or postcolonial literature.
Alienation can also be a source of creativity and resistance, as individuals and communities seek to assert their identities and agency in the face of social or cultural marginalization.

Alienation in Literary Theories

These theories of alienation provide valuable frameworks for analyzing literature from different perspectives and understanding how it reflects and responds to various forms of estrangement in society.

Theory	Works	Meaning	Usage
Marxist Theory	– The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels	The estrangement and alienation of individuals from their labor, products of labor, others, and themselves due to capitalist commodification of labor.	Analyzing literature’s reflection of capitalist social relations and advocating for societal transformation.
Existentialist Theory	– Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre	The disconnection, alienation, and estrangement individuals feel from the world, others, and themselves due to awareness of mortality and existential choices.	Analyzing literature’s portrayal of human freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in an apparently meaningless world.
Psychoanalytic Theory	– The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud	Disconnection from unconscious desires and societal context leading to emptiness, anxiety, and neurosis.	Examining literature’s representation of conflicts between conscious and unconscious desires and exploring self-awareness and healing.
Feminist Theory	– The Second Sex by Simone de Beauvoir	The estrangement of women from their bodies, experiences, and male-dominated culture, leading to powerlessness and inferiority.	Analyzing literature’s reflection of gender-based oppression and exploring possibilities for feminist empowerment and consciousness-raising.
Postcolonial Theory	– Orientalism by Edward Said, Black Skin, White Masks by Frantz Fanon	Colonized peoples’ estrangement from their culture, history, and colonizer’s culture, leading to cultural inferiority and assimilation desire.	Examining literature’s engagement with colonial legacies and exploring decolonization and cultural revitalization possibilities.
Formalist Theory	– The Formal Method in Literary Scholarship by Boris Eichenbaum	Literary language’s capacity to estrange everyday reality, offering aesthetic pleasure and intellectual challenge.	Analyzing literature’s use of language to create new meanings and perspectives, and promoting innovation and experimentation in literary form.
Queer Theory	– Gender Trouble by Judith Butler, The History of Sexuality by Michel Foucault	LGBTQ+ individuals’ estrangement from their bodies, desires, and heteronormative culture, leading to isolation and marginalization.	Examining literature’s reflection on dominant sexuality and gender norms and advocating for queer liberation and societal change.

Examples in Alienation in Literature

Work	Context	Meaning/Explanation of Alienation
The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka	Context: The story follows Gregor Samsa, who wakes up one morning transformed into a giant insect. He becomes estranged from his body, family, and job, facing society’s treatment as a freak.	Explanation: Often interpreted as an allegory for alienation and dehumanization in capitalist society, where workers are reduced to mere cogs in the machine.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	Context: The poem is a monologue by J. Alfred Prufrock, struggling with self-doubt and alienation in high society.	Explanation: Critique of modern life’s shallowness and emptiness, expressing existential angst and post-World War I alienation.
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Context: Vladimir and Estragon wait for Godot, who never arrives. They become increasingly isolated and estranged as they wait.	Explanation: Commentary on the absurdity and meaninglessness of life, exploring the human condition of waiting for something that may never come.
The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Context: A woman with postpartum depression is confined to a room with yellow wallpaper by her husband, losing touch with reality.	Explanation: Feminist critique of the medical profession’s treatment of women’s mental health, revealing how women were confined and silenced in a patriarchal society.
Notes from Underground by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Context: A series of monologues by an unnamed narrator who rejects society’s rationalism and progressivism, embracing nihilism.	Explanation: Critique of rationalism and individualism of modernity, exploring the human condition of isolation and despair in an indifferent universe.

Suggesting Readings

Woolf, Virginia. Mrs. Dalloway. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1925.

Agency in Literary Theory

The concept of agency is central to literary theory and various critical approaches, including feminist and postcolonial theory, which seek to explore the ways in which marginalized groups exercise agency.

Etymoloy of Agency in Literary Theory

The term “agency” in literary theory is derived from the Latin word agens, meaning “acting” or “doing.” The concept of agency refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently and make choices that influence their own lives and the world around them.

The term entered English in the mid-17th century and was originally used in the context of law, referring to the authority granted to an individual or group to act on behalf of another. In literary criticism, agency is used to describe the ways in which characters in a text exert their own will and make choices that shape the course of events.

Meanings of Agency in Literary Theory

Context	Definition and Application
General Definition	It refers to the capacity of individuals or groups to act independently. It involves making choices that impact their lives and the world around them.
Psychological Perspective	Agency in psychology relates to an individual’s sense of control over their behavior. It also includes the ability to influence the outcomes of their actions.
Sociological Notion	In sociology, agency describes the power of individuals or groups. It enables them to challenge or resist social norms and structures.
Business Context	In business, agency denotes the relationship between a principal and an agent. The agent acts on behalf of the principal, representing their interests.
Literary Criticism Application	In literary criticism, agency refers to how characters in a text exert their will. Characters make choices that shape the course of events in the narrative.
Multifaceted Concept	The concept of agency is versatile and can be applied in various fields and contexts.

Theorists on Agency

Theorist	Key Work	Key Concepts
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble (1990)	– Gender as performance. – Agency to challenge gender norms. – Gender identity as constituted through repeated acts.
Edward Said	Orientalism (1978)	– Western construction of an exotic and inferior image of the East. – Agency to challenge and resist these constructions. – Assertion of autonomy against Western hegemony.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak	Can the Subaltern Speak? (1988)	– Silencing and exclusion of colonized peoples from discourse. – Advocacy for giving voice to subaltern groups. – Recognition of hidden agency within subaltern groups.
Louis Althusser	Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970)	– Examination of ideology’s role in reproducing social and economic structures. – Concept of interpellation into subject positions. – Limited agency due to pervasive ideology.
Michel Foucault	Discipline and Punish (1975)	– Analysis of power through discipline and surveillance in modern society. – Acknowledgment of individual agency to resist power techniques. – Emphasis on the entanglement of agency with power relations.

Use of Agency in Different Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Key Points
Feminist Theory	– Central role of agency in feminist literary criticism. – Examines how female characters exercise agency in a patriarchal society. – Explores the denial of agency to women and their struggles to gain it in a limiting environment.
Postcolonial Theory	– In postcolonial literary criticism, agency describes how colonized peoples resist colonial power. – Explores how formerly colonized groups assert autonomy and challenge dominant colonial narratives.
Marxist Theory	– Marxist literary critics use agency to analyze how characters are shaped by social and economic contexts. – Examines characters’ constraints due to class and economic factors. – Explores how characters may use agency to challenge these constraints and work toward social change.
Psychoanalytic Theory	– In psychoanalytic literary criticism, agency relates to the ego and an individual’s sense of self. – Analyzes how characters’ actions reflect their desires and fears. – Explores how agency is influenced by unconscious factors.
Reader-Response Theory	– Reader-response theory views agency as shared between the reader and the text. – Sees readers as active agents who bring interpretations and responses to a text. – Reader agency shapes the meaning of the text itself.
Structuralist Theory	– Focuses on the structure of a text rather than individual agency. – Analyzes how elements within a text, such as language and symbols, interact to create meaning. – Downplays individual interpretation in favor of identifying universal structures.
Deconstructionist Theory	– Deconstructionist theory challenges the idea of fixed meanings in texts. – Emphasizes that texts contain inherent contradictions and ambiguities. – Encourages readers to engage with texts critically and recognize the instability of language.
Queer Theory	– Queer theory explores how sexuality and identity intersect in literature. – Challenges heteronormative narratives and highlights fluidity and diversity in sexual orientations and gender identities. – Examines how characters and texts can subvert normative sexual and gender roles.

Examples of Agency in Literature

Literary Work	Character	Exercise of Agency and Its Impact
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	Scout Finch	– Scout challenges racial prejudices in her community. – She stands up for what she believes is right. – By questioning societal norms, she asserts her identity. – Scout emerges as a moral force for change and helps challenge and dismantle systemic racism in her community.
“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman	Narrator	– The narrator resists patriarchal norms. – She asserts her identity in oppressive circumstances. – Through writing, she demonstrates the power of agency in the face of societal constraints. – The exercise of agency highlights the individual’s struggle against oppressive norms and the potential for empowerment through self-expression.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot	J. Alfred Prufrock	– Prufrock exercises agency through introspective exploration. – He confronts personal fears and insecurities. – Gains deeper self-understanding, even as he realizes the limitations of his agency. – Prufrock’s self-reflection demonstrates the potential for personal growth and understanding through the exercise of agency, even when it reveals the limits of control.
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	Prospero	– Prospero utilizes magic and manipulation of other characters. – He achieves personal goals through agency and restores order to the world. – However, his actions can be seen as controlling and oppressive, raising ethical questions about power. – Prospero’s exercise of agency is complex, achieving his goals while also raising ethical questions about control and power.
The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins	Katniss Everdeen	– Katniss resists the Capitol’s oppression and fights for her survival and that of her fellow tributes. – She becomes a symbol of resistance and exercises agency in the face of authoritarian control. – Katniss exemplifies how agency empowers individuals to resist oppression and become symbols of defiance and rebellion.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	Multiple characters and voices	– The poem explores constraints imposed by social and cultural norms. – It suggests agency through interpretation and creation, with its fragmented structure implying agency in finding meaning. – The poem reflects agency in a chaotic world, where interpretation and creation offer empowerment and meaning even amid disorder.
*The Importance of Being Earnest* by Oscar Wilde	Various characters	– Characters use wit and subterfuge to navigate Victorian social conventions. – They achieve personal desires through clever maneuvering. – By challenging the authority of the ruling class, they suggest agency within societal norms. – The characters’ use of agency to navigate societal norms challenges traditional power structures and underscores the potential for individual empowerment even within the constraints of social expectations.

Suggesting Readings

You may read more on Theoretical Terms below:

Demystification in Literature & Literary Theory

“The Belonging Kind”: Cyberpunk Story

Written by John Shirley and William Gibson, “The Belonging Kind” presents several characters including a lecturer of linguistics and a robot type of lady after whom he leaves his job and home but does not find her in the physical world.

Introduction to “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

“The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story could invite various interpretations. Written by John Shirley and William Gibson presents several characters including a lecturer of linguistics and a robot type of lady after whom he leaves his job and home but does not find her in the physical world. The story belongs to the new genre of cyberpunk, but it still misses several of its major features. The characters except Coretti are not only nameless but also sans identity. Their entire daily routine comprises visiting bars, drinking, rhythm-less dancing, and absurd conversation. The complete story presents a few days routine of the professor in a way that he is like a robot who is after robots, who are drinking but not feeling drunk, eating nothing, and engaged in a mechanical routine. Their identities stay the same, but their clothes, styles, and features change abruptly that they seem to him of a “kind”, he himself is. “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story not only shows signs of a cyberpunk story through its nameless characters but also through technical language and sexual seduction.

Opening of “The Belonging Kind” as a Syberpunk Story

When “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story opens, there is mention of bars in which Coretti is after a girl he has seen once. The first time he notices her in the Backdoor Lounge. In fact, “he hadn’t ever had a girl like the one”, he has seen there whose dress is “the green of young corn” and hair is “coppery.” He instantly falls into her magical appeal and experiences some mechanical type of erection. After this, he goes ahead with his chase which takes him into another bar where he drinks too much. He watches her with a young man but when he chases both, he sees her dress as “green foam, fizzing, dissolving, gone” like that of aliens. He could not sense that he is after aliens, but he carries on chasing them throughout the story. His chase then gets prolonged so much so that he loses his job and even his residence. He rents a new room and continues chasing the girl and the young man with her in Lothario, Waylons, cabs, and hotels. This becomes his routine. There is mention of her name as Antoinette but not of the young man who has been depicted with only the name of his shirt which is different each time.

Language of “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

The language used by Shirley and Gibson in “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story shows it as highly technical or comprises technical and mechanical jargon. Even human emotions and acts have been represented through this language. When Coretti first sees that lady, he sees her “through the wrong end of a powerful telescope” which shows how far ahead of time the characters are placed. He might have seen her on some different planet. Then the writers have used words like “coppery” and “spikes” for her hair. They have also described her dress in digital terms “fizzing, dissolving, gone” exactly like her who “vanished there, into robotic flashing.” Then finally, he concludes that though he is an eavesdropper himself, this woman is “not a woman, this human wallpaper” that he is after. It means that he is either after shadows or he is placed in the far future when a human would have the power to move like shadows and then disappear. However, the interesting point is that he himself experiences feelings such as “cellular relief” while his heart throbs like “wipers.” This type of language shows that this story was heralding the more digitally stuffed novels or stories when interpreting “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story.

Sexuality in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

The third point is that sexual seduction has changed in this cyberspace of the story. The story shows Coretti going after the girl and when he finds her in a bar, he feels an erection. This has strangely occurred to him that she would know it and it was a fact that “he was startled to realize that he had one to hide.” Then when he found her with another young man, they were sitting with their hips touching each other which made him jealous of them. These sexually appealing parts dominate his mind from the very first of the story to the last and even when he chases her and sees that her “breasts had become slightly larger and her hips a shade heavier.” And very important thing takes place that now alcohol does not make him intoxicated. By the end, he feels that they are of its own kind like him, and he is also like them as his wife told him very early that he looks like a Martian. He experiences a strange type of copulation that even hips touching was sending “slow orgasmic waves” in him in which he felt that he was “two men” as if his other part was after her while real was with him. Its evidence is his last comment “like a real human being” showing the idea of sexuality in “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story.

Conclusion

In short, “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story shows not only its nameless characters but also the use of language as a representation of the cyberpunk genre. The character except Coretti stays nameless. Even the real name of the girl has not been mentioned though Annoinette has been mentioned at some places by the authors. It has also been observed the language has been merged with technical jargon including emotions and passions. To top it all, the hero, Coretti experiences not only erection but also copulation and ejac**lation in a strange way that could be called as if it has been happening in cyberspace. Therefore, on the basis of these elements, “The Belonging Kind” as a cyberpunk story confirms its place in this genre.

Works Cited

Shirley, John & Gibson, William. “The Belonging Kind.” Cyberpunk Project. n.d. Web. 08 March. 2022.

Relevant Questions about “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

How does the narrative style and the portrayal of a futuristic, dystopian society in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story” align with the typical characteristics of the Cyberpunk genre, such as the exploration of advanced technology and its societal implications?
What role do the themes of social stratification, corporate control, and resistance to authority play in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story,” and how do they contribute to the overarching narrative and world-building within the Cyberpunk genre?
How does “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story” address the idea of human augmentation and the blurring of the line between humans and machines, and in what ways does it draw upon the traditional Cyberpunk fascination with transhumanism and its ethical dilemmas?

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” by Kafka

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” peeps through every line, for the characters in stories are not what they are; they symbolize something else.

Introduction to Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” peeps through every line. The characters in stories, as Foster says, are not what they are. They symbolize something else, as Jane in “The Yellow Wallpaper” is a symbol of women who are restricted within their boundaries and face hallucinations because of their restrictions. However, with great artists, it is sometimes different. It happens that somebody becomes too much obstinate to make a name that he not only inflicts injuries to himself but also makes others feel discomfort. The story of the hunger artist told by Franz Kafka is written in the same vein. In fact, it could be stated in Foster’s words that it is quite “unfortunate that genius was harnessed to someone who may not have worn it well” (Foster 139). He was not suited to become this type of artist, or he should have used this intelligence for some other purpose. It has been suggested that this sort of ridiculous relationship is often common as it shows that “this sort of macabre relationship between performer and audience is common” (Lecture 4). At the same time, the hunger artist wants to become a name among his audience so that they should appreciate him. However, when he is at the peak of his career and the interest of the public is alive, his manager cheats on him. When he crosses all of his previous records, the public loses interest in him. The great mistake that he makes is that he tells everybody that “it is the easiest thing in the world” (489). It leads the people to become disenchanted with him, thinking he is not doing any feat. Therefore, the hunger artist symbolizes the loss of the interest of the people through his own blunder though he chooses something that does not have any value, while the relations he builds with his audience are based on his own disenchantment.

Symbol of Hunger Artist: Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

The hunger artist symbolizes a person who has no other skill except his hunger or the power to overcome his hunger that he shows to the people through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”. In fact, these sorts of people are found in a society doing bizarre things to impress others so that they could win the public approval and applause. He thinks that he could always be treated as the cynosure of the people. They also form their own code of honor as they consider themselves artists as in the case of this hunger artist who does not eat because “his code of honor as an artist forbade it” (Kafka 488). A great critic of Kafka, Noami Ritter has termed the hunger artists as the “ultimate symbol of suicide” (Ritter 72) because he knows that if he does not eat, he will die but the intoxication of winning public approval ultimately overpowers him that leads to his death. As stated by Foster, in fact, he is a genius who can overpower his hunger but he uses it wrongly but putting himself to suffering. Therefore, he loses the battle in the end when nobody comes to see him. It is also that he does not see the sudden transformation in times as people have more interesting things to see in the circus. He is also a symbol of eating which attracts people and not what he does for the public.

Public and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

The strange thing about the hunger artist is the selection of his medium that he wants to connect with his audience. This is his hunger. Most artist chooses what they have a profession or make some art as their profession to earn their livelihood. However, it is never shown in the story. The only thing that he considered important was the glory that he was winning by fasting as he thought about the people who “want to rob him of the glory of fasting longer” (490) that he wanted to have had. The matter is that the attraction of the artists is built on the validity of the art that stays up-to-date with the changing times. The problem with his art is that it has a limited marketability and its perfection is in death that he would no more be able to enjoy what others see him with pleasure. Gray in his book A Franz Kafka Encyclopedia states the same thing. His view is that Kafka has shown a mirror to the people that an artist does not exist without the public and if he forgets himself, nobody cares to think about him as happened with the hunger artist where Kafka leaves his readers “with the question whether art can exist if there is no audience” and his answer is in negative as the hunger artist is left alone at the end (Gray 7).

Audience and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Although at one point, Kafka is also right. Suffering is involved when it is the matter of audience because sometimes artists and performers die merely because they want to win the hearts of their spectators. However, this is the rule of the plays that the audience wants to see suffering whether it is tragedy or comedy. It is another thing that when there is no audience, the actor or performance becomes his/her audience himself. The idea of Kafka through through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” is marketability that when a performer loses his/her worth, he/she is no more kept in mind and nobody pays attention to what a great artist that person might have been in the past. This makes the artist turns away from his/her audience. It is a turning point as Celeste Escobar says in her article on the story that “The turning point towards his complete disconnection with the humanity outside begins. This transition is possible through the means of his art that makes him bear life” (Escobar). By this, she means that he gets disillusioned because the people start ignoring him at the end seeing through this symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”.

Effectiveness of Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

However, when he is seen in the graphic version of the story, he seems to have aroused sympathy as is shown just a handful of bones at the end when the supervisor gives him his ears (Mairowitz & Crumb 153). However, it is more effective in the prose form where it is told that he does not seem to exist as he has become a straw with straws. It is clear from this that at the end the circus workers came and “poked into the straw with sticks and found the hunger artists underneath” where he is so weak that he even cannot speak (Kafka 496). Therefore, he turns his wish toward his desire that he could not find anything to eat due to which he fasted. It is actually the hunger for popularity that brings him to his grave. Therefore, the prose is more effective with symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” than the picture where he is shown as an active person.

Conclusion

In short, the hunger artist is a symbol of those demagogues and artists who inflict self-injuries to gladden their audience and attract people but they lose their lives in the game. This interpretation through symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” shows that the hunger artist could not assess that the thin thread of his relationship with his audience could break at any time when he loses his worth but he does not know that his art would lose its worth. The pleasure-seeking audience turns their back to him and he becomes satisfied with the perfection of his performance which is his death. However, this is more persuasive and beautiful in prose than in graphics.

Works Cited

Escobar, Celeste. “A Hunger Artist.” Panorama. 03 July 2003. Web. 30 July 2015.
Foster, C. Thomas. How to Read Literature Like a Professor. Harper Perenial. 2009. Print.
Gray, T. Richard. A Franz Kafka Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2005. Print.

Kafka, Franz. “A Hunger Artists” Charters, Anne. The Story and Its Writer. New York: Bedford /St. Martins, 2014. 488-494
Mairowitz, David Zane & Robert Crumb. Kafka. Fantagrahics Books. Seattle. 2009. Print.
Ritter, Noami. Art as Spectacle: Images of the Entertainer Since Romanticism. University of Missouri Press. 1996. Print.

Relevant Questions about Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

How does the repeated act of fasting and the barren cage serve as powerful symbols of the alienation and disconnect from society experienced by the protagonist in “A Hunger Artist,” and how does this symbolism contribute to the overall meaning of the story?
What is the significance of the audience’s changing tastes and preferences for entertainment as a symbol in “A Hunger Artist,” and how does this symbolism comment on society’s tendency to trivialize and forget the suffering and artistry of those who deviate from the norm, as depicted in the story’s events?
How does the symbolism in “A Hunger Artist” surrounding the panther, which replaces the hunger artist in the circus, convey the theme of liberation and the longing for a more primal and authentic existence, and how does this symbolism contrast with the hunger artist’s self-imposed suffering throughout the narrative?

Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Introduction to Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

The transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” is in the character of Rainsford. Although in our lives we see several people staying on the same course, several characters do not witness any transformation even in the imaginary world of fiction. They stay flat and the same as they are in the beginning of the story. Even among several such characters, there is an inner transformation manifested in their habits and attitude more than in their outward acts. Such as the stories of Richard Connell have the same characters who do not change their outward actions, but still, they go through a certain psychological or inward transformation. This transformation takes place due to several reasons. This transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”, presents a situation where a big-game hunter goes through a situation of being hunted by another hunter. Rainsford changes inwardly because he becomes a beast at heart and kills his pursuer, but outwardly he does not change and stays the same hunter who merely hunts.

Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Rainsford experiences change and psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” of being a hunted by the end of the story. He starts his voyage with his colleague Whitney to the Amazon to hunt the jaguars which are highly cunning animals. Therefore, they hope to enjoy this “best sport in the world” (Connell) but his friend thinks otherwise. Rainsford shows his true colors saying “You’re a big-game hunter, not a philosopher?” (Connell). These are his exact words and he feels pride at his being a lucky person that they are “the hunters” (Connell). This shows his pride in being lucky that they are among the hunters, but soon he found himself in the other role. He falls down from the yacht when looking out into the forest and reaches the forest where he finds a “palatial chateau” (Connell). As an experienced hunter, he instantly recognizes that there is something sinister in the air and that the forest is “An evil place”(Connell). He realizes that he has gone through these things earlier in his life for “it was not the first time” (Connell), he has been at such a place. But this is something different. He is finding it a mirage “but it was not a mirage” (4). Soon he was with the Cossack general with his dumb and deaf sidekick, enjoying a delicious meal and champagne. However, one thing about him was making him uncomfortable that was “he found the general studying him” (Connell). It ended when he told him that “I hunt more dangerous game” (5). This is the point where he found himself preparing psychologically but this transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” does not come to fruition as yet. He further added that he had experienced all types of hunting and this no more interests him. Therefore, he may go to pieces if he leaves it like (Connell), he tells Rainsford. This slow narration of the general slowly continued working on him psychologically and it reached its culmination when he told him that he wanted an “ideal animal” (Connell) at which he looked in disbelief at first. However, he wanted to confirm and demurred to which General Zaroff said that “Life is for the strong to be lived by the strong, to be lived, if needs be, taken by the strong “(Connell). He clearly understood what he meant and this was the point he protested to get rid of this but found no arguments working on the general. There were two choices to run and escape but to go to pieces by his sidekick Ivan. However, he chose the second one due to his psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” that he felt every minute of his life during this chase as an animal being hunted down. He was going through the same fear of pain and fear (1) and even tried several methods an animal would have tried such as cats and foxes. It is where this transformation made him feel “how an animal feels at bay” (Connell) and there he acted but like a reasoning human being and jumped into the sea to reach his chateau before him by swimming. When the general came to sleep in his bed he found the changed Rainsford there smiling saying “I am still a beast at bay” (Connell) which means that he has no reason now not to kill him. This shows how his mind transformed from a hunter to huntee and then “a beast at bay” (Connell).

Type of Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

The other argument that he does not change outwardly and there are no physical signs is also correct. No physical change is ever observed from his signs and polemics which take place in his mind that he has changed. First, he is seen arguing his case with his friend Whitney to tell him that animals do not feel as if they are “no understanding” (Connell) but he alerts him that they, though, understand “fear” (Connell). Then they talk about the place and there is no change whatsoever. Even when he falls down into the sea and makes his way to the sea, he is the same and there is no physical transformation. Then he reaches the “palatial chateau” (5) and faces the general at his dinner table. Again there is no transformation. Even when he is told that he is going to be a huntee, he does not experience any change and tries to deal with it through his reason. However, when he sees that there is no end, he goes through physical exertion by running for two full days in the forest. Still, he holds his mind saying “I will not lose my nerve.” (Connell). This shows that he has not changed physically though at the end he says that “I am still a beast at bay” (Connell) which is a sign of his psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”. He is the same lucky hunter who hunts down his pursuer.

Conclusion

Summing up the argument, it can be said that Rainsford witnesses a great psychological transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” from the start of the story up to the end. He becomes a beast at heart and kills his hunter, though at the beginning he claims that he is lucky that he is not a huntee, but at the end, he is a hunter. However, physically he stays the same hunter who merely kills his pursuer. His psychological transformation is the same as an animal has to go through fear and pain of death when being hunted down by the hunters like him. However, he retains his nerves and does not lose his senses. Had he lost all this, he would have been an easy prey for General Zaroff, though he is his huntee, but it is his partly beast and partly human nature that makes him win the game by the end of the day. It means he is a round character though outwardly he is the same, Rainsford. But it is this inner transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” that matters.

Works Cited

Connell, Richard. “The Most Dangerous Game.” 1994. Fiction Eserver. <http://fiction.eserver.org/short/the_most_dangerous_game.html>. Accessed 20 Nov. 2022.

Relevant Questions about Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell

How does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” reflect the idea that power and privilege can lead to a disregard for human life, as seen through General Zaroff’s evolution from a seasoned hunter to a ruthless predator?

What role does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” play in conveying the story’s central theme of the thin line between civilization and savagery, particularly as Rainsford experiences a shift in his perspective on life and death?
How does the transformation of man in “The Most Dangerous Game” underscore the eerie and unsettling nature of Ship-Trap Island, emphasizing how the isolated and dangerous environment can influence individuals, like the way it shapes the characters’ behaviors and decisions?

Introduction to Pentameter

How to Create Pentameter

Benefits of Pentameter

Pentameter and Literary Theory

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Pentameter

Meanings of Pentameter

Pentameter in Grammar

Definition of Pentameter

Types of Pentameter

Literary Examples of Pentameter

Suggested Readings

Ambiguity in Literature: Etymology

Meanings of Ambiguity in Literature and Literary Theory

Explanation of Ambiguity in Literary Theories

Ambiguity as a Literary Device

Examples of Ambiguity in Literature

Suggesting Readings

Etymology of Canon

Meanings of Canon

Definition of Canon as a Theoretical Term

Canon Used by Theorists

Theorists:

Works Associated with Canon:

Arguments About Canon:

Canon and Literary Theories

Canon as a Literary Device

Canon in Literature

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Alterity

Meanings of Alterity

Definition of Alterity

Theorists on Alterity

Alterity in Different Literary Theories

Examples in Literature

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Alienation

Different Meanings of Alienation in Literary Theory

Definition of Alienation

Explanations of Alienation

Alienation in Literary Theories

Examples in Alienation in Literature

Suggesting Readings

Etymoloy of Agency in Literary Theory

Meanings of Agency in Literary Theory

Theorists on Agency

Use of Agency in Different Literary Theories

Examples of Agency in Literature

Suggesting Readings

You may read more on Theoretical Terms below:

Introduction to “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

Opening of “The Belonging Kind” as a Syberpunk Story

Language of “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

Sexuality in “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about “The Belonging Kind” as a Cyberpunk Story

Introduction to Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Symbol of Hunger Artist: Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Public and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Audience and Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Effectiveness of Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Symbolism in “A Hunger Artist”

Introduction to Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Type of Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game”

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Transformation in “The Most Dangerous Game” by Richard Connell