September 2023 - Page 4 of 23

Postmodernism in Maus by Spiegelman

Postmodernism in Maus shows the presence of the multiplicity of thematic strands, making it the most popular graphic novel on holocaust.

Introduction Postmodernism in Maus

Postmodernism in Maus shows the presence of the multiplicity of thematic strands, making it the most popular graphic novel. Yet, it seems very hard to understand this abstruse text of animal images representing human beings and then presenting the theme of the holocaust through these images; a colossal event of human history being represented through animal images in such a broken way. This, itself, becomes a postmodern technique where the text or presentation becomes a symbol of the avant-garde about which Linda Hutcheon has talked much in her book saying it offers a model of “contesting the fixity of the borders between art and life” (218). Art Spiegelman manipulated the same avant-garde of art and exploited it to write this graphic novel on the pattern of weaving some narratives to dislodge the reader about his faith in a master narrative that drives the characters (229). Maus even shows various other features of postmodern fiction even during a single reading. Leaving aside the comics and use of images, the stories within this story emerge after the first reading that a reader forgets that it is talking about the Holocaust and gets interested in the story of Vladek and Art but when it comes back to the Holocaust, then it makes readers startle over this story within a story and then within a story technique, which is truly modern. Not only does postmodernism in Maus peeps through, but also shows the author’s search for truth and reality, use of various narratives, search for identity, and use of pastiches; to name a few postmodern features of a work of fiction.

Postmodernism in Maus as Manipulation of Avant-Garde

One of the features of postmodern fiction is that it manipulates the modern concept of literary avant-garde which Linda Hutcheon says having no borders for literary genres (218). It means that one genre is mixed and merged into another and vice versa or many genres are mixed into each other in such a way that they try to present meanings of historical events. Art Spiegelman has tried to derive meanings of the Holocaust through the comical narrative of his father merged with his own narrative of writing this comic. For example, when Vladek is telling Art about Haskel, and how he survived the war, he feels short of breath and has to tell his son that he is have feeling difficulty though he has nitrostate, a type of medicine. This is the narrative of Art Spiegelman and how he tackles getting master narrative from his father which he into comics. To come back to the master narrative again, his father asked Art “What was I telling you” to which he reminded him of the incident of Haskel (111). At another place, he says it clearly that he visited his father to get more information which means to continue his narrative (42). Even his story of visiting his psychiatrist, too, is a merger in the master narrative, though the psychiatrist is also a Holocaust survivor. However, it is also a point that this entire game of narratives within narratives without applying specific genres is due to man’s eternal search for truth as shown in the novel when analyzed through postmodernism in Maus.

History and Postmodenrism in Maus

The search for truth through such a method and reference to history is not new, but it is a specific feature of postmodernism in Maus. Art Spiegelman has applied this feature to his novel Maus. Although he wants to know the truth about his father’s survival and escape, his mother’s death, and his brother’s life, he gets involved in his own truth about his own life and how he feels guilty of neglecting his father. The art of mixing different genres and then continuing with them parallel with the master narrative is just the same search for truth. It is because Art Spiegelman is looking for morality behind the past events by presenting them in the present through oral telling of the real characters. This is a sort of search for reality behind another reality where reality is blurred in the present. That is why Linda Hutcheon has stated that this is the problem of modern fiction that it questions the relationship between history and reality and then even of both with the language (15). Perhaps that is the very reason that Spiegelman has tried to present the reality of history through comic figures to make it presentable when it is analyzed through postmodernism in Maus.

**Postmodernism in Maus through Metanarrative**

However, the problem of modern fiction is that not only there are many sides of the story and story within a story with a metanarrative, but also that the narrators are sometimes unreliable. Art Spiegelman interviews his father at different times to construct the real story of his survival but then turns to his own story of neglecting his father at times when he needs Art the most. Even both fight over smoking and pedaling blaming each other that the problem of shortness of breath is due to the one’s smoking or the other’s pedaling. This builds up a tension where Art sometimes feels that he has neglected his father abut at other times tries to use him to get notes for his comic story (Spiegelman 91-92). This, somewhat builds tension in which he visits his psychiatrist and the story takes a new turnabout familial relations and guilt, another tension. Both of these conflicts lead to the unreliability of the main narrator as well as the secondary narrator. This is feature of the postmodern that a story is inserted with the more stories or a metanarrative is interrupted through various other narratives going on parallel with the metanarrative. In fact, this is a search for identity that the Jews lost during their escape.

Identity and Postmodernism in Maus

Although Art Spiegelman seems to be in search of his Jewish identity, this is not a specific trait of postmodernism in Maus. In fact, it is the loss of identity that postmodern fiction portrays. Jews lost their identity when the German soldiers were looking for them and killing them on one or the other pretext. Although during the initial stages of the German occupation and segregation of the Jews, they mostly helped each other as Ilzecki helps Vladek in setting up business. However, as soon as life becomes uncertain, the Jews stopped showing themselves as Jews and helping each other. The instinct of survival overcame the identity of being Jewish. Several Jews became informers of the police on the promise that they would be spared. Even Haskel, his cousin, refused to take Jews to Auschwitz without money (114-115). The only answer Vladek to his cousin’s hunger for money was “You don’t understand” as it “was everybody to take care of himself” (114). Now to find his Jewish identity, Spiegelman tries to revisit history and build the same narrative. It is, however, very important to know that Spiegelman has tried to build his identity in this modern age when nothing seems real, even the language. Therefore, the use of pastiche in narrative a la art comes in handy to him and peeps through when postmodernism in Maus is specifically explored.

Although pastiche is used in art, Spiegelman has employed this technique through comics in this novel. As he has used two narratives at the same time, it blurs a difference between the past history and the present history, making him merge both in panels. For example, at one place, he is hearing his father telling him tale of his escape, but at the next moment, he asks “Art you ready for walk again?” and then start the story again (119). Furthermore, the use of only two colors and animal, mouse, to show Jewish people and their situation as mousetrap. In the same way, he has presented Germans as cats which points to the cat and mouse game of the Jews and their escape for survival. The way of presenting this historical even through comic symbols of animals is truly a show of postmodernism in Maus.

Conclusion

In short, Maus is a representative postmodern fiction display various postmodern traits used in fiction as well as art. It is because it is the demand of the time and age to use these techniques to convey this to modern readers. It is also that the colossal events of the Holocaust could not be conveyed so impressively and effectively only through language which has become an unreliable medium and the situation of Jewish suffering could not be conveyed just through the depiction of human beings undergoing torture until they are further belittled to animals and then treated like animals. This is the search for reality which has been blurred and it could be narrated through various narratives. This is also a search of identity when it is lost. The use of pastiche and comic animals has further strengthened the postmodernism in Maus.

Works Cited

Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory and Fiction. New York, Routledge. 1988. Print.
Spiegelman, Art. Maus. New York: Penguin, 2001. Print.

Relevant Questions about Postmodernism in Maus by Spiegelman

How does the graphic novel Maus by Art Spiegelman subvert conventional narrative structures and historical representation through its postmodern elements?
What is the role and significance of metafiction within the context of Maus by Art Spiegelman, and how does it contribute to the work’s postmodern character?

In what ways does the use of animal allegory in Maus challenge established notions of identity and representation, reflecting its postmodern narrative?

Critical Race Theory: Application to Literature

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary framework developed in legal scholarship during the late 20th century that examines the pervasive role of race and racism.

Introduction

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is an interdisciplinary framework developed in legal scholarship during the late 20th century that examines the pervasive role of race and racism in shaping social, political, and legal structures.

It asserts that racism is not just an individual act but a systemic, institutionalized phenomenon, aiming to uncover and challenge the ways racial hierarchies are embedded in law, policies, and societal norms.

CRT scholars analyze power dynamics, privilege, and the intersections of race with other social identities to promote a deeper understanding of racial injustices and advocate for equitable change.

Criticism Against Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory is a framework developed in the legal field to examine the intersection of race, power, and the law. It has since been applied to various fields, including education, sociology, literature and political science. However, CRT has also been met with criticism from various perspectives. Here are some of the criticisms against CRT:

Essentialism: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory relies on essentialist assumptions about race, which means that it sees race as a fixed, inherent characteristic that defines a person’s experiences and perspectives. This criticism argues that it fails to acknowledge that race is a social construct and that individual experiences vary.
Divisiveness: Some critics argue that it promotes divisiveness by framing everything in terms of power struggles between different racial groups. Critics argue that this can lead to a more polarized society and further marginalization of certain groups.

Lack of Evidence: Some critics argue that Critical Race Theory lacks empirical evidence to support its claims, and that it relies on anecdotal evidence and personal narratives instead. Critics argue that this makes CRT less objective and less rigorous as a scholarly discipline.
Rejection of Objectivity: Some critics argue that it rejects the idea of objectivity and neutrality in favor of subjective interpretations of reality. Critics argue that this makes CRT less reliable as a scholarly discipline, and that it undermines the credibility of objective research.
Ideological Bias: Some critics argue that it is ideologically biased and that it promotes a particular political agenda. Critics argue that this makes it less objective and less useful as a scholarly discipline.

Overemphasis on Race: Some critics argue that it overemphasizes the role of race in shaping society and ignores other important factors such as class, gender, and culture. Critics argue that this can lead to a narrow and incomplete understanding of social issues.

Examples of Critical Race Theory

The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison: In this novel, Critical Race Theory critiques how characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and social status. For example, the main character, Pecola Breedlove, is a young B**ck girl who believes that having blue eyes would make her more beautiful and desirable. Critical Race Theory critiques how Pecola’s desire for blue eyes reflects internalized racism and how her lack of power in society contributes to her self-hatred.
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison: In this novel, it criticizes how the protagonist’s experiences are shaped by his race and his encounters with institutional racism. For example, the protagonist is expelled from college for exposing the racist practices of the institution. It critiques how the institution’s response to the protagonist’s actions reflects the ways in which institutions use their power to silence dissenting voices.

The Negro Speaks of Rivers by Langston Hughes: In this poem, Critical Race Theory analyzes how the speaker’s experiences are shaped by his identity as a B**ck person. For example, the poem begins with the line “I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins,” which it interprets as a reference to the long history of B**ck people and their contributions to human civilization. Critical Race Theory critiques how the poem celebrates B**ck culture and history in the face of systemic oppression.
Everyday Use by Alice Walker: In this short story, Critical Race Theory assesses how the characters’ experiences are shaped by their race and their understanding of heritage. For example, the protagonist, Mama, has two daughters: Dee, who has embraced a more mainstream version of B**ck culture, and Maggie, who has retained a connection to their rural roots. It critiques how the story explores the tension between different interpretations of B**ck culture and heritage and how this tension reflects the larger issues of power and control in society.
The Color Purple by Alice Walker: In this novel, it examines how the characters’ experiences are shaped by the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality. For example, the main character, Celie, is a B**ck woman who faces abuse and oppression from both B**ck men and white society. CRT critiques how the novel portrays the ways in which racism, sexism, and heterosexism intersect to shape the experiences of B**ck women.

Keywords in Critical Race Theory

Here are some keywords and concepts commonly used in Critical Race Theory:

Racialization: The process of categorizing individuals based on race, leading to disparities.
Intersectionality: Intersection of social identities (e.g., race, gender) in shaping experiences of oppression.

Structural Racism: Systemic practices that perpetuate racial inequalities.
White Supremacy: Belief in white superiority, leading to discrimination.
Microaggressions: Subtle, unintentional acts conveying discrimination.

Colorblindness: Ignoring racial differences, perpetuating inequality.
Critical Consciousness: Awareness of systemic racism, commitment to change.
Counter-Narratives: Alternative stories challenging dominant racial narratives.

Institutional Racism: Discriminatory policies within institutions, harming minorities.
Racial Equity: Achieving fairness by addressing racial disparities.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

African American Literary Theory

Critical Race Literary Theory

The term Critical Race Literary Theory emerges from the fusion of Critical Race Theory and Literary Theory.

Introduction

The term Critical Race Literary Theory emerges from the fusion of Critical Race Theory and Literary Theory. Critical Race Theory, originating in late 20th-century legal scholarship, focuses on racial inequality, structural racism, and intersections of race with other social identities. Simultaneously, integrating Critical Race Theory principles into literary studies yields this theory. This interdisciplinary approach applies Critical Race Theory to literary analysis, exploring race, racism, and racial identities in literary narratives. Thus, Critical Race Literary Theory melds Critical Race Theory’s critical lens with literary scrutiny, revealing the intricate relationship between race, culture, and literature in societies marked by racial disparities.

Meanings of Critical Race Literary Theory

Point	Meaning
Intersectional Analysis	It uses an intersectional approach to examine how race intersects with other social identities such as gender, class, and sexuality in literary narratives.
Racial Representation	It focuses on the representation of race, racial stereotypes, and the construction of racial identities within literature, highlighting how authors portray and challenge these aspects.
Structural Racism	This theory delves into the exploration of structural racism, both explicit and implicit, as it is reflected in literary texts, shedding light on systemic inequalities and injustices.
Counter-Narratives	Critical Race Literary Theory also emphasizes the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant racial ideologies and provide alternative perspectives on racial experiences.
Cultural Critique	It engages in a critical examination of the cultural implications embedded in literary works, considering how literature contributes to and reflects broader societal attitudes towards race and racism.
Social Justice Advocacy	Beyond analysis, it often advocates for social justice by addressing issues of racial inequality and fostering discussions on racial equity through literature.
Historical Context	It contextualizes literary texts within their historical timeframes, recognizing the influence of past racial ideologies and events on contemporary narratives.
Authorial Perspectives	This theory explores how an author’s own racial identity and perspective influence the portrayal of race and racial themes in their works.
Reader Reception	Critical Race Literary Theory also considers how readers, based on their own racial backgrounds and experiences, interpret and engage with literary texts, highlighting the role of the audience in meaning-making.
Pedagogical Tool	It is frequently used as a pedagogical tool in literature courses to encourage critical thinking about race and racism in society through the analysis of literature.

Critical Race Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Key Arguments

Origin:

Emergence in Late 20th Century: It emerged in the late 20th century as an extension of Critical Race Theory, which originated in legal studies. It gained prominence in literary scholarship as a response to issues of racial inequality and discrimination.

Theorists:

Toni Morrison: Renowned author and scholar whose works, such as Beloved and The Bluest Eye, are often analyzed through this lens for their exploration of African American experiences.

Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Scholar known for his examination of African American literature and culture, offering insights into race and identity through a literary perspective.
Frantz Fanon: Though not exclusively a Critical Race Literary Theorist, Fanon’s works like B**ck Skin, White Masks have influenced the field with their exploration of racial identity and colonialism.
Cheryl Harris: Legal scholar whose concept of “whiteness as property” has been incorporated into Critical Race Literary Theory discussions on racial privilege and power.

Works:

Beloved (1987) by Toni Morrison: This novel is a central text in Critical Race Literary Theory, exploring themes of slavery, trauma, and the legacy of racial injustice.
The Souls of B**ck Folk (1903) by W.E.B. Du Bois: Though written before the emergence of Critical Race Literary Theory, this work remains influential for its early exploration of racial identity and the “double consciousness.”
The Signifying Monkey (1988) by Henry Louis Gates Jr.: This work explores African American literary traditions and the role of language in shaping racial identity and resistance.

B**ck Looks: Race and Representation (1992) by bell hooks: An important text for its analysis of media and popular culture in perpetuating racial stereotypes.

Key Arguments:

Racial Representation: Critical Race Literary Theory argues that literature plays a significant role in shaping and challenging racial representations, stereotypes, and identities in society.
Structural Racism: This theory highlights how literature reflects and perpetuates systemic racial inequalities and injustices, shedding light on the impact of racism on characters and narratives.

Counter-Narratives: Critical Race Literary Theory emphasizes the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant racial ideologies and provide alternative perspectives on racial experiences.
Intersectionality: It adopts an intersectional approach, examining how race intersects with other social identities, such as gender, class, and sexuality, within literary narratives.
Cultural Critique: This theory engages in a critical examination of the cultural implications embedded in literary works, considering how literature contributes to and reflects broader societal attitudes towards race and racism.

Principles of Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a complex and multifaceted framework that incorporates many principles and concepts. However, some of the key principles of CRT include:

Main Features	Explanation
Intersectionality	It recognizes that race intersects with other social categories, such as gender, class, and sexuality, leading to complex forms of oppression and privilege.
Social Construction of Race	It views race as a socially constructed concept rather than a biologically determined characteristic, highlighting its historical and political origins.
Permanence of Racism	It argues that racism is an enduring and systemic feature of society, operating at individual, institutional, and structural levels.
Interest Convergence	It suggests that racial progress is more likely when the interests of marginalized communities align with those in power.
Counterstorytelling and Marginalized Voices	It values the narratives and perspectives of marginalized individuals and communities, challenging dominant narratives and centering their experiences.
Critique of Meritocracy and Colorblindness	It questions the notions of meritocracy and colorblindness, highlighting how they can perpetuate racial inequalities by disregarding structural barriers and systemic racism.
Social Justice and Activism	It calls for the dismantling of racial hierarchies and the pursuit of social justice through legal and policy changes and grassroots activism.

Critical Race Theory or Critical Race Literary Theory?

Critical Race Theory (CRT)	Critical Race Literary Theory
Originated in the legal field in the 1970s and expanded into various disciplines.	Applies the principles of CRT to the analysis of literature

Examines how race intersects with systems of power, law,and society to perpetuate racial inequality and discrimination.	Explores how race and racism are represented, reinforced, or challenged in literary texts


Aims to uncover the underlying assumptions, structures,and practices that contribute to racial oppression.	Analyzes how literature reflects and shapes social perceptions of race,
	power dynamics, and racial hierarchies
Explores both explicit and implicit forms of racism,institutional practices, cultural norms, and individual biases.	Engages with racial identity, social justice, and racial politics through the examination of authors, characters, and narratives
Often calls for social justice and activism to challenge racism and create a more equitable society.	Incorporates interdisciplinary approaches, drawing from literary theory, cultural studies, and social sciences.

While CRT is a broader framework that examines the intersection of race, power, and society, Critical Race Literary Theory specifically applies these principles to the analysis of literature, focusing on how race and racism are represented in literary texts.

African American Theory

African American Theory is a critical framework that analyze literature produced by African American writers in their unique experiences.

Introduction African American Theory

African American Theory is a critical framework that analyze literature produced by African American writers within the context of their unique experiences and cultural heritage. Rooted in the need to challenge traditional narratives that often marginalized African American voices, this theory emphasizes authentic representation, identity exploration, and the examination of themes such as resistance, cultural preservation, and social justice. It acknowledges the intersectionality of race with other social categories and draws from various literary and interdisciplinary traditions to provide a comprehensive lens for analyzing African American literature. Ultimately, African American Theory enriches our understanding of the rich and diverse literary contributions of African Americans, shedding light on the complexities of their narratives throughout history.

Criticism Against African American Theory

Lack of attention to intersections of race, gender, sexuality, class, and other social identities in this theory.
Criticisms of the use of Western literary theory as the framework for African American literary theory

Arguments that African American literary theory is too focused on canonized works and neglects popular culture and other forms of expression
Accusations of a narrow focus on the United States and neglect of the global context of African diasporic literature
Debates over the relationship between African American literary theory and the B***k Arts Movement, with some arguing that the former fails to adequately address the political and social dimensions of B***k cultural production.

Examples of African American Theory

Work	Application of African American Literary Theory
*Toni Morrison’s Beloved*	African American Theory analyzes the novel Beloved by Toni Morrison, focusing on its portrayal of the experience of slavery and its enduring effects on the characters. It also examines the central role of memory and its significance in the lives of African Americans within the narrative.
*Langston Hughes’ “I, Too, Sing America”*	African American Theory can be applied to Hughes’ poem, “I, Too, Sing America,” to explore themes of racism, identity, and the African American experience. The analysis delves into the poem’s language and literary devices, deciphering how they convey these themes within the context of African American culture.
*Alice Walker’s The Color Purple*	It could be used to analyze Alice Walker’s novel, The Color Purple, emphasizing its portrayal of the experiences of African American women in the early 20th-century South. Additionally, it delves into themes of race, gender, and identity, examining their relevance to the African American experience.
*Gwendolyn Brooks’ “We Real Cool”*	African American Literary Theory examines Gwendolyn Brooks’ poem, “We Real Cool,” through the lenses of race, identity, and the African American experience. The analysis explores Brooks’ use of language and literary devices to convey the perspectives and experiences of her community.
*Countee Cullen’s “Incident”*	This poem is analyzed through this theory as a commentary on the persistence of racist attitudes and actions in American society, despite supposed progress post-slavery. The analysis highlights the speaker’s shock and confusion when confronted with a racial slur, emphasizing the insidious nature of racism and the vulnerability of even seemingly secure African Americans to discrimination.

Keywords in African American Theory

Double consciousness: A concept introduced by W.E.B. Du Bois in which African Americans have to navigate the cultural expectations and values of both their African heritage and their American experience.
Afro-pessimism: A theoretical framework that focuses on the ongoing and pervasive effects of anti-b***kness, oppression, and violence in the lives of African Americans, as well as the limitations of traditional approaches to addressing these issues.
Signifyin(g): A technique used in African American literature in which words and phrases are used in a way that communicates multiple meanings and subverts dominant cultural norms and expectations.

Intersectionality: A framework for understanding how different aspects of identity, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality, intersect and interact to shape an individual’s experiences of privilege and oppression.
B***k feminism: A branch of feminism that centers the experiences and perspectives of b***k women and emphasizes the ways in which race, gender, and other social identities intersect and affect their experiences of oppression and resistance.
Neo-slave narrative: A genre of literature that reimagines and reinterprets the experiences of enslaved Africans and African Americans in a contemporary context, often emphasizing themes of resistance, agency, and survival.

Cultural nationalism: An ideology that emphasizes the importance of preserving and celebrating one’s cultural heritage and values, often in the face of assimilation and oppression.
B**k aesthetics: An approach to art and literature that emphasizes the unique cultural and aesthetic traditions of African Americans and their contributions to the broader cultural landscape.

African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory is a framework for analyzing literature by African American writers.

Etymology of African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory is a framework for analyzing literature by African American writers.

Nomenclature & Identity: Derives from the intersection of African American culture, history, and literature, signifying authors’ racial and cultural identity within the United States.
Influences: Draws from literary traditions like African oral traditions, the Harlem Renaissance, B**ck Arts Movement, and the Civil Rights era.

Themes & Goals: Explores race, identity, oppression, resistance, and cultural heritage in African American literature, illuminating the African American experience throughout history.

African American Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of African American Literary Theory

Emerged during the 20th century as African American writers gained prominence in American literature.
Rooted in the need for critical frameworks that acknowledge the unique African American experience.

Prominent Theorists

W.E.B. Du Bois: Known for his influential work The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois introduced the concept of double consciousness and explored the struggle for identity among African Americans.
Langston Hughes: A celebrated poet, Hughes’s works, including The Negro Speaks of Rivers, emphasize cultural heritage, racial pride, and resilience.
Toni Morrison: Renowned for her novels, especially Beloved, Morrison examined the enduring impact of slavery on African American identity and familial bonds.

Henry Louis Gates Jr.: Notable for his essays and criticism, Gates has focused on African American literary history and cultural studies in works like The Signifying Monkey.

Key Works in African American Literary Theory

Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk addresses issues of race, identity, and inequality within African American communities.
Hughes’s poetry, such as The Negro Speaks of Rivers, explores the rich cultural heritage and resilience of African Americans.

Morrison’s novel Beloved delves into the haunting legacy of slavery and its profound impact on African American families.
Gates’s essays, found in The Signifying Monkey, delve into African American literary traditions, folklore, and their significance.

Core Arguments

African American Literary Theory seeks to highlight the unique cultural and historical context of African American writers.

It emphasizes themes of racial identity, oppression, resistance, and the preservation of cultural heritage.
This critical framework challenges dominant narratives and fosters a deeper understanding of African American literary contributions to American literature.

Principles of African American Literary Theory

Principle	Explanation	Example
Representation and Voice	Challenges traditional narratives, emphasizes authentic representation, and amplifies African American experiences.	In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, the novel portrays the haunting legacy of slavery through the voice of African American characters.
Identity and Racial Consciousness	Explores complexities of African American identity, including race, ethnicity, and cultural heritage, within the context of social categories.	In Langston Hughes’ poetry, he navigates the intersections of being African American and his identity as a poet and artist.
Resistance and Liberation	Examines how literature addresses and challenges systemic oppression, racial inequality, and social injustice.	Richard Wright’s Native Son portrays the protagonist’s resistance against racial injustice in 1930s Chicago.
Cultural and Historical Contexts	Highlights the significance of cultural and historical contexts, including the legacies of slavery and the Civil Rights Movement, in interpreting literature.	Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God is deeply rooted in the cultural context of the Harlem Renaissance.
Intersectionality and Interdisciplinary Perspectives	Recognizes interconnectedness of social identities and employs interdisciplinary approaches.	In Alice Walker’s The Color Purple, the intersectionality of race and gender is explored through the character Celie.
Community and Solidarity	Emphasizes communal aspects, explores unity, resilience, and cultural preservation within African American communities.	August Wilson’s The Pittsburgh Cycle portrays the African American community’s struggle and solidarity in different decades.

Relevant Theoretical Frameworks and Concepts

Critical Race Theory and Its Application to African American Literature

It shows an understanding of the role of race and racism in society and how it shapes African American literature.

It shows how power structures and social hierarchies affect the production and reception of African American texts.
It also examines how African American authors challenge and subvert dominant racial narratives through their literary works.

Postcolonial Theory and its Impact on African American Literary Theory and Literature

It explores the connections between African American literature and the history of colonization and imperialism.

It helps analyze how African American authors negotiate and resist the legacy of colonialism in their works
It also helps examine themes of identity, cultural hybridity, and decolonization in African American literary texts

Feminist and Gender Theories within African American Literary Criticism

It helps examine the intersection of race and gender in African American literature

It helps analyzes how African American women writers explore issues of power, agency, and identity within their works
It also seeks to investigate how African American women challenge and disrupt traditional gender roles and stereotypes through their writing

Intersectionality and the Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class

It helps understand how multiple social categories intersect and shape the experiences of African Americans

It helps analyze how race, gender, and class intersect and interact in African American literary texts
It also seeks to explore the complexities and nuances of identity and social oppression within the African American community

African American Literary Criticism and Aesthetics

It shows the politics of representation in African American literature.

It questions the authenticity and the “B***k experience.”
It also aestheticizes resistance and the use of language as a tool for empowerment.
It also shows the role of folklore, spirituality, and cultural traditions in African American literature

Contemporary Developments and Debates

African American speculative fiction and Afrofuturism
Queer Theory and its intersection with African American Literature
Global Perspectives on African American Literature and diasporic connections

Discussions on the canon, inclusion, and diversity in African American literary studies

Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens

The advent of the Industrial Revolution not only played havoc with human emotions but also with conjugal lives as marriages in Hard Times show.

Introduction to Marriages in Hard Times

The advent of the Industrial Revolution not only played havoc with human emotions but also with conjugal lives as marriages in Hard Times show. The family lives and characters faced disruption in the shape of incompatible marriages as well as spoiled marriages along with heartless and emotional flirtations. Although some people emerged as prosperous and well-to-do with newly earned wealth, the moral values lost their strength. The major thematic strand of marriages in Hard Times by Charles Dickens is the devastation of the conjugal lie, relationships, and matches as well as the elimination of human emotions even outside of married lives.

**Marriages in Hard Times and Wealth**

The first attack of the newly acquired wealth is on the conjugal life. This includes the existing marriages as well as the marriages that are yet to take place, new marriages, and divorces to get rid of unhappy marriages. The example of the existing marriage is that of Mr. Gradgrind with Mrs. Gradgrind where there is no love and no emotion. Mr. Gradgrind’s philosophy of “nothing but Facts!” (Dickens 06) runs in his married life including his relationships with his kids to whom he does not want to learn poetry when Mrs. Gradgrind suggests about it. His reply is that it must be the bad influence of the presence of circus girl, Sissy Jupe. He is so much blinded by his mantra of facts that he is ready to marry his daughter Louisa to Mr. Bounderby, the man more than double of her age, merely because he is a self-styled wealthy bachelor. However, what he fails to understand is that he has not taught humanistic feelings to his children, the reason that his daughter fails to adjust to new married life with Mr. Bounderby, and his son becomes rather a thief. This shows the impact of wealth on marriages in Hard Times.

Common Marriages in Hard Times

The second example of marriage, devastated by the onslaught of industrialism and newly acquired wealth leading to exploitation of others, is of Stephen Blackpool who, despite finding a very good and compassionate friend Rachael, cannot get rid of his old wife. It also counts among the worst marriages in Hard Times. It is because divorce was very difficult to get during the Victorian period, for the laws are legislated to benefit the rich, while the poor are reeling under the debt. Mrs. Blackpool is not only very lascivious but also bad-tempered, and this Hand, who works hard and honestly, has no way out except her death or his own death, which happens in any case before he could experience the blissful conjugal life with Rachael. Still another example is the marriage of Louisa with Bounderby which is based on the convenience of the business world but proves disastrous for Louisa, for she does not have any feelings for the old self-made factory owner who claims to have “born in a ditch” (47). Although it shows another disastrous or must-have-been disastrous marriage, for his claim that his mother “ran away from me” (47) proved wrong by the end when it is proved that the old beggar lady is his mother, Mrs. Pegler and that she has not left him; rather he has thrown her out after acquiring wealth. However, this marriage has not been shown in the novel.

Other Marriages in Hard Times

The example of Louisa’s marriage with Bounderby proves disastrous. She does not know romance and passions involved in conjugal life, as she does not express her emotions when she is told, “you are subject of a proposal of marriage” (132), but then the subject of love is debated in such a hard-facts manner that it proves entirely useless until Mr. Gradgrind has to ask her to “consider this question” (133). The interesting thing is that even after living for sometime together, Louisa is devoid of any emotions to her husband. That is why she is lured to Mr. James Harthouse to whom she goes to meet and is implicated by Mrs. Sparsity. By the end, she is so much devasted that Mr. Gradgrind refuses to send her to Mr. Bounderby, showing utter failure of the marriage.

The episode of Mr. Harthouse showing and showering love on Louisa is an example of emotionless and amoral youths of the Victorian period who are hellbent on enjoying life instead of establishing the institution of married life. He himself is not aware of this flirtation with Louis and leaves after required by Sissy Jupe. Therefore, his example of love is the example of not-happened marriages in Hard Times.

On the other hand, the circus people and Sissy Jupe has been placed in contrast to marriages in Hard Times. Sissy Jupe displays not only compassion and understanding of emotions, but also munificence and generosity in forgiving. Her marrying somebody and having children to be taken care by Louisa shows that circus life represents a world of human beings devoid of “facts” (06) and money represented by Mr. Gradgrind and Bounderby. Her arrangement for Tom to leave the town and the help she gets from the circus people Mr. Sleary to make his escape possible shows that salvation lies not in hard facts, money and mechanized life. It rather lies in helping and being helped and loving and being loved. Initially hated and spurned in the household of Mr. Gradgrind, Sissy Jupe becomes a cynosure of the eyes of all the characters whom she saves in the end from going to the prison and helping to have feelings. For both of his children, Mr. Gradgrind finds a helping hand which he has spurned his entire life.

Conclusion

To cut the argument short, almost all marriages in Hard Times ar based on money, social status, lasciviousness and greed produced by the ravishing industrialism utterly fail. However, the poor fellows who are spurned, exploited and even tortured prove successful in marriage and having children, which is an example that life lived in wealth and devoid of feelings is an utter disaster. However, those who have exploited the poor but lived a seemingly successful married life prove utter failure in making their children’s conjugal lives or careers a success. Tom and Louisa’s lives are a case in point. Louisa ends up serving Sissy Jupe and Tom ends up living abroad, away from his homeland as well as his parents. Bounderby proves a hoax, having left his mother after getting wealth. In short, only the circus people seems to have succeeded in winning hearts of the readers due to their help and service in saving the prime institution, the married life.

Works Cited

Dickens, Charles. Hard Times. Adelaide Library, Ebook. 2014.

Relevant Question about **Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens**

How do the different marriages in “Hard Times” reflect the societal norms and values of the Victorian era, and what commentary does Dickens provide on the institution of marriage during that time?

The marriage of Mr. Bounderby and Louisa Gradgrind is central to the novel’s plot. How does this marriage serve as a critique of utilitarianism and its impact on personal relationships, and what consequences does it have on the characters involved?
In “Hard Times,” there is a stark contrast between the marriages of the factory workers, such as Stephen Blackpool and Rachael, and those of the upper classes, like Mr. and Mrs. Gradgrind. How does Dickens use these different marriages to highlight the class divide and the struggles of working-class individuals in matters of love and family?

Lulu Lamartine: Indianness in Love Medicine

Introduction to Lulu Lamartine

Despite having various faults as seen from the social comments about and against her “as a flirt” with “Tongues less kind” (105), Lulu Lamartine reconnects the males in various indigenous Indian ways. She expresses it herself that “I was in love with the whole world,” (272) demonstrating the passion lying behind her supposed or real promiscuity. It has moved the tongues and stirred commentaries about her. Her feminine power, however, lies not in her promiscuity or loving nature; rather, it lies in that she has “never shed one solitary tear” and not felt “sorry” for what she has done (273). These moves reassure not only her but also others as she has demonstrated it when dealing with her different lovers and her eight sons who “were of one soul” (114) with her. She also demonstrates her sagacity in choosing her husband between Bev and Henry when they met the first time. The centrality of her role about different characters shows her multidimensional Indianness. In fact, not only does Lulu Lamartine provide necessary love medicine to different Indians by demonstrating her traditional Indian femininity and empowerment, but she also tries to reconnect the people when it comes to her relationship with Bev and Lipsha Morrisey.

Love of Lulu Lamartine

As far as love is concerned, Lulu Lamartine seems an embodiment of love who not only seeks love for herself but also showers love on others. In her narrative, Lulu asserts, “I was in love with the whole world” (272) including nature as well as men. She further adds that “I loved what I saw” (273). It means that she is hungry for love as she did it during her childhood when she could not win Nector. She demonstrates this love that attracts men, provides them comfort, reconnects them as well as heals them. When it comes to attracting men, she goes for Moses Pillager when she sees that Nector Kashpaw, her “first love” (273), has left her for another woman. She demonstrates this love again when she marries Henry, for she gets the reaction when dealing with both brothers in a card game (112). She demonstrates it again through her gestures which are “subtle magnets” (113) that Bev immediately forgets his mission of getting Henry back and enters her bedroom which is “the sacred domain of her femininity” (116). He even does not feel that he has lost his mission of dealing with her diplomatically (116) that he has come with determination. This is a specific Indian trait of loving that if you do not win one love in one way, you go after it another way. Although she becomes the talk of the town in this effort of her to find love, it does not matter to her. Therefore, it must have happened in the choice of her husband that she is pragmatically loving, for she must have seen her survival in marrying one after the other. In one way, this also shows her courage in dealing with them.

Courage of Lulu Lamartine

Where courage is concerned, it is Indian courage of femininity that Lulu Lamartine demonstrates in love as well as in providing a healing touch of love to others. For example, she has clearly provided this healing touch to Bev who almost forgets his mission when he visits her to bring his son but gets entangled in her love. He automatically enters her bedroom (113) after forgetting everything about his mission of taking his son. Again, when they talk about things and their first meeting, he is shocked when he hears that it was Lulu who decided to marry which brother and it was “bold even for Lulu” (111) herself. He again observes this femininity when he sees the boys. In the case of boys, this love mixes with respect as well as obedience and Bev sees that “the younger boys obey” her “perfectly” (114). This femininity also goes into providing a healing touch to Lipsha Morrisey who does not know his real mother but when Lulu drags him to tell this fact about who his real mother was, he says, “I’ll respect her from now on” (299). He comes to know her sincere and true motive after this. Not only is this a bold move on the part of Lulu, but also this provides real healing touch to Lipsha who has all along been entirely ignorant of his real father and mother. This entirely depends on the courage of Lulu and only Lulu could do it. It is also that Lipsha starts believing that Lulu has a “near-divine healing touch,” (299) the reason that she has provided it to him on time. This shows the courage that Lulu has due to her Indian femininity that reaches out to all others who encounter her.

Relationships of Lulu Lamartine

In both of her relationships with Bev and Lipsha, Lulu Lamartine also provides a link to them to reconnect to their families. In one way, these prove healing touches, and, in another way, both reconnect to their loved ones and their Indian roots. For example, in the case of Ben, she has waited for him for so long that when she hugs him as he enters, he feels this love. She proves this when he senses “some sweet apprehension of their kinship” (114) and when he seems to have “no plans at all” (115) for his son, Henry Juniors, though he has plans to take him with him before meeting her. This is purely her presence that reconnects Bev to his family of nephews and his son in a way that it “hardly mattered who was what” (116). For Bev, it is a reconnection as well as a healing touch. Almost the same is the case of Lipsha Morrisey who believes in her divine healing touch after he comes to know about his real father and mother. He becomes fully convinced of her divine powers like that of another lady, Germain, as he says, “If she had some kind of power, I wasn’t one to doubt” (299). Bev, too, sees that Lulu has connected all her sons into one soul as they act together. He enviously looks at them working and obeying her “bound in total loyalty” (114) like they were in their youthful period. This tradition of reconnection runs deep into the Indian femininity demonstrated by Lulu and identified as well as appreciated by Bev. He sees that they were also connected to their siblings in the same way though he does not mention the femininity that held them together – which of course is his own mother. Lipsha, too, appreciates the same when he comes to know about his family.

Conclusion

Putting it briefly, the pure Indian character of Lulu Lulu Lamartine or Nanapush proves her Indianesses when it comes to providing love, showering love, attracting men, asserting femininity, and reconnecting the Indians to their Indian roots. She has demonstrated her love for everything be it, men, or women. She has showered love on her first love, Nector, and turned to Moses when Nector flees. She, then, provides the loving comfort of a wife to her every husband even if it means a title of flirt for her with some additional comments against her. She has demonstrated this love toward her siblings, creating a sense of unity and love among them that they act like they are part of a single organism. She again demonstrates this love when she deals with Bev when he comes to take his son away. In a way, she has always shown love to attract men or patriarchy toward her feminine power. This feminine power emerges to unite the Indian males as well as inform them about their family and family roots. She reconnects both Bev and Lipsha to their families and both acknowledge it. This reconnection of people having lost family connection and consequently Indianness is in a way an Indian indigenous act of reconnecting the individuals to the organism – the Indianness. It proves a healing touch to those whom she connects. Bev feels it when he comes to meet her and sees the boy acting in unison with love as they have acted in their childhood. Lipsha feels gratitude for her when she reconnects him to his family. In short, Lulu Lamartine is a magnet around whom the entire Indian culture revolves, and she provides it necessary subtlety, resilience, and surviving power to overcome the deracination of modern US culture.

Works Cited

Erdrich, Louise. Love Medicine. 1984. New and Expanded Version. New York: Holt, 1993.

How does Lulu Lamartine’s Ojibwe heritage and cultural background influence her relationships with other characters in “Love Medicine,” and what role does her Indianness play in shaping her identity within the story?
Throughout the novel, Lulu Lamartine is depicted as a symbol of sensuality and allure. How does her Indianness contribute to the portrayal of her as a powerful, magnetic figure, and how do others in the narrative respond to her as a result?
Lulu Lamartine’s character navigates the complexities of preserving Ojibwe traditions while existing in a world influenced by white American culture. How does her struggle to reconcile these two worlds highlight the challenges faced by Indigenous individuals in maintaining their cultural identity in a rapidly changing society?

Infanta in Le Cid: Character Analysis

Infanta in Le Cid, a great play, is a highly important character as se serves as a catalyst for the occurrence of numerous events.

Introduction to Infanta in Le Cid

Infanta in Le Cid, a great play, is a highly important character as se serves as a catalyst for the occurrence of numerous events. It needs to be stressed that her actual name is Donna Urraque. She the aughter of an esteemed Don Ferdinand. Despite the fact that in most modern stage enactments, her character is either not highlighted or eliminated altogether, Infanta remains a pivotal character of Le Cid. In fact, an in-depth analysis of the play reveals that Infanta can be regarded as Chimene’s foil — the female protagonist of the play. Her personality attributes serve as a direct contrast to Chimene’s behavioral traits. As opposed to Chimene, Infanta is not driven by passion or impulse; rather she is pragmatic and places high value on integrity and social responsibility. In other words, Infanta endorses a collectivistic social system and hence, she makes decisions that would serve the interests of her community. Due to this emphasis on social responsibility, Infanta does not pursue or profess the immense love she feels for Don Rodrigue — the protagonist. As opposed to her emotions, she follows logic and reason. Although Infanta could have easily pursued and lured Don Rodrigue, her personal values and social conscience prevents her from doing so. Therefore, Infanta can be regarded as a prototype of all those individuals who possess foresight and social wisdom. As a devoted citizen, Infanta in Le Cid believes that retribution should be ordained in order to safeguard social or communal interest and not merely for satiating one’s desire for vengeance.

Awareness of Infanta in Le Cid

Infanta’s awareness of the overpowering appeal of love becomes evident when she acknowledges to her governess, Leonor that “Love is a tyrant who spares none, I fear / This young knight, this lover, aided here, / I love” (L e Cid Act-I Scene-I) which itself is an admission of an extraordinary determination.Nonetheless, as asserted earlier, Infanta desists herself from pursuing a love that is bound to be doomed. She is acutely conscious of her royal stature that of a princess; hence, her loyalty and her strong sense of duty towards her state compel her to renounce her quest of the young warrior, thereby willfully abandoning herself to her duties as a royal member. It is actually this sense of duty that urges her to unite the esteemed warrior, the object of her desire- Don Rodrigue — with Chimene. She says to Chimene, “Dry your tears, Chimene, and free of sadness” (Act-V Scene-VII) adding “receive him from the hands of your princess” (Act-V Scene-VII). When Chimene is consumed by the desire to avenge her father’s murder by penalizing Don Rodrigue, Infanta advises her against it. She attempts to persuade Chimene to reconsider her desire for revenge by stating that if she complies with the law, the good of the country lies in this.

Royal Character of Infanta in Le Cid

Like a devoted member of the state, Infanta in Le Cid manifests perfection in terms of both personal and royal integrity. Instead of ensuring her own happiness at the expense of the happiness of the majority, she adheres to the belief that it is far more honorable to safeguard the happiness of another. Thus, she does not use her stature and influence as a princess to perpetuate her self-interest rather she wants to “seek in the good of another” in the very first scene adding further that this “marriage means so much to all three” (Act-I Scene-I).Thus, like a devout princess or a considerate monarch, she believes in the spirit of self-sacrifice when it comes to the prosperity of her subjects.

Rationality of Infanta in Le Cid

There are numerous instances in the play where instead of resorting to manipulative tactics, Infanta in Le Cid adopts a more rational and moderate approach vis-à-vis her love for Don Rodrigue. However, being human, Infanta suffers from instances of weakness. During one of these moments of weakness, she states to her governess, Leonor “the effect of reason, / When the heart is touched by subtle poison!” (Act-II, Scene-III) is quite weak and not strong. What she means is that reason does not work. When Chimene is undergoing extreme anguish and turmoil with regard to whether she should forgive Don Rodrigue- the chivalrous hero who has saved the kingdom of Castille, she says to Chimene, “Be calm, Chimene, calm your mind’s disturbance, / Be steadfast in the face of this mischance, / You’ll find fresh peace after this brief storm” (Act-II Scene-III).Thus, instead of exploiting Chimene’s anger and benefitting from it to form a union between herself and Don Rodrigue, Infanta advises Chimene to be patient and to postpone making any decision till her anger subsides.

Actions of Infanta in Le Cid

Furthermore, Infanta persuades Chimene to vanquish her desire of seeking Don Rodrigue’s blood in return for her father’s slaying and also expresses her determination that “I’ll help you quench your desire” ( Act-V Scene II). Thus, Infanta plays a quintessential role in minimizing the feelings of aversion and animosity between the two lovers and insists that “Even the King agrees, the truth is plain,/ That in Rodrigue your father lives again; / If you’d have me explain it in a breath, / You pursue public ruin through his death (Act-IV Scene-II). In fact, she has made her realize that “What was right then is not so today. / Rodrigue is now our sole support” (Act-IV Scene-II). And she Chimene demurs, she makes it clear that “But it’s a deed of a higher order / To put the public good before a father” (Act-IV Scene-II). Moreover, she tries to rip to pieces Chemine’s rigid notions about reclaiming family honor by advocating forgiveness and asserting;

“Why should this public notice so pain you?

This young Mars, they praise, once pleased you;

Possessed your soul; was subject to your law”. (Act-V Scene-II)

It is noteworthy that although she herself does not adhere to the emotional demands her heart places upon her, Infanta urges Chimene to follow her heart’s desire stating that therein lies true honor that is in honestly acknowledging the desires of one’s heart as opposed to one’s adherence to societal and familial notions of honor. This shows that for Infanta, love can only be pursued between individuals who belong to relatively compatible social classes.

Conclusion

In the final analysis, it can be asserted that Infanta upholds the status quo. She acts as a mediator between Le Cid, the renowned warrior and Chemine. She does not let herself get swayed by her passionate love for Don Rodrigue. Acting in a manner that would guarantee her subjects’ prosperity, she deliberately tries to extinguish her feelings of love, and instead channelizes her energy in convincing Chemine to forgive Don Rodrigue thereby preventing the loss of an integral state hero. For Infanta, the existence of a state hero- an ideal and exemplary warrior- is more significant than retribution. Therefore, she questions and redefines the entire notion and theoretical framework of preserving family honor. For Infanta, the state supersedes personal and familial interests. Her rational self persistently reminds her that as a princess, she can only cherish a long-term union with a member of another royal family. Thus, Infanta in Le Cid shows rationalism and pragmatism. This enables her to use her persuasive skills and her worldly wisdom to prevent the occurrence of unnecessary bloodshed. Therefore, she can be regarded as a central character of Le Cid, without whom the play would lose its coherence.

Works Cited

Corneille. “Le Cid.” 06 June 2007. Poetry In Translation. Translation by A. S. Kiln. Web. 20 March 2014 <http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/French/LeCid.htm>.

Relevant Questions about Infanta in Le Cid

What is Infanta’s role in the plot of Le Cid and how does she influence the story’s events?

How does Infanta’s character develop or change as the play Le Cid progresses?
What is the nature of the relationship between Infanta and Rodrigue, and how does it impact the overall narrative of Le Cid?

Jose Marti: A Pragmatic Romantic Latino Voice

Jose Marti, the father of the Cuban Revolution is one of the most popular and emphatic faces of the modernist and later romantic Latino literature face.

Introduction to Jose Marti

Jose Marti, the father of the Cuban Revolution is one of the most popular and emphatic faces of the modernist and later romantic Latino literature face. Born in Havana, Marti soon became a powerful literary figure of the Hispanic language who has staunchly opposed Spanish imperialism and worked to bring the American rulers to join hands against the onslaught of imperialism. Termed as a Latino Whitman, Marti’s output has been tremendous both in terms of volume as well as impact. Several of his works have won him everlasting acclaim as the face of the revolutionary America, or Latino American revolutionary. However, pitted in-between the romanticism and modernism styles, Jose Marti has demonstrated versatility in writing everything under the sun depicting not only his talent but also the richness of Latino literature. He has a very keen eye for nature as well as a keen sense and intellect for pragmatism to suggest political acumen. Almost every other work of Marti shows both schools amalgamating within him somewhere here and there. True to his nature as a romantic as well as modernism, his essay “Our America” shows Marti at his best by showing a revolutionary spirit in the beginning as well as the pragmatism of collecting people on the single platform on the other hand. In the same way, he has also shown the same spirit in his poem “Coney Island” where he again talks of America both as rich in resources and materialistic greed. Marti’s writings not only show his revolutionary spirit but also his pragmatic statesman as well as a lover of nature.

Revolutionary Spirit of Jose Marti

Whereas his revolutionary spirit is concerned, various of his works demonstrate his skill in creating a revolutionary spirit. Armed with great mind and writing skills, he asserts in his essay “Our America” that whatever the situation is, weapons of mind should never be left behind. He adds that “Barricades of ideas are worth more than the barricades of stones” over the Spanish and European imperialism of the Latin American colonies (324). He urged all the American republics to join hands to defeat the onslaught of imperialism and attackers. However, he also stressed upon the political stability at home removing discrimination of race and color which he sees as great impediments for the people to attain heroic status for their love for freedom. He is of the view that the time for the mobilization is there when there is any attack on the motherland occurs and this is the time that all the others should join hands with everyone else to defeat the attackers. In this connection, he is not only colonialism but also expansionism as he has attacked the Americans fighting abroad and asked them to fight for their country. He is in favor of the power of the natives as he has claimed in the same essay that “Government must originate in the country” (325) by which he means that the natives are capable enough to form their own government and run their own country. His revolutionary spirit is actually the same spirit of romanticism that has traveled from Europe to America and has crept into Latino literature too. It is evident in his other essay “Coney Island” where he again praises America saying “Does this colossal nation contain ferocious and terrible elements?” (130), adding that it lacks nothing but only that it is engulfed in materialism. This also shows his socialist spirit but that is engulfed in his fervor for revolution.

Colonialism and Jose Marti

However, it is quite interesting that he is standing at the verge of modernism where pragmatism rules the roost over the writers as well as thinkers about the future as well as the freedom from colonialism. Colonialism was raging at that time when Marti rose against the Spanish occupation of Cuba due to which he went to America and traveled to New York and other cities. That is why he has given the lesson of pragmatism of modernism to the politicians of Latino American countries and states. Due to the onslaught of colonialism, he knows that the one state or country or race cannot fight the invaders and that for that “Whatever is left of that sleepy hometown in America must awaken” adding that “uncultured masses are lazy and timid in the realm of intelligence” (326) which is a pragmatic approach when analyzing the people who are to govern themselves. At the same time, he has also seen that America, too, is going to involve itself in these things to which he alludes a little and goes to the root cause of progress and justice that he calls as knowledge as he says “Knowing is what counts” but quickly adds “To know one’s country and government it with that knowledge is the only way to free it from tyranny” (327). In his essay “Coney Island” the impacts of this pragmatic approach during the romantic period could be traced at the same time when he praises the verdant beauty of the North American region and also addresses the newspapers and unions. He shows it in another place when he says that “Other peoples—ourselves among them—live in prey to a sublime inner demon that drives us to a relentless pursuit of an ideal of love or glory” (133). This could be said only by a romantic one who is living in the modern age too and knows everything about both of them.

Jose Marti as Poet of Nature

At the same time, Jose Marti is a poet and loves nature which is evident not only in his prose but also in his poems. He even goes on to say in one of his poems “I am an honest man / From where the palm tree grows” (Lines 1-2) where his love for nature is evident. It shows that he loves nature for the sake of nature and knows that love for nature makes a person pure and honest. That is why honesty is parallel to trees. In the same way, it is also clear in his essay “Our America” which starts with a villager who lives close to nature. He, at the same time, holds everything natural as close to the heart of a natural man or man living in the state of nature. In this attempt, he has also used natural metaphorical language to depict different emotional states such as the metaphor of tiger and octopus but his attention is more on the natural man, his rights, and the justice and the impact of this justice on the local people to rise up against oppression. That is why he has advised his readers in his essay “Our American” that they should shun racial discrimination for in the state of nature all men are equal and of the same color. He has stressed upon it for the Americans to rise up against Spanish colonialism as he says “There can be no racial animosity, because there are no races” (329). Although it is also a pragmatic claim that he has made in this essay, for at that time he wants to bring the United States to stop Spain and get his homeland freed, still it shows his love for nature and love for equality.

Conclusion

Briefly stating, it could be said that Jose Marti has been a middle face of Latino literature who was steeped in both the movements; romanticism as well as modernism. He has written not only in the romantic vein but also in modern strain. He has been a revolutionary spirit and political soul. He has dibbed his fingers in everything but has always shown pragmatic tendencies. His essays “Our America” and “Coney Island” have ample evidences which show that as a romantic, he has shown his love for nature, his love for freedom and his love for equality. As a modern, he has shown political acumen to make the people rise up, to join hands with other countries to free his homeland, and to end racial discrimination. It is also that he has written much and has traveled widely, he is considered as one of the most popular Latino writers to have wider impacts on the whole Latino American region. He is considered as the pioneer of revolutionary Latino literature in America.

Works Cited

Marti, Jose. Selected Writings. Edited and Translated by Esther Allen. New York: Penguin Books, 2001.

___. “Our America.” From The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature edited by Ilan Stavans. WWNorton, 2016. 628-639.

Relevant Questions about Jose Marti A Pragmatic Romantic Latino Voice

How did Jose Marti’s upbringing and early life experiences shape his identity as a pragmatic romantic Latino voice?
In what ways did Jose Marti’s writings and activism contribute to the promotion of Latino cultural identity and unity in the late 19th century?

Can you explain some of the key themes and ideas in Jose Marti’s work that reflect his status as a pragmatic romantic, and how did these ideas resonate with the Latino community during his time and beyond?

Liminality in Literature & Literary Theory

Liminality, as a theoretical term, refers to a state of transition or in-betweenness characterized by ambiguity and uncertainty.

Etymology of Liminality

The term “liminality” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “limen,” which means “threshold” or “boundary.” It was originally coined by the anthropologist Arnold van Gennep in the early 20th century to describe the intermediate phase of a rite of passage, a concept he derived from observing rituals and ceremonies in various cultures.

With time, “liminality” has evolved to refer not only to the transitional state within rituals but also to any ambiguous or in-between condition where individuals or groups temporarily occupy a position at the edge or boundary of social or cultural norms.

This concept has been adopted and expanded upon in fields such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and literary studies to analyze various aspects of human experience and cultural phenomena involving states of ambiguity, transformation, and change.

Meanings of Liminality

Meanings	Explanation
Threshold of Transformation:	In literature, liminality often represents a transitional phase in a character’s journey, where they stand at the threshold of significant personal growth or change. It signifies a period of uncertainty and potential, where characters may undergo profound transformations.
Narrative Tension:	Liminal spaces and moments can create narrative tension, as characters grapple with ambiguity and the unknown. It can serve as a powerful plot device, driving the story forward and keeping readers engaged.
Symbolism of Transition:	Liminality is frequently employed as a symbolic element in literature, representing more than just physical or temporal transitions. It can symbolize psychological, cultural, or societal shifts, providing deeper layers of meaning to the narrative.
Exploration of Identity:	Liminality in literature often leads to an exploration of identity. Characters caught in liminal states may question their roles, beliefs, and values, leading to self-discovery and introspection.
Cultural and Social Critique:	In literary theory, liminality is used to critique societal and cultural norms. It sheds light on how individuals or groups who occupy liminal spaces challenge established boundaries and question prevailing ideologies.
Ritual and Ceremony:	Liminality is closely tied to rituals and ceremonies in literature, mirroring its anthropological roots. These rituals often involve characters passing through a liminal phase, marking a transition from one state to another.
Psychological States:	Liminality is also applied to explore characters’ psychological states, especially when they are in a state of uncertainty, ambiguity, or crisis. It delves into the complexities of the human psyche during times of transition.
Transformation and Change:	Liminal moments and spaces are frequently associated with transformative experiences in literature. They highlight the potential for growth, enlightenment, or even loss that can occur during these transitional phases.

Definition of Liminality as a Theoretical Term

Liminality, as a theoretical term, refers to a state of transition or in-betweenness characterized by ambiguity and uncertainty.

It is often used in anthropology, sociology, and literary theory to describe the intermediate phase where individuals or groups occupy a position at the threshold of distinct social, cultural, or psychological states.

This concept highlights the transformative potential and the challenges associated with crossing boundaries or undergoing profound changes in various contexts.

Liminality: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Arnold van Gennep: Originated the concept of liminality in his work on rites of passage, laying the foundation for its application in anthropology and literary theory.
Victor Turner: Developed and expanded upon van Gennep’s ideas, particularly in the context of ritual and social anthropology, contributing to the understanding of liminality as a transformative and culturally significant state.

Key Works:

The Rites of Passage by Arnold van Gennep: This seminal work introduced the concept of liminality as an essential phase in rituals and rites of passage, which later influenced its adoption in literary and cultural analysis.

The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure by Victor Turner: In this work, Turner further elucidates the concept of liminality, exploring its role in various cultural and social contexts and emphasizing its importance as a phase of ambiguity and transformation.

Central Arguments:

Transformation and Transition: The central argument concerning liminality is its role as a transitional phase where individuals or groups undergo profound changes, both psychologically and culturally, as they navigate the threshold between two distinct states.
Cultural and Social Significance: Liminality is argued to hold cultural and social significance, often challenging established norms and hierarchies. It provides a space for subversion, questioning, and cultural critique within rituals, literature, and society.

Narrative and Symbolism: In literary theory, liminality is seen as a powerful narrative tool and symbol, representing moments of tension, growth, and transformation in the lives of characters or societies. It adds depth and complexity to narratives by exploring the liminal spaces between familiar structures.

Liminality and Literary Theories

Type	Relevance of Liminality
Structuralism:	Liminality is used in structuralist literary theory to highlight moments of transition and transformation in narratives. It focuses on the disruption of binary oppositions and the exploration of in-between states, emphasizing the inherent instability and ambiguity present in literary texts.
Postcolonialism:	In postcolonial literary theory, liminality is employed to analyze the experiences of individuals and communities caught between colonial and postcolonial identities. It helps to understand the complexities of cultural hybridity and the negotiation of power dynamics in literature from postcolonial regions.
Feminist Theory:	Liminality is used within feminist literary theory to explore the position of women in literature and society. It often relates to the liminal spaces women occupy, both in terms of societal roles and personal identity. Feminist theorists examine how these transitional phases impact the portrayal of female characters and their agency in narratives.
Narratology:	Within narratology, liminality is utilized to analyze the structure and progression of narratives. It helps scholars understand how transitional phases in a story contribute to its overall development, creating tension and opportunities for character growth.
Cultural Studies:	Liminality is employed in cultural studies to critique societal norms and explore the complexities of cultural boundaries and identities depicted in literature. It is used to examine how individuals or groups who occupy liminal spaces challenge established norms and ideologies within a specific cultural context.
Psychoanalytic Theory:	Psychoanalytic literary theory uses liminality to delve into the psychological states of characters during moments of transition or crisis. It offers insights into the inner workings of the human psyche, particularly when characters confront ambiguity and uncertainty.
Poststructuralism:	In poststructuralist literary theory, liminality plays a crucial role in deconstructing binary oppositions and revealing the fluidity of meaning. It emphasizes how texts and identities are not fixed but constantly shifting and contingent, blurring boundaries between categories.
Queer Theory:	Liminality is used in queer literary theory to examine non-normative experiences of gender and sexuality. It explores the spaces between conventional categories and identities, highlighting the fluidity and complexity of queer narratives and characters.

Liminality in Literary Criticism

Neverwhere by Neil Gaiman (1996, British-American Literature):
- While “Neverwhere” is from the 1990s, it captures the liminality of a hidden and parallel world beneath London. The protagonist, Richard Mayhew, enters this dark and mysterious realm, becoming a liminal figure who straddles two worlds. Gaiman’s narrative explores the blurred boundaries between reality and fantasy, emphasizing the transient nature of urban existence.

The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood (1985, Canadian-American Literature):
- Atwood’s dystopian masterpiece, The Handmaid’s Tale, is a reflection of the liminal space between the past and the future. The novel is set in the Republic of Gilead, where women’s roles are strictly defined. Offred, the protagonist, occupies a liminal position as a Handmaid, torn between her previous life and her oppressive present. The narrative explores the fragility of freedom and the fluidity of identity.
Midnight’s Children by Salman Rushdie (1981, British-Indian Literature):
- Rushdie’s novel is a tapestry of postcolonial liminality, set against the backdrop of India’s transition to independence. The protagonist, Saleem Sinai, is born at the exact moment of India’s independence, linking his life with the destiny of the nation. His narrative reflects the liminal space between personal and collective history, with magical realism blurring the boundaries between reality and myth.
White Noise by Don DeLillo (1985, American Literature):
- DeLillo’s novel White Noise explores the liminality of modern consumer culture and the pervasive influence of media. The characters exist in a state of constant sensory overload, highlighting the liminal space between the real and the simulated. The novel critiques the ambiguity and uncertainty that arise in a world saturated with information and technology.

Introduction Postmodernism in Maus

Postmodernism in Maus as Manipulation of Avant-Garde

History and Postmodenrism in Maus

Postmodernism in Maus through Metanarrative

Identity and Postmodernism in Maus

Conclusion

Works Cited

Introduction

Criticism Against Critical Race Theory

Examples of Critical Race Theory

Keywords in Critical Race Theory

Suggested Readings

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

Introduction

Meanings of Critical Race Literary Theory

Critical Race Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Key Arguments

Origin:

Theorists:

Works:

Key Arguments:

Principles of Critical Race Theory

Critical Race Theory or Critical Race Literary Theory?

Suggested Readings

Introduction African American Theory

Criticism Against African American Theory

Examples of African American Theory

Keywords in African American Theory

Suggested Readings

Etymology of African American Literary Theory

African American Literary Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of African American Literary Theory

Prominent Theorists

Key Works in African American Literary Theory

Core Arguments

Principles of African American Literary Theory

Relevant Theoretical Frameworks and Concepts

Critical Race Theory and Its Application to African American Literature

Postcolonial Theory and its Impact on African American Literary Theory and Literature

Feminist and Gender Theories within African American Literary Criticism

Intersectionality and the Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class

African American Literary Criticism and Aesthetics

Contemporary Developments and Debates

Suggested Readings about African American Literary Theory

Introduction to Marriages in Hard Times

Marriages in Hard Times and Wealth

Common Marriages in Hard Times

Other Marriages in Hard Times

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Question about Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens

Introduction to Lulu Lamartine

Love of Lulu Lamartine

Courage of Lulu Lamartine

Relationships of Lulu Lamartine

Conclusion

Works Cited

Introduction to Infanta in Le Cid

Awareness of Infanta in Le Cid

Royal Character of Infanta in Le Cid

Rationality of Infanta in Le Cid

Actions of Infanta in Le Cid

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Infanta in Le Cid

Introduction to Jose Marti

Revolutionary Spirit of Jose Marti

Colonialism and Jose Marti

Jose Marti as Poet of Nature

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Jose Marti A Pragmatic Romantic Latino Voice

Etymology of Liminality

Meanings of Liminality

Definition of Liminality as a Theoretical Term

Liminality: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Key Works:

Central Arguments:

Liminality and Literary Theories

Liminality in Literary Criticism

**Postmodernism in Maus through Metanarrative**

**Marriages in Hard Times and Wealth**

Relevant Question about **Marriages in Hard Times by Dickens**