Month: September 2023

What is Cultural Materialism in Literature?

Cultural materialism in literature is a theoretical framework within cultural anthropology and cultural studies developed by the anthropologist, Marvin Harris.

It means understanding and analyzing the relationship between culture and material conditions. According to cultural materialism, infrastructure plays a significant role in shaping cultural practices and beliefs.

The infrastructure, as mentioned in cultural materialism refers to the material realities of a society, including technological, economic, and reproductive aspects. These three are its major elements.

Cultural Materialism and Literature: Relationship

1. Material Conditions and Literary Themes: Cultural materialism in literature emphasizes how the material realities of society such as its economic structure and technological advancements, influence the themes and content found in the literature. Literary works may reflect the concerns and issues arising from material conditions.
2. Cultural Materialism as an Analytical Lens: It serves as an analytical lens to examine literature in a socio-economic context. It allows scholars to explore how the literary representations of social relationships, power dynamics, and cultural values relate to the underlying material infrastructure.
3. Cultural Adaptations in Literature: It posits that cultures adapt to changing material circumstances. In literature, this may manifest in shifts in literary themes, genres, and styles as societies undergo economic and technological transformations.
4. Representation of Production and Reproduction: Literary works may offer insights into the ways societies represent production processes, such as labor and economic activities, as well as reproductive aspects like family structures and gender roles.
5. Critique of Ideological Elements: Cultural materialism in literature may critique literature that solely promotes certain ideological or idealistic perspectives without considering the material conditions that underlie those representations.
6. Historical and Cultural Evolution in Literature: By using the cultural materialism lens, scholars trace the evolution of literary themes and motifs across different historical periods and cultural contexts, reflecting changes in material conditions and social norms.
7. Contextualizing Literary Production: Cultural materialism in literature helps contextualize the production of literature within the economic and technological constraints of its time. It considers how material factors influence the availability of resources for literary creation and distribution.
8. Interplay of Literature and Ecology: Cultural materialism may explore how literature engages with ecological concerns and environmental factors, reflecting the relationship between human societies and their natural environment.
9. Cultural Materialist Literary Criticism: This approach involves applying the principles of cultural materialism to critically analyze literary works. It aims to understand how literary texts reflect and interact with the material conditions of the society they emerge from.

Cultural Materialism in Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of Cultural Materialism in literature:

• Cultural Materialism in literature is a literary theory that emerged in the late 20th century.
• It was developed as a response to structuralism and traditional Marxism.

Key Theorists:

• Raymond Williams: Raymond Williams, a Welsh academic, is considered one of the founding figures of Cultural Materialism. His work, Marxism and Literature (1977), laid the foundation for this literary theory.
• Jonathan Dollimore: Dollimore is known for his contributions to Cultural Materialism, particularly in the realm of queer theory and sexuality studies.
• Alan Sinfield: Alan Sinfield is another prominent figure associated with Cultural Materialism, and his work often explores issues of gender, sexuality, and identity.

Key Works:

• Marxism and Literature (1977) by Raymond Williams: This seminal work introduced many of the key concepts and ideas of Cultural Materialism, including the importance of social and historical context in literary analysis.
• Political Shakespeare: New Essays in Cultural Materialism (1985) edited by Jonathan Dollimore and Alan Sinfield: This collection of essays applied Cultural Materialism to the study of Shakespeare’s works, demonstrating its versatility as a literary theory.
• Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading (1992) by Alan Sinfield: In this work, Sinfield explores how Cultural Materialism can be used to challenge dominant narratives and ideologies in literature.

Arguments and Key Concepts in Cultural Materialism:

• Historical and Social Context: Cultural Materialism in literature emphasizes the significance of historical and social contexts in understanding literature. It argues that literary texts are shaped by the material conditions and ideological forces of their time.
• Ideology: The theory focuses on how ideology is embedded in literature and how it can be used to reinforce or challenge societal norms and power structures.
• Material Conditions: Cultural Materialism in literature examines how economic and material conditions influence literature. It looks at how class, gender, and race intersect with literature and culture.
• Oppositional Readings: It encourages readers to engage in oppositional or subversive readings of texts, seeking to uncover hidden meanings and challenge dominant ideologies.
• Language and Discourse: Cultural Materialism explores the role of language and discourse in constructing and disseminating cultural values and beliefs.
• Cultural Hegemony: It investigates the concept of cultural hegemony, where dominant cultural values are imposed on society and how literature can either support or resist this hegemony.
• Intersectionality: Cultural Materialism recognizes the intersectionality of various social categories like race, class, gender, and sexuality in the analysis of literature, acknowledging that these factors are interconnected and influence literary texts in complex ways.

Cultural Materialism in literature seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of literature by considering the interplay between historical, social, and material factors, as well as the ways in which literature both reflects and shapes the culture in which it is produced.

Suggested Readings

1. Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Routledge, 1980.
2. Bennett, Tony. Outside Literature. Routledge, 1990.
3. Cohen, Stephen. Shakespeare and Historical Formalism. Oxford University Press, 2017.
4. Dollimore, Jonathan. Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. Palgrave Macmillan, 1984.
5. Frow, John. Cultural Studies and Cultural Value. Oxford University Press, 1995.
6. Gallagher, Catherine. The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1985.
7. Liu, Alan. Wordsworth: The Sense of History. Stanford University Press, 1989.
8. Sinfield, Alan. Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading. University of California Press, 1992.
9. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society. Columbia University Press, 1958.

Introduction

Cultural materialism is a literary theory that examines the relationship between literature and the material conditions of society. It emphasizes the impact of economic, social, and political factors on the creation, dissemination, and interpretation of literary works.

By analyzing the material contexts in which literature emerges, it seeks to uncover underlying power structures and ideological influences shaping literary production and reception.

Criticism Against Cultural Materialism Literary Theory

While it has been influential in fields such as anthropology and literary studies, it has also faced criticism from various perspectives. Here are some common criticisms against cultural materialism:

Examples of Cultural Materialism Literary Theory

In literary studies, cultural materialism has been applied to various texts to analyze the ways in which economic and material factors shape literary production and reception. Here are some examples of the application of cultural materialism to literary pieces:

Keywords in Cultural Materialism Literary Theory

Here are some of the keywords associated with it:

1. Materialism: It emphasizes the underlying material conditions, encompassing economic and social structures, technologies, and resources, that influence cultural phenomena.
2. Production and Consumption: It examines the specific economic and social contexts within which cultural products, such as literature, are produced and consumed.
3. Ideology: Cultural Materialism analyzes how dominant ideas and beliefs function to reinforce existing power structures and economic systems.
4. Agency: While highlighting the significance of material conditions in shaping cultural practices, Cultural Materialism acknowledges the role of human agency in shaping culture and history.
5. Class: Cultural Materialism underscores the pivotal role of social class in shaping cultural practices and beliefs, elucidating how economic and social structures impact cultural production and consumption.
6. Power: Cultural Materialism investigates the distribution of power within society, considering how economic and political systems influence cultural practices and beliefs.
7. Historical Context: Cultural Materialism recognizes the vital role of historical context in shaping cultural practices and beliefs, including the influence of historical events and processes on cultural production and consumption.
8. Critique: Cultural Materialism involves a critical analysis of cultural phenomena, including literature, to discern how they reflect and perpetuate existing power structures and ideologies.
9. Resistance: Cultural Materialism acknowledges the potential for resistance and subversion within cultural practices and beliefs, including literature, as a means of challenging dominant power structures and ideologies.
10. Globalization: Cultural Materialism also acknowledges the impact of globalization on cultural practices and beliefs, exploring how global economic and social structures affect cultural production and consumption.

Suggested Readings

1. Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Routledge, 1980.
2. Bennett, Tony. Outside Literature. Routledge, 1990.
3. Cohen, Stephen. Shakespeare and Historical Formalism. Oxford University Press, 2017.
4. Dollimore, Jonathan. Radical Tragedy: Religion, Ideology and Power in the Drama of Shakespeare and His Contemporaries. Palgrave Macmillan, 1984.
5. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983.
6. Frow, John. Cultural Studies and Cultural Value. Oxford University Press, 1995.
7. Gallagher, Catherine. The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1985.
8. Liu, Alan. Wordsworth: The Sense of History. Stanford University Press, 1989.
9. Sinfield, Alan. Faultlines: Cultural Materialism and the Politics of Dissident Reading. University of California Press, 1992.
10. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society. Columbia University Press, 1958.

Introduction to Emotivist Theory

Emotivist Theory in literature shows that language and literature aim to express and evoke emotions rather than convey facts or morals. It emphasizes authors conveying their emotions and readers experiencing empathetic responses through literature’s aesthetic qualities.

Criticism Against Emotivist Theory

Here are some of the main criticisms of emotivist theory/literary theory:

In short, emotivist theory has been subject to several criticisms, including charges of moral relativism, incoherence, lack of practical guidance, and ignoring the role of reason in moral and emotional judgments. These criticisms highlight the challenges and limitations of emotivism as a theory in moral philosophy and literary theory.

Examples of Emotivist Theory

1. “The Ballad of Birmingham” by Dudley Randall

• “The Ballad of Birmingham” is a poignant poem that explores the emotions of a mother and her child in the context of civil rights struggles. Emotivist Theory allows us to appreciate the raw emotions conveyed in the poem—the mother’s fear for her child’s safety, the child’s eagerness to participate in a protest, and the tragic outcome that evokes sorrow and outrage.

2. “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou

• Maya Angelou’s “Still I Rise” is a powerful poem that celebrates resilience and defiance in the face of adversity. Emotivist Theory helps us connect with the emotional strength and determination of the speaker. Readers experience a range of emotions, from empowerment and pride to a deep sense of solidarity with the speaker and the broader struggle for equality.

3. “Hills Like White Elephants” by Ernest Hemingway

• In Hemingway’s “Hills Like White Elephants,” Emotivist Theory sheds light on the unspoken tension between a couple as they grapple with a life-altering decision. Readers can sense the emotional distance and apprehension between the characters, making the story’s central dilemma—whether to undergo an abortion—feel all the more palpable and emotionally charged.

4. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman

• “The Yellow Wallpaper” remains a powerful exploration of a woman’s emotional turmoil and societal oppression. Emotivist Theory allows readers to connect deeply with the protagonist’s emotional distress and frustration as she battles the confines of her domestic life and deteriorating mental health. The story’s emotive qualities underscore the broader critique of patriarchal norms.

In these selected works, Emotivist Theory enhances our understanding of the emotional and ethical aspects of the narratives and poems, allowing readers to connect with the characters’ emotions and ethical dilemmas on a personal level while contemplating the broader social and cultural themes presented.

Keywords in Emotivist Theory

Here are some keywords that are often associated with emotivist theory/literary theory:

1. Emotion: Emotivist theory centers on the emotional responses of readers and characters in literature.
2. Subjectivity: It highlights the subjective nature of emotions and their influence on our interpretations of literary works.
3. Expressivism: Emotivist theory is also known as expressivism, stressing the expressive power of language and the significance of conveying emotions through writing.
4. Moral Philosophy: It shares a close association with moral philosophy, particularly the notion that moral judgments are rooted in emotional responses rather than objective facts.
5. Aesthetics: Emotivist theory also addresses the aesthetic qualities of literature and the ways emotions shape our perceptions of beauty and art.
6. Reader Response Theory: Emotivist theory is often linked to reader-response theory, which underscores the role of the reader in constructing meaning in literary works through their emotional responses.

Suggested Readings

1. Ayer, Alfred J. Language, Truth, and Logic. 2nd ed. New York: Dover, 1946.
2. Blackburn, Simon. Spreading the Word: Groundings in the Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
3. Carroll, David. Language and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Language. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2014.
4. Ebbersmeyer, Sabrina. Emotional minds: the passions and the limits of pure inquiry in early modern philosophy. de Gruyter, 2012.
5. Hare, Richard M. The Language of Morals. Oxford: Clarendon, 1952.
6. Hogan, Patrick Colm, Bradley J. Irish, and Lalita Pandit Hogan, eds. The Routledge Companion to Literature and Emotion. Routledge, 2022.
7. Hertzberg, Lars. On Emotive Meaning: A Study in Wittgenstein’s Tractatus. Oxford: Clarendon, 1990.

Introduction to Emotivist Theory in Literature

Emotivist Theory in literature, rooted in moral philosophy, underscores the emotional and ethical facets of literary texts. It asserts that a work’s moral and ethical content is best comprehended as an expression of the author’s or character’s emotions and attitudes rather than objective moral certainties. Emotivist analysis in literature often delves into the emotional impact of characters’ actions and their moral dilemmas, aiming to unveil the underlying emotional and ethical motivations. This approach offers a deeper insight into the intricate moral landscapes within literary narratives and underscores the subjective nature of ethical judgments in literary works. Emotivist Theory serves as a valuable tool for scrutinizing how literature elicits emotional responses and shapes ethical perspectives.

Emotivist Theory in Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

• Emotivist Theory emerged in the early to mid-20th century, evolving from discussions in ethics and meta-ethics.

Major Theorists:

• A.J. Ayer: A prominent British philosopher who significantly contributed to the development of emotivism.
• Charles Stevenson: Another influential philosopher who expanded and refined emotivist ideas.
• R.M. Hare: A key theorist who further advanced emotivism within the field of ethics.

Key Works:

• A.J. Ayer’s Language, Truth, and Logic (1936): Ayer’s seminal work laid the foundation for emotivism, emphasizing that moral statements express emotions and attitudes rather than objective facts.
• Charles Stevenson’s Ethics and Language (1944): Stevenson’s contributions expanded emotivism as a comprehensive ethical theory, highlighting the role of emotions in moral language.
• R.M. Hare’s The Language of Morals (1952): Hare’s work further developed emotivist principles, particularly focusing on the use of moral language and its connection to emotions.

Core Arguments:

• Ethical statements, including those within literature, serve as expressions of emotions and attitudes, rather than representing objective moral truths.
• In literary analysis, examining the emotional and ethical motivations of authors and characters enriches our understanding of the work’s moral and emotional dimensions.
• Emotivist Theory provides a valuable perspective for exploring how literature elicits emotional responses and shapes ethical viewpoints through its narrative, characters, and language.

Emotivist Theory in literature enhances the appreciation of the emotional and moral complexities in literary texts, underlining the subjective nature of ethical judgments within them.

Principles of Emotivist Theory in Literature

Emotivism is based on several key principles. Here are main principles of emotivist theory:

Suggested Readings

1. Ayer, Alfred J. Language, Truth, and Logic. 2nd ed. New York: Dover, 1946.
2. Blackburn, Simon. Spreading the Word: Groundings in the Philosophy of Language. Oxford: Clarendon, 1984.
3. Ebbersmeyer, Sabrina. Emotional minds: the passions and the limits of pure inquiry in early modern philosophy. de Gruyter, 2012.
4. Hare, Richard M. The Language of Morals. Oxford: Clarendon, 1952.
5. Mackie, J. L. Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1990.
6. Oatley, Keith. Emotion: A Brief History. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
7. Stevenson, Charles L. Ethics and Language. New Haven: Yale UP, 1944.

Introduction to Biographical Criticism in Literature

Biographical criticism in Literature, while not a distinct literary theory in itself, is regarded as a valuable method or approach to literary analysis. This approach centers on delving into the author’s life and personal experiences, with the ultimate goal of comprehending how these aspects have influenced their literary work. In the process, Biographical criticism in Literature seeks to establish meaningful connections between the author’s biography and various elements within the literary text, such as themes, characters, or events. Frequently, this approach is employed in tandem with other literary theories to provide a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of both the work and the author behind it.

Criticism Against Biographical Criticism in Literature

1. Reductionism: Biographical criticism in literature often reduces complex literary works to the author’s personal life experiences and beliefs, overlooking the richness and depth of the text itself.
2. Subjectivity: Interpretations based on an author’s biography can be highly subjective, leading to varying and sometimes contradictory analyses of the same literary work.
3. Ignoring Intertextuality: Biographical criticism in literature tends to overlook the influence of other texts, cultural contexts, and historical events on a work, neglecting the interconnectedness of literature.
4. Neglecting Authorial Intent: Assuming that an author’s personal life directly correlates with their literary creations ignores the possibility of intentional artistic choices and fictional representations.
5. Disregarding Multiple Meanings: Biographical critics may prioritize one interpretation based on the author’s life, neglecting the potential for multiple valid readings and interpretations of a single work.
6. Overemphasis on Author’s Identity: Focusing solely on the author’s identity can lead to essentialism, stereotyping, and limiting interpretations of their work based on gender, race, or social background.
7. Anachronism: Projecting modern-day ideologies and values onto historical authors through Biographical criticism in Literature can lead to misinterpretations and anachronistic readings.
8. Inaccessibility of Author Information: In some cases, little biographical information is available about an author, making it challenging to apply this approach consistently.
9. Dismissal of Anonymous or Collaborative Works: Biographical criticism in literature faces limitations when dealing with anonymous or collaboratively authored works, as the focus on individual authors becomes problematic.
10. Neglecting Formal and Aesthetic Elements: By concentrating on the author’s life, biographical criticism in literature may neglect the formal and aesthetic aspects that contribute to the overall meaning and impact of a literary work.

It’s essential to remember that while Biographical criticism in literature has its critics, literary analysis is enriched when different approaches, such as historical, formal, or cultural criticism, are used in conjunction to gain a comprehensive understanding of a work’s significance.

Examples of Biographical criticism in Literature

In these examples, Biographical criticism in literature is used as a lens to better understand the authors’ lives and how those experiences may have influenced their literary creations.

Keywords in Biographical Criticism in Literature

1. Authorial Intention: The deliberate meaning or message intended by the author in their literary work, encompassing the purposeful use of language, symbolism, and narrative choices to convey specific ideas or themes.
2. Biography: The comprehensive life history and experiences of the author, which may encompass personal background, cultural upbringing, and significant life events that may have influenced their writing.
3. Context: The intricate interplay of historical, cultural, and social circumstances surrounding the author and the literary work, shaping the creation and reception of the text within a broader framework.
4. Influence: The multifaceted impact of individuals, events, and ideas on the author’s life and creative process, potentially shaping the content, style, and themes explored in their literary output.
5. Psychology: The exploration of the author’s personality, emotions, and underlying motivations in relation to their literary work, often investigating how the writer’s psyche might manifest in the narrative and character development.
6. Reception: The varied and dynamic responses of readers, critics, and the wider public to the literary work, encompassing reviews, interpretations, and cultural significance over time.
7. Subjectivity: The recognition that literary interpretation is inherently subjective, influenced by the critic’s individual biases, perspectives, and cultural background, which can lead to diverse and contrasting analyses of the same text.
8. Textuality: The analytical study of the literary work as an autonomous and self-contained entity, separate from the author’s biography and external factors, to better understand its internal coherence, language choices, and artistic merits.
9. Theme: The fundamental and underlying meaning or message conveyed by the literary work, recurring throughout the narrative and often reflecting universal or societal truths.
10. Voice: The distinctive style, tone, and artistic expression in the author’s writing, shaped by their unique life experiences and personal history, which contributes to the individuality and authenticity of the literary work.

Suggested Readings about Biographical Criticism in Literature

1. Leitch, Vincent B. American Literary Criticism since the 1930s. Routledge, 2010.
2. Makaryk, Irena R., editor. Encyclopedia of Contemporary Literary Theory: Approaches, Scholars, Terms. University of Toronto Press, 1993.
3. Perkins, David. A History of Modern Poetry: Modernism and After. Harvard University Press, 1987.
4. Perloff, Marjorie. The Dance of the Intellect: Studies in the Poetry of the Pound Tradition. Northwestern University Press, 1985.
5. Seyersted, Per. Kate Chopin: A Critical Biography. Louisiana State University Press, 1980.
6. Smith, Sidonie, and Julia Watson. Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
7. Spender, Dale. Telling Tales: Autobiographies of Childhood and Youth. Harvard University Press, 2001.

Introduction: Biographical Criticism

Biographical criticism is a literary analysis approach that examines an author’s life experiences and personal background to gain insights into their creative works. It seeks to establish connections between the author’s biography and their literary output, exploring how events, relationships, and cultural influences may have shaped their writing.

This critical method can offer valuable context for understanding an author’s motivations, thematic choices, and the societal milieu in which their work was produced. However, it is important to exercise caution, as it can oversimplify the relationship between an author’s life and their literary creations, potentially neglecting other factors influencing their work. It means;

• It is not a distinct literary theory
• It is considered a method or approach to literary analysis
• It focuses on the author’s life and personal experiences
• It aims to understand the influence of the author’s life on their work
• It examines connections between the biography and themes, characters, or events in the literary text
• It is often used in conjunction with other literary theories for a more comprehensive understanding of a work or author

Biographical Criticism: Origin, Key Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Origin of Biographical Criticism:

• Emergence: Biographical criticism is one of the oldest forms of literary analysis, dating back to ancient Greece and Rome, where the lives of poets and writers were studied alongside their works.

Key Theorists in Biographical Criticism:

• Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): An English literary critic, essayist, and poet, Johnson emphasized the importance of understanding an author’s life and experiences to interpret their work effectively.
• Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881): A Scottish essayist, Carlyle promoted the Great Man Theory asserting that the lives of exceptional individuals greatly influence the course of history and culture.
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): The founder of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories about the unconscious mind and the influence of an author’s personal experiences on their creative works have had a significant impact on biographical criticism.

Key Works in Biographical Criticism:

• Lives of the Poets by Samuel Johnson: In this work, Johnson provided biographical sketches of several poets, emphasizing how their lives and circumstances shaped their poetic output.
• On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History by Thomas Carlyle: Carlyle’s lectures and essays explore the concept of heroism and how the lives of great individuals impact culture and history.
• The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud: While not exclusively focused on literature, Freud’s ideas about the unconscious mind and dream analysis have influenced the biographical interpretation of literary works.

Key Arguments in Biographical Criticism:

• Authorial Intent: Biographical critics argue that understanding an author’s life, experiences, and intentions can provide insights into the meaning and themes of their literary works.
• Psychological Analysis: This approach often delves into the author’s psyche, exploring how their personal traumas, desires, and conflicts manifest in their writing.
• Contextualization: Biographical criticism seeks to place an author within their historical, cultural, and social context to better comprehend the influences on their work.
• Comparative Analysis: Biographical critics may compare an author’s life with their literary output, looking for parallels, contrasts, or moments of self-revelation.
• Critique and Controversy: Biographical criticism has faced criticism itself for oversimplifying complex works, reducing them to mere reflections of an author’s life, and neglecting the autonomy of the text.

Biographical criticism continues to be a valuable tool for literary analysis, but it is often used in conjunction with other critical approaches to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a literary work.

Principals of Biographical Criticism

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford University Press, 1953.
2. Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. Oxford University Press, 1973.
3. Cixous, Hélène. Coming to Writing and Other Essays. Translated by Sarah Cornell and Susan Sellers, Harvard University Press, 1991.
4. Johnson, Samuel. Lives of the Poets. Edited by Roger Lonsdale, Oxford University Press, 2006.
5. Lejeune, Philippe. On Autobiography. Translated by Katherine Leary, University of Minnesota Press, 1989.
6. Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing. Princeton University Press, 1977.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

• Ecofeminism as Literary Theory
• Ecofeminism Literary Theory
• Emotivist Theory & Literary Theory
• Emotivist Theory in Literature