Month: September 2023

Etymology of Meiosis

The term “meiosis” originates from the Greek words “meioun,” meaning “to make smaller” or “to diminish,” and “meioma,” meaning “a lessening.”

This etymology reflects the fundamental biological process that meiosis represents, which involves two sequential cell divisions resulting in the formation of four haploid daughter cells, each with half the chromosome number of the original diploid cell.

Meiosis plays a critical role in sexual reproduction, ensuring genetic diversity by shuffling and reducing the genetic material, ultimately leading to the creation of gametes (sperm and egg cells) with unique combinations of genetic information.

Meanings of Meiosis

Literary Device	Meiosis
Definition	In literature, meiosis is a rhetorical device used for emphasis and emphasis through understatement.
Purpose	By minimizing the importance of something, the writer or speaker can draw attention to it and make it stand out more.
Applications	– Expressing Modesty: Meiosis can be used to express modesty, downplaying one’s achievements or qualities for effect. – Softening Bad News: It can understate the impact of bad news, providing a gentler delivery. – Humor: Meiosis can be employed to make a humorous or witty point, often through subtle exaggeration.
Genres	Commonly found in satire, irony, and sarcasm, meiosis serves as a powerful tool for creating a wide range of literary effects.

Definition of Meiosis

Meiosis is a literary device that involves a form of deliberate understatement or downplaying the significance of something for the purpose of emphasis. It is also known as “belittlement” or “undermining.” This technique is often used to make something stand out by making it seem less important or significant than it really is.

Difference between Meiosis and Litotes

Literary Device	Meiosis	Litotes
Definition	Understatement that makes something seem smaller, less important, or less significant than it actually is.	Understatement that makes a positive statement by denying its opposite.
Purpose	Emphasizes a point by minimizing its importance or magnitude, often for humor or modesty.	Creates emphasis by stating something indirectly, often for irony or subtle effect.
Example	“He’s not the tallest person in the room” (implying he’s short)	“She’s not the brightest bulb in the box” (implying she’s not very intelligent)
Effect	Draws attention to a subject by downplaying it.	Highlights a point by stating the opposite to convey the intended meaning.
Usage	Often used for humor or modesty.	Frequently used for irony or to convey a sense of subtlety and hidden meaning.
Key Difference	Downplays importance or magnitude.	Emphasizes a point by denying its opposite.

Types of Meiosis

There are several types of meiosis or belittlement that can be used in literature. Here are a few examples:

Type	Definition	Example
Litotes	Litotes is a form of meiosis using a double negative to understate something, often emphasizing a positive quality.	“She’s not unkind” (meaning “She’s kind”).
Euphemism	Euphemism is the substitution of a milder or more polite term for a harsh or unpleasant one.	“Passed away” (euphemism for “died”).
Irony	Irony involves using language that signifies the opposite of the expected meaning, creating a contrast between appearance and reality.	Saying “It’s a beautiful day” on a rainy, gloomy day.
Sarcasm	Sarcasm is used where the speaker says the opposite of what is meant, often in a mocking or sarcastic tone.	“Great job!” said mockingly (implies the opposite of praise).
Litotes of Double Negatives	This meiosis uses two negatives to express a positive statement, highlighting agreement or affirmation.	“I can’t disagree with you” (meaning “I agree with you”).

Common Examples of Meiosis

Here are some common examples:

1. “I’m not feeling my best” – a meiosis that actually means “I’m feeling terrible.”
2. “It’s just a flesh wound” – It is from the movie Monty Python and the Holy Grail that is used to downplay the severity of a serious injury.
3. “I’m not exactly an expert” – a meiosis that can be used to express modesty or to downplay one’s knowledge or abilities.
4. “I’m not as young as I used to be” – It is used to acknowledge the effects of aging without making a big deal out of it.
5. “It’s not rocket science” – a meiosis that is used to imply that something is simple or easy to understand.
6. “He’s not the sharpest tool in the shed” – It is used to suggest that someone is not very intelligent.
7. “I’m not the biggest fan of horror movies” – a meiosis that is used to express a dislike for something without being too negative about it.
8. “It’s not the end of the world” – It is used to downplay the impact of bad news or a difficult situation.

Suggested Readings

1. Frye, Northrop. The Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
2. Quinn, Edward. A Dictionary of Literary and Thematic Terms. Facts On File, 1999.
3. Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
4. Smyth, Herbert Weir. Greek Grammar. Harvard University Press, 1920.
5. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1956.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Tragedy: A Literary Device
• Tragedy: Creating and Critiquing
• Isocolon: A Literary Device
• Isocolon: Creating and Critiquing It
• Rhythmic Pattern/Rhythm: Creating and Critiquing

Introduction

Symbolism in literature is a literary device that involves using objects, characters, or actions to represent abstract ideas or concepts beyond their literal meaning. It adds depth and layers of meaning to a text, allowing authors to convey complex themes, emotions, or social commentary indirectly. Readers engage with symbolism to uncover deeper insights and interpret the work’s hidden significance.

How to Create Symbolism in a Fictional Work

Here are some steps to create symbolism in a fictional work:

1. Choose a symbol: Start by choosing a symbol that will represent a specific idea or emotion in your story. The symbol can be an object, color, animal, or anything else that you feel fits the story.
2. Develop the symbol: Once you have chosen a symbol, think about how it can be developed throughout the story. Consider how the symbol will be introduced, what it will represent, and how it will evolve as the story progresses.
3. Use repetition: Repetition is key in developing symbolism. Repeating the symbol in various contexts throughout the story can help to reinforce its meaning and significance.
4. Connect the symbol to the theme: The symbol should be connected to the theme of your story. It should represent an idea or emotion that is important to the overall message you are trying to convey.
5. Use contrast: Consider using contrast to enhance the symbolism in your story. For example, using a black and white color scheme can represent the contrast between good and evil.
6. Use sensory details: Using sensory details can help to bring the symbol to life in the minds of the readers. Describe the symbol in detail, using sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell to create a vivid image.

Benefits of Symbolism

Symbolism can provide several benefits in literature and other forms of art, including:

• Adds depth and meaning: Symbolism can add depth and meaning to a story, poem, or artwork by conveying complex ideas and emotions that might be difficult to express through literal language.
• Engages the reader or viewer: Symbols can engage the reader or viewer by requiring them to interpret and analyze what they are seeing or reading. This can create a deeper connection with the work and a sense of involvement in the storytelling process.
• Creates a memorable experience: Symbolism can create a memorable experience for the reader or viewer by creating vivid imagery and emotional connections. This can help the work to be more impactful and to stick in the audience’s memory.
• Allows for multiple interpretations: Symbolism can allow for multiple interpretations of a work, which can create a sense of ambiguity or open-endedness. This can allow the audience to connect with the work in their own way and create their own personal meanings.
• Encourages critical thinking: Interpreting symbolism requires critical thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. This can help to develop these skills in readers and viewers, encouraging them to think more deeply and critically about the work and the world around them.

Symbolism can be a powerful tool for enhancing the impact and meaning of literature and other forms of art, while also engaging the audience and encouraging critical thinking.

Symbolism and Literary Theory

Symbolism is a literary device that can be analyzed through several literary theories. Here are some examples:

Literary Theory	Critique	Example
Formalism	Formalism is a literary theory that focuses on the form and structure of a literary work. When analyzing symbolism through formalism, the focus is on how the symbols are used within the structure of the work to create meaning.	Formalist analysis of symbolism in Emily Dickinson’s poetry emphasizes how her use of dashes and punctuation structures the symbols to convey isolation and introspection.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory is a literary theory that focuses on the psychological motivations and experiences of the characters. When analyzing symbolism through psychoanalytic theory, the focus is on the unconscious desires and emotions that are represented by the symbols.	Psychoanalytic interpretation of symbolism in Shakespeare’s Macbeth explores how the dagger symbolizes Macbeth’s repressed desires and his descent into madness.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory is a literary theory that focuses on the response of the reader to a literary work. When analyzing symbolism through reader-response theory, the focus is on how the reader interprets and responds to the symbols in the work.	Reader-response analysis of symbolism in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye examines how different readers interpret Holden Caulfield’s red hunting hat as a symbol of individuality or alienation based on their own perspectives.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory is a literary theory that focuses on the representation of gender and sexuality in literature. When analyzing symbolism through feminist theory, the focus is on how the symbols reinforce or challenge gender roles and stereotypes.	Feminist critique of symbolism in Virginia Woolf’s Orlando explores how the transformation of the protagonist from male to female symbolizes the fluidity and constructed nature of gender.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial theory is a literary theory that focuses on the representation of colonialism and its effects on culture and identity. When analyzing symbolism through postcolonial theory, the focus is on how the symbols represent cultural identity and resistance to colonialism.	Postcolonial analysis of symbolism in Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart highlights how the yam symbolizes traditional Igbo culture and resists the colonial influence of the missionaries.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1999.
2. Baldick, Chris. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2008.
3. Bottigheimer, Ruth B., editor. Fairy Tales and Society: Illusion, Allusion, and Paradigm. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.
4. Cirlot, J. E. A Dictionary of Symbols. Dover Publications, 2002.
5. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
6. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
7. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Basic Books, 2010.
8. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Doubleday, 1964.

Etymology of Symbolism

The term “symbolism” derives from the ancient Greek “symbolon,” a compound of “sym” (together) and “ballein” (to throw or put), initially referring to a token or sign of identity in contracts and rituals. Its semantic evolution led to a broader concept of symbols and signs used for conveying abstract meanings.

However, in the late 19th century, the Symbolist movement, notably in French literature and art, embraced symbolism as a means to evoke complex emotions and convey abstract ideas, departing from realism and naturalism, thus further popularizing its use in artistic and literary contexts.

Meanings of Symbolism

1. Symbolism in Literature: In literature, symbolism involves using symbols to represent abstract ideas or qualities beyond their literal meaning. For instance, a rose may symbolize love, while a skull may symbolize death.
2. Symbolism in Religion: Religious symbolism is employed to represent spiritual or divine concepts. For example, a cross symbolizes Christ’s sacrifice, and a lotus flower symbolizes enlightenment.
3. Symbolism in Art: In art, symbolism entails the use of symbolic imagery to convey complex or abstract ideas.
4. Everyday Language: Symbolism is also used colloquially to describe situations where one thing represents or stands for another, extending beyond the realms of literature, religion, and art.

Symbolism in Grammar

Symbolism in Literature	Symbolism in Religion	Symbolism in Art	Everyday Language
In literature, symbolism involves using symbols to represent abstract ideas or qualities beyond their literal meaning.	Religious symbolism is employed to represent spiritual or divine concepts.	In art, symbolism entails the use of symbolic imagery to convey complex or abstract ideas.	Symbolism is also used colloquially to describe situations where one thing represents or stands for another, extending beyond the realms of literature, religion, and art.
For instance, a rose may symbolize love, while a skull may symbolize death.	For example, a cross symbolizes Christ’s sacrifice, and a lotus flower symbolizes enlightenment.

Definition of Symbolism

Symbolism is a literary device in which an object, person, or situation represents something else, usually an abstract idea or concept. The use of symbolism allows writers to convey complex ideas or emotions indirectly, creating a deeper and more nuanced reading experience for the audience. Symbolism can take many forms, including metaphors, similes, allegories, and motifs.

Types of Symbolism

There are several types of symbolism that can be used in literature:

Literary Symbolism Techniques	Description	Example
Metaphors	A metaphor is a comparison between two things that are not literally connected, creating a symbolic meaning to represent a larger idea or concept.	“Time is a thief.”
Similes	Similar to metaphors, similes use words like “like” or “as” to make a comparison, creating symbolic meaning by connecting unrelated things.	“Her smile was as bright as the sun.”
Allegories	An allegory is a narrative where characters, events, or objects carry symbolic meaning throughout the entire story, representing larger ideas or concepts.	George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” symbolizes the Russian Revolution and totalitarianism.
Motifs	Motifs are recurring elements like objects, colors, or symbols that are used throughout a work of literature to create symbolic meaning.	The recurring use of the color red in “The Scarlet Letter” symbolizes passion and sin.
Personification	Personification attributes human qualities to non-human entities, like animals or objects, to create symbolic meaning by representing abstract concepts concretely.	“The wind whispered secrets through the trees.”
Overall Significance	Symbolism in literature enables writers to convey deeper and more complex meanings beyond the literal interpretation of the text, enhancing the richness of the narrative.	–

Common Examples of Symbolism

Here are some common examples of symbolism in literature:

• The color white: In many cultures, white is associated with purity, innocence, and goodness. In literature, white can be used to symbolize these qualities, such as in the white whale in Herman Melville’s Moby Dick.
• The rose: The rose is a common symbol of love and beauty in literature, such as in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, where the rose represents the beauty of Juliet.
• The snake: Snakes are often used in literature to symbolize danger or temptation, such as in the biblical story of Adam and Eve.
• The journey: A journey can be used as a symbol of personal growth or transformation, such as in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, where Frodo’s journey represents his personal transformation.
• The owl: The owl is often used to symbolize wisdom and knowledge, such as in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, where the wise old owl, Dumbledore, serves as a mentor to Harry.

These are just a few examples of the many ways symbolism can be used in literature to convey complex meanings and ideas.

Literary Examples of Symbolism

Symbol in Literature	Novel	Description
The Green Light	The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	The green light that Gatsby sees across the water represents his longing for Daisy and the American Dream. It symbolizes his hopes, aspirations, and desire to be with Daisy.
The Conch Shell	Lord of the Flies by William Golding	The conch shell represents democracy and order on the island. It is used to call meetings and establish rules. As the boys descend into chaos, the conch loses its power and is eventually destroyed.
The Scarlet Letter “A”	The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne	The scarlet letter “A” that Hester Prynne is forced to wear symbolizes her adultery and shame. It also becomes a symbol of her strength and resilience in the face of societal judgment.
The Mockingbird	To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	The mockingbird represents innocence and kindness in the novel. It’s considered a sin to kill a mockingbird because they do no harm and only bring joy. The mockingbird symbolizes the innocence of characters like Tom Robinson and Boo Radley.
The Apple	Snow White by the Brothers Grimm	The apple is a symbol of temptation and evil in the fairy tale. The queen uses it to trick Snow White, leading to her death. The apple serves as a warning about the dangers of temptation and disobedience.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1999.
2. Baldick, Chris. Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 2008.
3. Bottigheimer, Ruth B., editor. Fairy Tales and Society: Illusion, Allusion, and Paradigm. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986.
4. Cirlot, J. E. A Dictionary of Symbols. Dover Publications, 2002.
5. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Basic Books, 2010.
6. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Doubleday, 1964.
7. Sturges, Robert S. The Cambridge Companion to Allegory. Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Introduction to Limerick

A limerick is a specific form of humorous and often nonsensical five-line poetry that adheres to a distinct rhyme scheme and metrical pattern, typically with lines one, two, and five featuring rhyming, and lines three and four also rhyming. These poems are characterized by their witty wordplay, whimsical themes, and concise structure, making them a popular choice for light-hearted and entertaining verse. Limericks have a long history of use in literature and are known for their ability to deliver humor and satire in a succinct and memorable manner.

How to Create Limerick

A limerick is a five-line poem that follows a specific rhyme scheme and rhythm. Here’s how you can create a limerick:

Step	Explanation	Example
1. Choose a Topic	Limericks can cover any subject, so select an interesting or amusing topic.	N/A
2. Determine the Rhyme Scheme	Limericks use an “AABBA” rhyme scheme: The first, second, and fifth lines rhyme with each other. The third and fourth lines rhyme with each other.	N/A
3. Write the First Line	The opening line introduces the topic and should be attention-grabbing.	There was an old man from Peru
4. Write the Second Line	The second line continues the topic and rhymes with the first line.	Whose shoes were too tight to undo
5. Write the Third and Fourth Lines	These lines should rhyme with each other. They are shorter than the first two lines and often contain humor or a twist.	He hopped and he jumped Till he fell with a thump
6. Write the Fifth Line	The fifth line rhymes with the first two lines and provides a satisfying conclusion.	And then swore off tight shoes, it’s true!
7. Revise and Edit	After composing the limerick, read it aloud for rhythm and flow. Make necessary revisions to enhance the poem’s overall quality.	N/A

And here’s the example limerick:

There was an old man from Peru

Whose shoes were too tight to undo

He hopped and he jumped

Till he fell with a thump

And then swore off tight shoes, it’s true!

Benefits of Limerick

Limericks can provide several benefits:

Benefit of Writing Limerick	Explanation
1. Fun and Entertainment	Limericks are a source of amusement and joy, providing an enjoyable experience for both writers and readers.
2. Creative Outlet	They offer a creative outlet for writers, serving as a structured framework for experimenting with language and ideas.
3. Language Skills Improvement	Writing limericks enhances language skills, including rhyming, word choice, and rhythmic composition.
4. Educational Tool	Limericks can be utilized as educational tools, effectively teaching concepts or ideas in an engaging and fun manner.
5. Icebreaker and Conversation Starter	They serve as excellent icebreakers and conversation starters, appealing to people of various ages and backgrounds.
6. Storytelling	Limericks are also a means of concise and memorable storytelling, conveying messages or narratives effectively.

Limerick and Literary Theories

There once was a scholar of theories

Whose interests were wide and not eerie

From formalism to post-structuralism,

And everything in between and without a prism,

But always found time for limericks, so cheery.

Literary theories are a broad field

With many approaches to yield

From Marxist to FeministFeminism,

Postcolonial to Ecocriticist,

Each lens brings new insights to wield.

But amidst the dense and heady prose

Sometimes a limerick brings repose

With a playful twist and a rhyming list

It can make even theory enthusiasts

Laugh and smile, and their minds compose.

So let us not forget the power

Of a limerick, in any hour

To lighten the mood and break the mold

And remind us that even the most serious theories can be told

With a bit of humor, cleverly dowered.

Suggested Readings

1. Lear, Edward. A Book of Nonsense. Dover Publications, 1992.
2. Legman, Greshan. The Limerick: 1700 Examples, with Notes, Variants, and Index. Bell, 1969.
3. Parrott, Eric Oakley. The Penguin Book of Limericks. Penguine, 1983.

Etymology of Limerick

The term “limerick” refers to a type of humorous and often nonsensical five-line poem with a distinctive AABBA rhyme scheme. Its etymology is believed to be rooted in the Irish city of Limerick, which is thought to have a historical association with this form of verse, although the exact origin remains uncertain. The name “limerick” may have been popularized in the 19th century when these amusing poems gained widespread popularity, but the true etymological origins are not definitively documented.

Meanings of Limerick

Characteristic	Description
Five-Line Structure	Consists of exactly five lines.
AABBA Rhyme Scheme	Follows an AABBA rhyme pattern.
Humorous and Nonsensical	Typically humorous, witty, or nonsensical in nature.
Anapestic Meter	Written in anapestic meter (da-da-DUM).
Short and Light-hearted	Concise and often conveys humor briefly.
Common Themes	Features comical situations, wordplay, and absurdity.
Traditional Origin	Associated with the city of Limerick, popularized in the 19th century.

Definition of Limerick

As a literary device, Limerick is a type of humorous poetry that plays with language and rhythm to create a playful and entertaining effect. Limericks are characterized by their distinctive rhyme scheme and meter, which contribute to their bouncy, sing-song quality. By using puns, wordplay, and unexpected twists, Limericks are able to convey a message or tell a story in a way that is both memorable and enjoyable.

Types of Limerick

Limericks are a type of humorous poem that consists of five lines. The first, second, and fifth lines typically rhyme with each other, while the third and fourth lines form a shorter, rhyming couplet. Here are some different types of limericks:

Type	Explanation
Classic Limericks	The most common type with a traditional rhyme scheme and humorous style.
Double Limericks	Two limericks intertwined or connected, often by the same or different authors.
Nonsense Limericks	Utilize nonsensical words or phrases, aiming to be silly or absurd.
Offensive Limericks	Employ offensive language, typically to insult or offend someone.
Clean Limericks	Suitable for all ages, free from offensive or inappropriate content.
Personal Limericks	Specifically written about a particular person or situation, personalized content.
Political Limericks	Make political commentary or satirize political figures or events.

Literary Examples of Limerick

Example	Reference	Explanation
Example 1: There was an Old Man in a tree, Who was horribly bored by a bee; When they said, “Does it buzz?” He replied, “Yes, it does! It’s a regular brute of a bee!”	From Edward Lear’s “A Book of Nonsense” (1846)	Features a classic limerick structure with a humorous and nonsensical theme.
Example 2: `Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe; All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe.	Found in Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland” (1865)	Exhibits a nonsense limerick with whimsical wordplay, typical of Carroll’s style.
Example 3: Behold the duck. It does not cluck. A cluck it lacks. It quacks. It is specially fond Of a puddle or pond. When it dines or sups, It bottoms ups.	From Ogden Nash’s “The Duck” (1942)	Showcases a modern limerick with clever wordplay, characteristic of Nash’s humorous poetry.

Suggested Readings

1. Lear, Edward. A Book of Nonsense. Dover Publications, 1992.
2. Nash, Ogden. The Pocket Book of Ogden Nash. Pocket Books, 1968.
3. Rosen, Michael, editor. A Book of Limericks. Penguin, 2011.
4. Reed, Edward Bliss. English lyrical poetry from its origins to the present time. Yale University Press, 1912.

Introduction to Tragic Flaw

Also known as hamartia, tragic flaw is a prominent literary device, utilized in ancient Greek drama and tragedy. It refers to a character’s inherent flaw or error in judgment, which leads to their downfall and eventual tragic fate.

This flaw is often a moral or psychological weakness, a character trait, or an inherent feature of their disposition that drives the protagonists to make bad/wrong decisions or commit actions, having severe consequences.

The presence of tragic flaw or hamartia allows for a sense of inevitability in the character’s tragic arc, highlighting the concept of fate or destiny within the narrative.

Literary Examples of Tragic Flaw

Literary Example	Tragic flaw or hamartia Type	Explanation
Macbeth	Ambition	Macbeth’s tragic flaw or hamartia is his ambition, which leads him to pursue the throne and commit murder to achieve his goals. His desire for power and status blinds him to the consequences of his actions, and he becomes increasingly ruthless and paranoid as he tries to maintain his position.
Oedipus	Pride and Arrogance	Oedipus’ tragic flaw or hamartia is his pride and arrogance, which cause him to ignore warnings and pursue the truth about his identity. His relentless pursuit of the truth leads to the discovery that he has unknowingly killed his father and married his mother, resulting in his tragic fate.
Jay Gatsby	Idealized Love	Jay Gatsby’s tragic flaw or hamartia is his idealized vision of love and success, which causes him to pursue Daisy Buchanan with a single-minded obsession. His belief that money and success can buy happiness and love blinds him to the reality of his situation and ultimately leads to his downfall.
Willy Loman	Delusional Belief	Willy Loman’s hamartia is his delusional belief in the American Dream and his inability to accept reality. He believes that success and popularity will solve his problems, but his failures and disappointments cause him to spiral into despair which ultimately leads to his suicide.
Romeo and Juliet	Impulsiveness	Romeo and Juliet’s tragic flaw or hamartia is their impulsiveness and passion, which lead them to make hasty decisions without considering the consequences. Their intense love for each other causes them to defy their families and society, ultimately resulting in their tragic deaths.

How to Create tragic flaw or hamartia in a Fictional Work

Creating it for a character can add depth and complexity to their personality and can help to drive the plot of a story. Here are some steps to create a tragic flaw or hamartia for a character:

1. Character’s Personality: Assess strengths, weaknesses, motivations, and background for potential downfall factors.
2. Identify the Flaw: Pinpoint an inherent flaw or weakness that drives the character’s decisions and leads to tragedy.
3. Connect to the Story: Link the flaw to the central conflict or theme, creating tension and propelling the plot.
4. Develop Consequences: Explore the ultimate outcome of the character’s actions, impacting others and the overall story.
5. Show the Character’s Journey: Depict the emotional evolution and impact on relationships and environment, engaging readers or audiences. Creating a compelling tragic flaw or hamartia adds depth and meaning to a character’s narrative, making their journey powerful and resonant.

Benefits of Tragic flaw or hamartia

Tragic flaw or hamartia, when well-executed in literature, has several benefits. Here are some of them:

1. Adds Complexity to Characters: It creates multi-dimensional characters with depth and nuance.
2. Creates Tension and Drama: Tragic flaw or hamartia drives the plot, leading to impending doom, suspense, and conflict.
3. Increases Empathy: Characters’ struggles with their flaws make readers empathize and connect with their journey.
4. Provides Insight into the Human Condition: It explores universal human experiences, shedding light on emotions like pride, ambition, and love.
5. Creates a Memorable Story: Captivating characters and their struggles make the story memorable long after it ends. In short, it serves as a powerful storytelling tool, crafting memorable characters and offering insights into the human experience.

Tragic flaw or hamartia and Literary Theory

Tragic flaw or hamartia can be analyzed and understood through different literary theories, each offering a unique perspective on the concept. Here are some literary theories and how they relate to tragic flaw or hamartia:

Literary Theory	Interpretation of Tragic flaw or hamartia	Example of Literary Work
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Here hamartia arises from the character’s unconscious desires and impulses, which are deeply rooted in their childhood experiences, relationships, and innermost desires. This theory suggests that the character’s behavior and downfall can be traced back to unresolved psychological conflicts.	Oedipus Rex by Sophocles
Feminist Literary Theory	Here hamartia is shaped by societal expectations and gender roles imposed on the character. Feminist theory examines how power dynamics, cultural norms, and the character’s struggle for agency contribute to their tragic fate.	Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert
Marxist Literary Theory	Tragic flaw or hamartia is influenced by social class and economic factors that affect the character’s decisions and actions. Marxist theory explores how the character’s position in society, access to resources, and relationship to power contribute to their downfall.	Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller
New Criticism Literary Theory	Literary elements such as language, imagery, symbolism, and structure are employed to convey the character’s flaws and foreshadow their tragic fate. New Criticism theory focuses on close reading of the text to analyze how these elements contribute to the character’s downfall.	Macbeth by William Shakespeare
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Here hamartia is influenced by the character’s identity and experiences shaped by colonialism, imperialism, and cultural hegemony. Postcolonial theory explores how the character’s struggle for cultural assimilation, loss of agency, and internal conflicts contribute to their tragic fate.	Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Malcolm Heath, Penguin Classics, 1996.
2. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Penguin Books, 1976.
3. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine, Folger Shakespeare Library, 2003.
4. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Translated by David Grene, University of Chicago Press, 2010.
5. Stoll, Elmer Edgar. Hamlet: An Historical and Comparative Study. University of Minnesota Press, 1919.
6. Williams, Tennessee. A Streetcar Named Desire. New Directions, 2004.
7. McGinn, Colin. Shakespeare’s Philosophy: Discovering the Meaning Behind the Plays. Harper Perennial, 2008.

Etymology of Tragic Flaw or Hamartia

The term “tragic flaw” was first introduced by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in his work Poetics, which he wrote in the 4th century BCE. In Greek, the term is hamartia, means “missing the mark” or “error.” Aristotle used the term to describe a character trait or action that leads to the downfall of the tragic hero in a tragedy.

Meanings of Tragic Flaw

Literal Meanings

Tragic Flaw: The character’s inherent imperfection or weakness that leads to their downfall.

Fatal Error: An irreversible mistake or misjudgment that has severe consequences.

Character Defect: A flaw or deficiency in the character’s personality or morals.

Tragic Mistake: A critical error in judgment that results in a tragic outcome.

Tragic Flaw’s Consequences: The negative outcomes and suffering caused by the character’s hamartia.

Fateful Misstep: An unfortunate action or decision that sets the character on a path to tragedy.

Character’s Downfall: The character’s ultimate failure or ruin as a result of their hamartia.

Tragic Imperfection: The character’s innate quality or trait that ultimately leads to their downfall.

Flawed Decision Making: Poor choices or decisions made by the character due to their hamartia.

Tragic Character Trait: A personality trait or characteristic that contributes to the character’s tragic fate.

Tragic Flaw in Grammar

• Singular Noun Phrase and Singular Verb: When “tragic flaw” is used to refer to a single flaw or characteristic that leads to a tragic outcome, it should take a singular verb. For example:
  • Macbeth’s tragic flaw was his ambition.
• Plural Noun Phrase and Plural Verb: When “tragic flaw” is used to refer to multiple flaws or characteristics that lead to a tragic outcome, it should take a plural verb. For example:
  • Hamlet’s tragic flaws were his indecisiveness and his tendency to overthink.

Definition of Tragic Flaw

A tragic flaw is a trait or characteristic that leads a character in a tragedy to make decisions that ultimately result in their downfall. It is often a personal flaw such as pride, ambition, or jealousy that causes the character’s downfall. Tragic flaws are a common element in literature, specifically, in tragic plays and novels.

Types of Tragic Flaw

There are several types of tragic flaws that lead to a character’s downfall. Some common examples include:

Type of Tragic Flaw or Hamartia	Definition	Examples from Literature
Hubris	Excessive pride or arrogance leads the protagonist to defy the gods or ignore warnings, ultimately leading to their downfall.	Example: In Sophocles’ play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus’ pride and belief in his ability to outsmart fate lead him to unwittingly fulfill the prophecy of killing his father and marrying his mother.
Greed	Insatiable desire for wealth or possessions causes the character to make morally questionable decisions that result in their tragic undoing.	Example: In Shakespeare’s play Macbeth, Macbeth’s insatiable ambition and greed for power drive him to commit regicide and descend into madness, leading to his downfall and eventual death.
Jealousy	Intense envy or resentment towards others leads the character to engage in destructive actions that lead to their own downfall or the downfall of others.	Example: In William Shakespeare’s Othello, the titular character’s jealousy of Cassio’s promotion and suspicion of his wife’s fidelity leads him to murder Desdemona, resulting in his own tragic end.
Lack of Self-Awareness	The inability of the characters to recognize their own flaws or the consequences of their actions leads them to repeat mistakes and eventually suffer the consequences.	Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby’s lack of self-awareness and his obsession with the past and social status blind him to the reality of his unattainable dreams.
Impulsiveness	The tendency to act hastily without considering the consequences leads to reckless actions that bring about their downfall.	Example: In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, both Romeo and Juliet’s impulsive decisions, such as rushing into marriage and taking their own lives, lead to the tragic end of the play.

These types of tragic flaws are often used in combination with other literary devices to create a powerful and moving story.

Common Examples of Tragic Flaws

Ancient Hamartia (Tragic Flaw):

Term	Definition
Hubris	Excessive pride or arrogance, often leading the character to challenge or defy the gods, resulting in their downfall.
Hamartia (in the original Greek sense)	A mistake or error in judgment, which sets off a chain of events leading to the protagonist’s tragic fate.
Ate	Blind recklessness or folly, causing the character to act rashly and make destructive decisions.
Hybris	Similar to hubris, representing pride and arrogance that results in defiance of divine or natural order.

Modern Tragic Flaw (Hamartia):

1. Ambition: An intense desire for success or power, often leading the character to take morally questionable actions that lead to their downfall.
2. Greed: An insatiable desire for wealth or possessions, driving the character to engage in unethical behavior, leading to their tragic end.
3. Jealousy: Intense envy or resentment towards others, causing the character to engage in destructive actions that bring about their own demise.
4. Lack of Self-Control: The inability to control one’s impulses or emotions, leading to impulsive actions that have severe consequences.
5. Obsession: Fixation on a particular goal or desire, disregarding everything else, which leads to disastrous outcomes.
6. Revenge: A strong desire for vengeance, causing the character to act destructively, often leading to their own ruin.
7. Lack of Self-Awareness: The character’s inability to recognize their own flaws or the consequences of their actions, resulting in repeated mistakes and eventual downfall.

Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Malcolm Heath, Penguin Classics, 1996.
2. Bradley, A. C. Shakespearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth. Macmillan, 1904.
3. Hegel, G. W. F. Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by T. M. Knox, Oxford University Press, 1998.
4. Knox, Bernard. The Heroic Temper: Studies in Sophoclean Tragedy. University of California Press, 1964.
5. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Penguin Books, 1976.
6. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine, Folger Shakespeare Library, 2003.
7. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Translated by Robert Fagles, Penguin Classics, 1984.
8. Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Faber and Faber, 1961.

Introduction to Hero

A hero, as a literary device, embodies the archetype of a central character who embarks on a transformative journey, often facing adversity and challenges that reveal his/her inner qualities and virtues.

This character serves as a focal point in narratives, symbolizing universal themes and ideals while demonstrating acts of courage, selflessness, and moral integrity. Through their actions and personal growth, heroes contribute to the development of the plot and themes, resonating with readers as embodiments of human aspirations and heroism.

Literary Examples of Hero

1. Siddhartha Gautama in Siddhartha by Hermann Hesse: Siddhartha embarks on a spiritual journey to seek enlightenment and discover the path to true wisdom. His quest for self-discovery and enlightenment makes him a central hero in this philosophical novel.
2. Prince Hamlet in Hamlet by William Shakespeare: Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, grapples with existential questions and seeks to avenge his father’s murder. His introspection, moral dilemmas, and tragic journey make him an iconic literary hero.
3. Raskolnikov in Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky: Raskolnikov is a complex antihero who contemplates committing a heinous crime for what he believes is a greater good. His internal struggles and eventual moral reckoning are central to this psychological masterpiece.
4. Kunta Kinte in Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley: Kunta Kinte, an African man sold into slavery, remains a symbol of resilience, identity, and the enduring spirit of his people. His journey and determination to preserve his heritage resonate throughout this epic narrative.
5. Oscar Wao in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz: Oscar is a nerdy and overweight young man who navigates life as an outsider while struggling with his Dominican heritage and family’s curse. His pursuit of love, acceptance, and identity makes him a memorable modern hero.

These literary heroes from world literature masterpieces represent diverse cultures, time periods, and themes, contributing to the rich tapestry of global literary heritage.

How to Create a Hero

Step	Explanation
Character Development	Begin by crafting a well-rounded protagonist with a distinct personality, background, and motivations.
Clear Goals and Motivations	Define your hero’s goals, desires, and motivations, ensuring they are emotionally resonant.
Flaws and Vulnerabilities	Give your hero imperfections that humanize them and provide opportunities for growth.
Backstory and History	Develop a backstory that shapes your hero’s beliefs, values, and decisions throughout the story.
Conflict and Challenges	Introduce obstacles, both external and internal, that your hero must overcome for depth and tension.
Moral Code and Values	Define the principles guiding your hero’s actions and decisions, establishing their integrity.
Heroic Qualities	Showcase qualities like courage, empathy, and selflessness through your hero’s actions.
Character Arc	Plan a transformation or growth arc for your hero, reflecting changes in response to experiences.
Relatable Motivations	Ensure readers can connect with your hero’s motivations, making them invest in the character’s journey.
Complexity and Depth	Develop your hero as a multi-dimensional character, revealing various facets of their personality.
Supporting Cast	Create a supporting cast of characters who interact with your hero, providing contrast and conflict.
Symbolism and Themes	Consider how your hero may symbolize or represent larger themes or ideas central to your story.
Consistency	Maintain consistency in your hero’s characterization and actions to keep their behavior believable.
Reader Engagement	Craft emotionally engaging scenes and situations that allow readers to root for your hero.
Memorable Moments	Create pivotal moments where your hero faces challenges or decisions, showcasing their heroism.

Benefits of Creating a Hero

• Engagement: Heroes captivate readers, fostering a strong emotional connection and keeping them invested in the story.
• Identification: Readers often identify with heroes, seeing themselves in the protagonist’s struggles and triumphs.
• Conflict and Resolution: Heroes drive the plot by facing conflicts and striving toward resolution, creating tension and suspense.
• Moral Exploration: Heroes can explore complex moral dilemmas, prompting readers to contemplate ethical choices and consequences.
• Character Development: The hero’s journey allows for profound character growth and transformation, adding depth to the narrative.
• Inspiration: Heroes inspire readers with their courage, resilience, and noble qualities, offering role models and ideals.
• Universal Themes: Heroic narratives often address universal themes like good vs. evil, justice, and the human condition.
• Escapism: Heroes transport readers to fantastical or extraordinary worlds, providing an escape from daily life.
• Symbolism: Heroes can symbolize cultural, social, or historical values, enriching the story’s symbolism.
• Entertainment: Heroic tales are inherently entertaining, offering excitement, adventure, and a sense of wonder.
• Empowerment: Heroes empower readers by showing that individuals can make a difference and overcome adversity.
• Catharsis: The hero’s journey often leads to catharsis, allowing readers to experience emotional release and cathartic relief.
• Teaching and Learning: Heroic stories can impart valuable life lessons and wisdom through the hero’s experiences.
• Timelessness: Heroic archetypes have enduring appeal, making hero-driven narratives timeless and accessible across generations.
• Variety: Heroes come in various forms, allowing writers to explore diverse perspectives and character types.
• Memorability: Iconic heroes and their stories remain etched in readers’ memories, becoming part of literary canon.
• Cultural Significance: Heroes often reflect cultural values and serve as symbols of cultural identity.
• Social Commentary: Heroes can be used to comment on societal issues and provoke thought on important topics.
• Artistic Exploration: Crafting heroes challenges writers to create compelling and multi-dimensional characters.
• Narrative Structure: Heroes provide a structured framework for storytelling, aiding in plot development and pacing.

Hero and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Critique of Hero	Practical Examples from Literature
Structuralism	Structuralism focuses on the underlying binary oppositions and structures in literature. It may critique the hero as a binary opposite to the antagonist, simplifying characters into static roles.	Examples from The Lord of the Rings where heroes are clearly demarcated from villains based on structural roles.
Formalism	Formalism emphasizes the form and structure of a literary work. It may critique the hero’s characterization as formulaic and predictable, potentially hindering creativity.	Analysis of classic hero patterns in ancient epics like The Iliad and The Odyssey that adhere to formal conventions.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into the unconscious motives of characters. It may critique the hero’s one-dimensional nature, lacking depth in terms of inner conflicts and subconscious desires.	Exploration of Hamlet’s psychological struggles in Shakespeare’s Hamlet through a psychoanalytic lens, revealing deeper dimensions of the hero.
Marxist Theory	Marxist theory examines the socio-economic and political aspects of literature. It may critique the hero for often upholding the status quo or capitalist values, potentially reinforcing the dominant ideology.	Examination of the hero’s role in reinforcing societal norms and economic structures in dystopian literature like 1984 by George Orwell.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory scrutinizes gender roles and representations. It may critique the hero for perpetuating traditional gender stereotypes and for often being male-centric.	Analysis of gender dynamics and feminist critiques in works like Pride and Prejudice where heroines challenge traditional hero roles.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial theory examines the impact of colonialism and cultural imperialism. It may critique the hero for embodying colonial or Western values and overshadowing indigenous or marginalized voices.	Discussion of colonial hero narratives in Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad and their implications in postcolonial literature.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text. It may critique the hero as a subjective construct, with interpretations varying widely among readers.	Exploration of how readers’ personal interpretations and reactions shape their perception of heroes in a diverse range of texts.
Deconstruction	Deconstruction challenges binary oppositions and hierarchies in literature. It may critique the hero as a construct that can be deconstructed to reveal the instability and contradictions within the concept.	Deconstructive analysis of the hero figure in works like Don Quixote by Cervantes, exposing the character’s inherent contradictions and complexities.

Suggested Readings

1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 1949.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Basic Books, 1963.

You may read more on Literary Devices below:

• Anti-Climax: A Literary Device
• Anticlimax: Creating and Critiquing It
• Antecedent: A Lingusitic Term
• Antecedents: Creating and Critiquing It

Etymology of Hero

The word “hero” entered the English language through Latin and Old French, eventually deriving from the Greek word hērōs. Its earliest recorded usage in English dates back to the 14th century, as it made its way into Middle English from Old French.

In English literature, “hero” has been used since its introduction to refer to the central character of a narrative or a figure possessing exceptional qualities or valor. Over centuries, its usage has evolved to be used for heroic archetypes and cultural interpretations, becoming a fundamental term in the study of literary characters and themes.

Meanings of Hero

Context	Literal Meaning
Mythology and Ancient Literature	A mythological or legendary figure with extraordinary abilities and valor.
Everyday Language	A person admired for their outstanding qualities, achievements, or noble qualities, such as a war hero or sports hero.
Literature and Storytelling	The main character or protagonist of a narrative who often demonstrates courage and moral integrity while overcoming challenges.
Generic or Archetypal Sense	An archetypal symbol representing the universal human quest for greatness, virtue, and accomplishment.

Hero in Grammar

• Noun: “Hero” primarily functions as a noun, referring to a person admired for their exceptional qualities, achievements, or noble actions.
• Adjective: In some cases, “hero” can be used as an adjective to describe something as exceptionally admirable or heroic, as in “heroic deeds.”
• Verb: While not common in standard English, “hero” may be used as a verb in creative or informal writing to describe someone performing heroic actions, although this usage is not standard.

Definition of Hero

This literary device shows a character archetype often found in narratives, possessing qualities such as courage, moral fortitude, and the willingness to confront adversity for noble causes. Heroes typically serve as the central figures in a story and undergo significant personal growth or transformation throughout the narrative, embodying the values and ideals of the culture or society they represent. Their actions and choices often drive the plot and symbolize universal themes, making them pivotal elements in literature and storytelling.

Types of Hero

Type	Definition	Example from Literature
Tragic hero	A character with noble qualities but a fatal flaw or error in judgment that leads to their downfall.	Oedipus in Oedipus Rex, Hamlet in Hamlet
Epic Hero	A larger-than-life character known for embarking on grand adventures and displaying extraordinary qualities.	Beowulf in “Beowulf,” Odysseus in “The Odyssey”
Antihero	A protagonist who lacks traditional heroic qualities, often behaving in morally ambiguous ways.	Walter White in “Breaking Bad,” Raskolnikov in Crime and Punishment
Byronic Hero	A complex and morally ambiguous character known for introspection and emotional depth, often with a dark or troubled past.	Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights, Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre”
Everyman Hero	A relatable, ordinary character who becomes heroic through their actions or decisions.	Frodo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings
Folk Hero	A hero who emerges from folklore or legends, often based on real historical figures or exaggerated, mythic personas.	Robin Hood in English folklore, Paul Bunyan in American folklore
Superhero	Heroes with supernatural or extraordinary powers, often found in comic books and modern popular culture.	Superman, Spider-Man, Wonder Woman
Trickster	A clever and often mischievous character who uses wit and cunning to outsmart adversaries.	Loki in Norse mythology, Anansi in African folklore
Reluctant	A character who initially resists or is reluctant to take on a heroic role but eventually accepts their destiny or duty.	Harry Potter in the Harry Potter series
Mythic Hero	A hero from ancient myths and legends, often embodying cultural and religious symbolism.	Hercules in Greek mythology, Gilgamesh in Mesopotamian mythology
Romantic	A character known for their idealism, passion, and commitment to love or a cause.	Mr. Darcy in “Pride and Prejudice,” Cyrano de Bergerac
Cultural Hero	A hero who symbolizes the values, ideals, and identity of a specific culture or community.	King Arthur in Arthurian legends, Sun Wukong in Chinese mythology
Messianic	A character believed to be a savior or prophesied figure who will bring about significant change or salvation.	Jesus Christ in Christian theology, Neo in “The Matrix”
Action Hero	A hero known for their physical prowess, combat skills, and ability to handle dangerous situations.	James Bond in the James Bond series, Lara Croft in “Tomb Raider”
Classic Hero	A hero who embodies traditional heroic qualities like courage, honor, and selflessness.	King Arthur in Arthurian legends, Achilles in Greek mythology
Symbolic	A hero who represents abstract concepts or ideas, such as justice, freedom, or the human spirit.	Atticus Finch in “To Kill a Mockingbird,” John Proctor in “The Crucible”
Silent Hero	A hero who speaks little or not at all but communicates heroism through actions and deeds.	The Stranger in The Stranger by Albert Camus, The Man With No Name in Sergio Leone’s Dollars Trilogy

Common Examples of Hero

1. First Responders: Police officers, firefighters, paramedics, and other emergency personnel who risk their lives to protect and save others during crises and disasters.
2. Medical Professionals: Doctors, nurses, and healthcare workers who provide critical care and treatment to patients, especially during times of health crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.
3. Teachers: Educators who inspire and mentor students, shaping their futures and contributing to society’s intellectual development.
4. Parents: Individuals who selflessly care for and nurture their children, often making sacrifices to ensure their well-being and upbringing.
5. Community Volunteers: People who dedicate their time and effort to volunteer work, helping those in need, and contributing to the betterment of their communities.
6. Good Samaritans: Individuals who step in to assist strangers in distress, whether it’s helping someone stranded on the roadside or intervening in a dangerous situation.
7. Humanitarian Aid Workers: Those who work in war zones, disaster-stricken areas, and impoverished regions to provide essential aid and support to vulnerable populations.
8. Environmental Activists: Advocates who work tirelessly to protect the environment, raise awareness about climate change, and promote sustainability.
9. Social Activists: Those who champion social justice causes, fight against discrimination, and work to improve the lives of marginalized or oppressed groups.
10. Military Service Members: Soldiers who serve their countries, often facing danger in combat zones, to protect national security and uphold freedom.
11. Rescue Workers: Search and rescue teams, including lifeguards and mountain rescue teams, who save lives in perilous situations.
12. Mentors and Coaches: Individuals who guide and inspire young athletes, artists, or professionals, helping them reach their full potential.
13. Caregivers: People who provide compassionate care for the elderly, disabled, or terminally ill, often within their own families.
14. Entrepreneurs and Innovators: Visionaries who create businesses, products, or technologies that improve lives and drive economic growth.
15. Environmental Conservationists: Those dedicated to preserving wildlife and natural habitats, working to protect endangered species and ecosystems.
16. Advocates for Mental Health: Individuals who raise awareness about mental health issues, reduce stigma, and offer support to those struggling with mental health challenges.

These examples illustrate that heroes are not limited to fictional characters but exist all around us, making positive contributions to society and demonstrating admirable qualities in their everyday lives.

Suggested Readings

1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 1949.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Jung, Carl G. Man and His Symbols. Dell, 1964.
4. Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Dover Publications, 1936.
5. Rank, Otto. The Myth of the Birth of the Hero: A Psychological Exploration of Myth. Vintage, 1952.