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Deconstruction Literary Theory aka Deconstructionism

Deconstruction literary theory is widely recognized and accepted term referring to the critical theory associated with Jacques Derrida.

Introduction to Deconstruction Literary Theory

The common term used in academic discourse is “Deconstruction” or “Deconstruction literary theory.” While both “Deconstructionism” and “Deconstruction” are occasionally used interchangeably, “Deconstruction” is the more widely recognized and accepted term when referring to the critical theory associated with thinkers like Jacques Derrida. It is used to describe the analytical approach that seeks to uncover the inherent contradictions, ambiguities, and complexities within texts.

Etymology of Deconstruction

The term “deconstruction” originates from the French word déconstruction, which itself has its roots in the Latin language. The Latin term “de-” means “to undo” or “to reverse,” while construere means “to build” or “to construct.” Therefore, “deconstruction” is understood as the process of “unbuilding” or “undoing” the structures or assumptions underlying a text or concept.

Meanings of Deconstruction

Textual Subversion: Deconstruction involves the subversion of traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts, emphasizing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.

De-centering Binary Opposites: It challenges binary oppositions and hierarchies present in language and culture, revealing how terms like “good” and “evil” are interconnected and dependent on each other.
Différance: Deconstruction introduces the concept of “différance,” highlighting the constant deferral and difference in meaning, where meanings are deferred from one signifier to another.
Undecidability: It emphasizes the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers.

Textual Playfulness: Deconstruction often employs strategies of wordplay, irony, and paradox to disrupt conventional interpretations and reveal hidden complexities.
Contextualization: Deconstruction considers the historical, cultural, and linguistic context of a text as crucial for understanding its multiple interpretations.
Reader Involvement: It acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning and views interpretation as a collaborative and subjective process.

Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by highlighting its inherent contradictions.
Non-foundationalism: It rejects the idea of foundational truths or fixed meanings, promoting a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.
Interdisciplinary Influence: Deconstruction has influenced various fields beyond literature, including philosophy, linguistics, cultural studies, and the social sciences.

Deconstruction Literary Theory and Deconstructionism: Comparison and Contrast

Deconstruction Literary Theory	Deconstructionism
Developed by Jacques Derrida in the late 1960s and early 1970s.	A broader term encompassing deconstruction as a literary theory and its wider implications.
A response to structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.	Influenced by Jacques Derrida’s ideas.
Seeks to reveal and challenge underlying assumptions and binary oppositions within a text.	Extends beyond literature to other fields like philosophy, social sciences, art, and architecture.
Exposes inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts.	Incorporates deconstructive thought across various disciplines.
Emphasizes the instability of language and the constructed nature of meaning.	Explores the instability of language and meaning in diverse contexts.
Analyzes how texts deconstruct themselves through contradictions and aporias.	Challenges hierarchical binaries and traditional conceptual frameworks.
Questions hierarchical binaries and traditional notions of truth and authorial intention.

Deconstruction Literary Theory/Deconstructionism: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

Emerged in the mid-20th century as a philosophical and literary movement, primarily associated with French thinker Jacques Derrida.

Theorists:

Jacques Derrida: The foremost proponent and theorist of Deconstruction, Derrida’s works, such as Of Grammatology and “Writing and Difference,” laid the foundation for the theory.

Works:

Of Grammatology (1967): In this seminal work, Derrida explores the nature of writing and its relationship to speech, challenging the hierarchical distinctions between the two.

Writing and Difference (1967): Derrida discusses the concepts of différance, the play of signifiers, and the deconstruction of metaphysical oppositions in language and thought.

Arguments:

De-centering of Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction argues against fixed binary oppositions in language, revealing how terms like presence/absence, good/evil, and speech/writing are interconnected and mutually dependent.
Différance: The concept of “différance” underscores the constant deferral and difference in meaning, suggesting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.

Undecidability: Deconstruction asserts the undecidability of language, challenging the idea of a definitive interpretation and highlighting the perpetual play of signifiers.
Reader Involvement: It emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning and acknowledges that interpretations are subjective and context-dependent.
Critique of Logocentrism: Deconstruction critiques “logocentrism,” the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language, by exposing its contradictions and the absence of a stable foundation.

Principles of Deconstructionism

These principles guide the deconstructionist approach to literary analysis, highlighting the destabilizing and subversive nature of the theory.

Principles	Main Points
1. Language and Meaning	Language is inherently unstable and lacks fixed or objective meanings. Meanings are constructed through a network of differences and relationships. Traditional notions of truth and stable meaning are questioned and challenged.
2. Binary Oppositions and Hierarchies	Deconstruction focuses on revealing and questioning binary oppositions present in texts. Examples of binary oppositions include presence/absence, speech/writing, and literal/metaphorical. Hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking are deconstructed and destabilized.
3. Contradictions and Aporias	Deconstruction aims to expose contradictions and aporias (unresolvable tensions) within texts. It reveals the inherent instabilities and ambiguities that undermine the coherence of a text. These contradictions challenge the notion of a single, fixed interpretation or meaning.
4. Authorial Intention and Textual Autonomy	The author’s intention is not the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning. The text has its own autonomy and can generate multiple interpretations. Deconstruction emphasizes the importance of the reader’s active engagement in constructing meaning.
5. Uncovering Assumptions and Ideologies	Deconstruction aims to uncover and interrogate the underlying assumptions and ideologies within a text. It exposes how language and texts reinforce power structures and dominant ideologies. Deconstruction seeks to disrupt and challenge these power dynamics.
6. Playful and Subversive Reading	Deconstruction encourages a playful and subversive approach to reading and interpretation. It involves examining the gaps, silences, and contradictions within a text. Multiple interpretations and perspectives are explored, disrupting fixed meanings.
7. Contextual and Intertextual Analysis	Deconstruction emphasizes the importance of considering the broader context and intertextuality of a text. It examines how texts relate to and influence each other, revealing the interconnectedness of meaning. Contextual and intertextual analysis helps to unveil hidden assumptions and challenge dominant discourses.

You may read more on Literary Theory below:

Social Construction

Deconstructionism in Literature

Deconstructionism in literature is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily associated with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.

Introduction to Deconstructionism

Deconstructionism in literature is a critical theory that emerged in the mid-20th century, primarily associated with the French philosopher Jacques Derrida. It challenges traditional notions of meaning and interpretation within texts by de-centering binary oppositions and revealing the instability and multiplicity of meanings inherent in language.

Deconstructionism introduces the concept of “différance,” emphasizing the constant deferral and difference in meaning, which leads to undecidability and perpetual play of signifiers. It also acknowledges the reader’s role in constructing meaning and critiques “logocentrism,” advocating a view that meaning is contingent and always open to revision.

Deconstructionism: Reaction to Structuralism

Limitations of Structuralism: Deconstruction emerged as a response to the limitations and assumptions of structuralism, a dominant approach to literary analysis at the time.

Challenge to Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction sought to reveal and question the binary oppositions present in texts, which were often emphasized in structuralist analysis.
Interrogation of Hierarchies: Deconstruction aimed to deconstruct and destabilize hierarchical structures and dualistic thinking prevalent in structuralist theory.
Critique of Fixed Meanings: Deconstruction questioned the idea of fixed and stable meanings proposed by structuralism, emphasizing the inherent instability of language.

Exploration of Language’s Constructed Nature: Deconstruction emphasized the constructed nature of meaning, challenging the structuralist view of language as a transparent and objective system.
Unveiling Inherent Instabilities: Deconstruction exposed the inherent instabilities and contradictions within texts, undermining the coherence and unity assumed by structuralism.
Subversion of Authorial Intention: Deconstruction challenged the notion of the author’s intention as the ultimate determinant of a text’s meaning, countering the author-centered approach of structuralism.

Criticism Against Deconstructionism

Here are some common criticisms of deconstructionism:

Criticism	Explanation
1. Lack of Objectivity	Deconstructionism’s rejection of objective truth can be seen as a challenge to traditional notions of interpretation. Critics argue that this approach may lead to relativism and subjectivity, making it challenging to establish meaningful interpretations of a text.
2. Overemphasis on Language	Deconstructionism’s strong emphasis on language has been criticized for disconnecting theory from the real world. Critics argue that this can hinder the application of deconstructionist theory to other fields, such as politics or economics.
3. Obscurity	Critics argue that deconstructionist texts can be excessively complex and difficult to understand. This level of complexity can create barriers for readers to engage with the theory and apply it to their own reading practices.
4. Political Neutrality	Deconstructionism has faced criticism for its perceived lack of political commitment. Critics argue that this detachment from real-world issues may hinder meaningful political action and engagement.
5. Incoherence	Critics argue that deconstructionism can lead to a fragmented approach to texts, where meanings are constantly in flux and difficult to establish. This lack of coherence may make it challenging to arrive at clear and stable interpretations of a text.
6. Lack of Empirical Evidence	Deconstructionism has been criticized for being based on abstract and speculative ideas rather than empirical evidence. Critics argue that this can make it difficult to evaluate the validity and reliability of deconstructionist claims.

These criticisms and explanations provide a balanced perspective on some of the key concerns raised regarding deconstructionism.

Examples of Deconstructionism

Here are some examples of deconstructionist literary analysis:

Jacques Derrida’s Of Grammatology

It is a classic example of deconstructionist literary theory. In this seminal work, Derrida argues that language is inherently unstable and meaning is constantly shifting. He famously asserts, “The meaning of the outside was always present within the inside, imprisoned outside the outside, and vice versa” (32). By emphasizing the ever-changing nature of meaning, Derrida challenges the notion that a fixed interpretation of a text is a possibility. He urges readers to critically engage with the complex interplay of signifiers, unraveling the inherent contradictions and ambiguities within a text. Of Grammatology exemplifies Derrida’s radical departure from traditional approaches to interpretation, inviting a more fluid and dynamic understanding of literary works through deconstructionist principles.

2. From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

“To be or not to be, that is the question” from Hamlet, when analyzed through the lens of deconstructionist literary theory, reveals the inherent instability and fluidity of meaning. In deconstructionist terms, this iconic phrase challenges the binary opposition between existence and non-existence, suggesting that the distinction between the two is not fixed or objectively determinable. Instead, the line embodies a play of contradictions, as the concept of being is constantly in flux. The word “question” itself introduces doubt and ambiguity, questioning the possibility of a definitive answer. It also shows the multiplicity of interpretations and the various layers of meaning within this line, unveiling the complexities and contradictions that underlie seemingly straightforward statements. By deconstructing the oppositions and hierarchies embedded in the phrase, we recognize that its meaning is not fixed but rather subject to a continuous process of interpretation, reflection, and recontextualization.

3. From Beloved by Toni Morrison

The statement “Freeing yourself was one thing, claiming ownership of that freed self was another” from Beloved challenges the binary opposition between freedom and ownership. It suggests that they are not easily separable or mutually exclusive. In deconstructionist terms, the extract highlights the instability of these concepts and questions the fixed meanings attributed to them. The phrase “freeing yourself” implies an act of liberation, but the subsequent statement complicates this notion by introducing the idea of “claiming ownership.” The use of “claiming” suggests an active effort to assert control and possess something, in this case, the liberated self. However, the juxtaposition of “claiming ownership” with “that freed self” raises questions about the nature of this self and the limits of ownership. Does true ownership of the self exist, or is it an illusion? Furthermore, the extract implies that freedom and self-ownership are not straightforward achievements but rather ongoing processes that entail struggles and negotiations. Deconstructionist analysis encourages us to critically examine the language, assumptions, and power dynamics at play in this extract, challenging fixed interpretations and inviting a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of freedom and selfhood in Morrison’s “Beloved.”

4. From Jorge Luis Borges’ “The Garden of Forking Paths”

Extract: “This web of time – the strands of which approach one another, bifurcate, intersect or ignore each other through the centuries – embraces every possibility. We do not exist in most of them. In some you exist and not I, while in others I do, and you do not.”

A deconstructionist reading of this paragraph reveals the inherent instability and multiplicity of possibilities within the concept of time. The passage suggests a complex web of temporal strands that continuously interact, diverge, converge, or disregard each other throughout the centuries. It implies that this web of time encompasses every conceivable possibility. Also, it challenges the notion of fixed existence by asserting that we do not exist in most of these possibilities. This undermines the idea of a singular, objective reality and highlights the contingent nature of our existence. The passage further disrupts traditional binary oppositions by presenting various scenarios where either the speaker or the listener exists while the other does not.

Keywords in Deconstructionism

Différance: A central concept in Deconstruction, it refers to the constant deferral and difference in meaning within language, highlighting that meaning is never fully present but is always deferred to other signifiers.
Binary Oppositions: Deconstruction challenges traditional binary pairs (e.g., good/evil, presence/absence) by revealing their interconnectedness and mutual dependence, blurring the boundaries between opposites.
Undecidability: Deconstructionism literary theory asserts the undecidability of language, suggesting that complete and fixed interpretations are impossible, leading to a perpetual play of signifiers and meanings.

Logocentrism: It critiques the belief in a fixed and privileged center of meaning in language and thought, exposing the contradictions and absence of a stable foundation in linguistic and philosophical systems.
De-centering: Deconstruction de-centers established hierarchies and challenges the authority of any single interpretation or perspective, emphasizing the need to consider multiple viewpoints.
Textual Subversion: Deconstructionism literary theory involves subverting conventional interpretations of texts, emphasizing their inherent contradictions and ambiguities, often through strategies of wordplay and irony.

Reader-Response: Deconstruction acknowledges the reader’s active role in constructing meaning, highlighting the subjectivity of interpretation and the importance of individual perspectives.
Play of Signifiers: It emphasizes the fluidity of language, where words and symbols continually interact and shift in meaning, making fixed interpretations elusive.
Difficult Reading: Deconstruction often involves complex and challenging readings of texts, requiring readers to engage deeply with the layers of meaning and ambiguity within a text.

Metaphysics of Presence: Deconstructionism literary theory questions the traditional metaphysical assumption that meaning is grounded in a stable, present reality, instead revealing the inherent instability of language and thought.

Asyndetons: Creating and Critiquing Them

Asyndetons serve to create a sense of urgency, emphasize individual elements, or convey a rapid sequence of ideas across different parts of a composition.

Introduction to Asyndetons

Asyndetons are rhetorical devices characterized by the deliberate omission of conjunctions (such as “and,” “or,” or “but”) in multiple series of words, phrases, or clauses within a text. They are employed for various stylistic and rhetorical purposes in academic writing. Asyndetons serve to create a sense of urgency, emphasize individual elements, or convey a rapid sequence of ideas across different parts of a composition. They enhance the flow of text by removing typical connectors and allowing readers to process information more quickly, ultimately contributing to the overall coherence and impact of the written work.

Literary Examples of Asyndetons

Extract	Reference	Explanation as Asyndeton
“So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.” – F. Scott Fitzgerald, “The Great Gatsby”	Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby	This sentence uses asyndetons by omitting conjunctions (such as “and”) to create a sense of continuous, relentless struggle, emphasizing the unending nature of the characters’ efforts.
“You may write me down in history with your bitter, twisted lies.” – Maya Angelou, “Still I Rise”	Angelou, “Still I Rise”	In this line, the author uses asyndetons to list the oppressive actions against her without pause, emphasizing their resilience and strength in the face of adversity.
“War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength.” – George Orwell, “1984”	Orwell, 1984	Orwell employs asyndetons to juxtapose contradictory concepts, creating a sense of dystopian absurdity and illustrating the oppressive regime’s manipulation of language.
“Dying is an art, like everything else. I do it exceptionally well.” – Sylvia Plath, “Lady Lazarus”	Plath, “Lady Lazarus”	Asyndeton is used here to highlight the narrator’s unconventional perspective on death, emphasizing her mastery of this dark “art” without interruption.
“Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice.” – Gabriel García Márquez, “One Hundred Years of Solitude”	García Márquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude	The author employs asyndetons to connect past and present moments in Colonel Buendía’s life, emphasizing the significance of this memory in a continuous flow of time.
“Trust thyself: every heart vibrates to that iron string.” – Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Self-Reliance”	Emerson, “Self-Reliance”	Emerson uses asyndetons to convey a direct and imperative tone, encouraging self-reliance and inner trust without any interruption or hesitation in the message.

How to Create an Asyndetons

Identify the Elements: Determine the words, phrases, or clauses you want to connect without using conjunctions. These elements should be related and serve a purpose in your sentence.
List the Elements: Write down the elements you identified in step 1, placing them in the order you want them to appear in your sentence.

Remove Conjunctions: Go through your list of elements and remove any conjunctions that would normally join them. Replace these conjunctions with commas or other punctuation marks if necessary.
Check Flow and Emphasis: Read the sentence aloud to ensure that the absence of conjunctions creates the desired effect. Asyndetons are often used to increase the pace or impact of a sentence, so make sure it achieves your intended purpose.
Revise and Edit: Review your sentence for clarity and readability. Ensure that the absence of conjunctions doesn’t make the sentence confusing or disjointed. Make any necessary adjustments to maintain the sentence’s coherence.

Benefits of Using Asyndetons

Conciseness: Asyndetons allow you to convey information more succinctly. By eliminating conjunctions, you create shorter, punchier sentences, making your writing more concise and direct.
Emphasis: Asyndetons emphasize a series of words or phrases in a sentence. When conjunctions are omitted, the reader’s attention focuses on each item in the list, making them stand out and giving them added weight.
Increased Pace: The absence of conjunctions creates a sense of speed and urgency in your writing. It encourages a rapid flow of ideas and actions, which is particularly effective in action sequences or when you want to convey a sense of excitement.

Rhetorical Impact: Asyndetons serve as a rhetorical device, emphasizing the connection between elements and reinforcing a point. It makes your writing more persuasive by making your arguments or ideas appear stronger and more interconnected.
Artistic Expression: Asyndetons add an artistic flair to your writing, enhancing its aesthetic appeal. It allows you to experiment with sentence structure and rhythm, creating a unique and memorable prose style.

Asyndeton and Literary Theories

Theory	Critique of Asyndeton
Formalism	It examines how asyndetons impact the text’s aesthetic qualities, such as rhythm and cohesion. It also considers the author’s deliberate choice in employing asyndetons for stylistic effect.
Structuralism	It analyzes asyndetons as part of larger structural patterns within the text. It also explores how it contributes to the overall meaning and organization of the work.
Reader-Response Theory	It investigates how asyndeton affects the reader’s interpretation, pace, comprehension, and emotional engagement with the text. It also recognizes that different readers may have varied responses to it.
Deconstruction	It examines asyndetons as linguistic tools that disrupt conventional syntax and meaning. It also explores how it highlights the inherent contradictions and ambiguities in language and text.
Feminist Theory	It considers whether asyndetons reinforce or challenge traditional gender roles and hierarchies within the text. – Examines its role in conveying or subverting gender-related themes and power dynamics.

Asyndeton: A Literary Device

Etymology of Asyndeton

The term “asyndeton” has its origins in ancient Greek. It comes from the Greek word “ἀσύνδετον,” which is pronounced as “asúndeton.” This Greek word is a combination of two components: “a” (meaning “not”) and “syndetos” (meaning “bound together” or “connected”). Hence, “asyndeton” essentially means “not connected” or “not bound together.”

Meaning of Asyndeton

To make things about asyndeton easy, here is a table of all likely meanings.

Aspect	Description
Conjunctions	Asyndeton involves the intentional absence of conjunctions that normally connect words or phrases.
Emphasis	It emphasizes each item in a list or series, giving them equal importance and making the text impactful.
Pace and Rhythm	It quickens or slows down the pace of a sentence, creating urgency or depending on context.
Conciseness	It makes sentences concise and to the point by eliminating conjunctions, serving specific writing effects.
Dramatic Effect	It is frequently used in literature and rhetoric to create drama or poetry, drawing attention to individual elements.
Examples	Its popular examples include “I came, I saw, I conquered” and “The sun, the moon, the stars.”
Contrast with Polysyndeton	Asyndeton is the opposite of polysyndeton, which uses multiple conjunctions for emphasis.
Flexible Usage	Writers use asyndeton based on goals like creating rhythm, emphasizing lists, or evoking emotional responses.
Common in Literature	It is a common stylistic choice in literature, poetry, and persuasive writing, enhancing language impact.
Examples in Everyday Language	It is occasionally found in everyday language to describe swift actions or events.
Impactful Writing Tool	It is a powerful tool to manipulate sentence flow and enhance overall writing quality.

Definition of Literary Device of Asyndeton

Asyndeton is a literary device characterized by the deliberate omission of conjunctions between words, phrases, or clauses within a sentence or series, creating a sense of urgency, rhythm, or emphasis. This technique serves to emphasize each element in a list or sequence, enhancing their individual significance and impacting the overall tone and pacing of the narrative. Asyndeton is a common stylistic choice in literature, often used to evoke specific emotional responses from readers and add depth to the text.

Common Features of an Asyndeton

Feature	Explanation	Example
Conciseness	Asyndeton creates concise and streamlined sentences or lists by omitting conjunctions, leading to a more direct communication style.	“He ran, jumped, laughed, cried.”
Emphasis	It can emphasize each item in a list or series, drawing attention to individual elements.	“I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Rhythmic Effect	Asyndeton can create a rhythmic or staccato effect in writing or speech, adding dynamism and memorability.	“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France.”
Dramatic Impact	It can intensify language, infusing a sense of urgency or intensity, contributing to a more dramatic narrative or speech.	“The storm raged, the waves crashed, and our ship sank.”
Clarity	In some cases, asyndeton enhances clarity by highlighting each item in a list without conjunction distractions.	“She packed her bags, called a taxi, and headed to the airport.”

Types of Asyndetons

Type	Detail	Example
Asyndetons of Phrases	They omit conjunctions between phrases, creating a quick, staccato effect.	“He ran, he jumped, he laughed, he cried.”
Cumulative Asyndetons	They omit conjunctions in a list of items, building up to a climactic or emphatic conclusion.	“They brought gifts, smiles, laughter, love.”
Single-word Asyndetons	They present individual words or short phrases without conjunctions for emphasis or drama.	“Silence. Darkness. Alone.”
Implied Asyndetons	They omit conjunctions, with their absence implied by the context.	“She spoke softly, kindly, compassionately.”
Rhetorical Asyndetons	They are used in speeches or persuasive writing to create a persuasive or emotional impact.	“We must act, we must strive, we must prevail.”
Parenthetical Asyndetons	They omit conjunctions within parenthetical phrases or clauses for quick, parenthetical remarks.	“She spoke, (though no one was really listening), about her dreams.”

Common Examples of Asyndetons

Shopping List: “I need to buy milk, eggs, bread, and butter.”
Task List: “I have to clean the kitchen, vacuum the living room, and do the laundry.”
Instructions: “Mix the ingredients, pour the batter into the pan, and bake at 350 degrees.”

Sports Commentary: “He dribbled the ball, passed it to his teammate, shot, and scored!”
Describing a Vacation: “We went to the beach, built sandcastles, swam in the ocean, and watched the sunset.”
Cooking Recipe: “Chop the onions, sauté them, add the tomatoes, and simmer the sauce.”

Travel Plans: “We’ll fly to Paris, explore the Louvre, visit the Eiffel Tower, and enjoy French cuisine.”
Job Interview Tips: “Prepare your resume, research the company, rehearse your answers, and dress professionally.”
Directions: “Drive straight, turn left at the intersection, and park in front of the store.”

Goal Setting: “My New Year’s resolutions are to exercise regularly, eat healthily, and learn a new language.”

Shakespearean Asyndetons

Shakespeare, one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the English language, frequently used asyndeton in his works to create memorable lines and impactful speeches. Here are some examples of Shakespearean asyndetons from his plays:

Hamlet: “To be or not to be, that is the question.”

Julius Caesar: “Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
Macbeth: “Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage.”
Romeo and Juliet: “Good night, good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow.”

Othello: “She loved me for the dangers I had passed, and I loved her that she did pity them.”
Henry V: “We few, we happy few, we band of brothers.”
The Tempest: “Hell is empty, and all the devils are here.”

Richard III: “Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this sun of York.”
Twelfth Night: “If music be the food of love, play on.”
As You Like It: “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.”

The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy

In the Preface to his famous book, The Crown of the Wild Olive, John Ruskin has taken to task the British statistical economists of that time to argue his case that showing “ciphers” is not an economy and prosperity.

Introduction to the Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

In the Preface to his famous book, The Crown of the Wild Olive, John Ruskin has taken to task the British statistical economists of that time to argue his case that showing “ciphers” is not an economy and prosperity, rather it “consists of substance” which he calls of having “the final worth” for the human being to benefit from (09). Ruskin starts his argument by describing the devastation of natural water springs and scenery in South England, adding that water wells in the backyards of houses are due to the neglect of labor used somewhere else for profitable purposes. He laments mining saying that it is meant for the “joy and health” (05), but the wreckage of clothes, metal, dust, and slime are left in the open which is injurious to the health of the public (05). He builds his argument that the political economy means profit at the expense of health hazards and destruction of natural scenery which is against the teachings of the Bible as well as ethics of the heathens.

Description of Destruction in The Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

Giving horrible destruction of the water sources and nature in the Southern England, Ruskin, in the preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive, says that it is very easy to dispose the remains of the mining by just “Half-a-dozen men, with one day’s work” (5) but the problem is that this labor is capital driven that is done only for installing railing outside of the houses of the rich and then re-railing through iron bars which rust with the passage of time and has no final value. However, the problem with the factory owners and capitalists is that they want profit by producing needs and then products in a way that the life of laborers is spent in producing a “valueless piece of iron” instead of “medicinal fresh air, and pure war” (06) which would prove healthful for the general public. However, the problem is that there is no profit or money involved, the reason that the refuse and remains of mining of iron are left as they are.

Belief System in the Preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive

Presenting his argument by comparing this work of wiping out refuse with that of a religious person, Rusk argues that exactly like the belief system, corporations and factories work on practical basis and not on the basis of “this assumed belief” of making the world beautiful though the profit makers accept this argument that this is a religious beliefs are correct and do not deny them (10). However, if all the Christians believe in the teachings of the Bible and adhere to it teachings, they may resort to making the world a place worth living instead of reaching out to needless products or selling such useless products. However, the argument arises that life is too short and that it must be used practically. Then, he says, the question looms large that it does not mean “wasting the space” (12). What he means is that the Biblical teachings of “what a man soweth that shall he also reap” (13) could make them to see their follies of this great avarice of money making at whose alter they are destroying the environment.

Symbol of Olive in The Crown of the Wild Olive

He even links it to the Grecian heathens who used to award an olive branch to the winners of the Olympics and that they did not want money which he ironically attributes to their gods that they did not have gold or any other precious metal to offer to the winners. That is why it is in the title of th book, The Crown of the Wild Olive. In other words, his argument is that that olive branch means the preservation of nature on which the whole of humanity lives and enjoys. If that is done, it means there is “free heartedness, and graciousness, and undisturbed peace” (15), which he states is not possible in the current state of economic thoughts of earning profit only. He declares by the end that these “may be riches; untormenting and divine” (15) which would serve others in life on this earth. This also serves in the context of work, which should be done for the welfare of the people, traffic that should not be used to collect money and the weapons that should not serve to destroy the earth.

Conclusion

Concluding the argument of the preface of The Crown of the Wild Olive, it could be said that Ruskin has tried to awaken the religions conscience of the readers by stating that political economy is too much dependent on things that have no final value, and are only produced to create needs and then produced to meet those artificially created needs. If this production of objects and commodities continue, it means the destruction of the natural resources and also the use of laborers at the behest of the few profit-making factory and mining owners. However, this would have little value for the common public. Contrary to the religion beliefs, this does not fit into the Biblical teachings though life is to face death, but it does not mean that one should just fulfill his desires of making money at the expense of natural destruction and pure sources of health. his three lectures too argue the same principle of peace, love and service to the public. His argument of the Grecian olive branch too hold weight in that it was a symbol of the preservation of nature to satisfy one’s pride and not greed and that is also the major point of his argument for work, traffic and war weapons.

Works Cited

Ruskin, John. The Crown of the Wild Olive; Three Lectures on Work, Traffic and War. The University of Adelaide Library, South Australia, 2014.

Relevant Questions About ***The Crown of The Wild Olive*: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy**

In the Preface to The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy, what key insights does Ruskin provide regarding the shortcomings of political economy as a discipline?
How does the Preface in The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy set the tone for John Ruskin’s critique of political economy, and what are the main ideas or arguments he foreshadows in this introductory text?
What historical and intellectual context is essential to understanding the significance of the Preface in The Crown of The Wild Olive: Ruskin’s Criticism of Political Economy in relation to John Ruskin’s broader criticism of political economy in the 19th century?

Comparative Literature Courses

Introduction to Comparative Literature Courses

Comparative Literature courses are academic programs that explore the interdisciplinary study of literature, emphasizing the analysis of literary texts from diverse cultures, languages, and historical contexts. These courses equip students with critical skills to examine commonalities, differences, and interactions between literary traditions, employing various theoretical frameworks and fostering an appreciation for cultural diversity.

Additionally, Comparative Literature courses promote the contextualization of literature within broader historical, social, and global perspectives, encouraging intellectual engagement and the development of research and analytical writing skills.

Elements of Comparative Literature Courses

Element	Explanation
Multilingual Literature Study	– Explanation: This element involves analyzing literary works in their original languages and their translated versions. It allows students to gain insights into the nuances of language, cultural context, and the challenges and opportunities of translation in comparative analysis.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses emphasize the examination of texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes, differences, and the ways in which literature reflects diverse cultural traditions. Students explore the universal and unique aspects of literary expressions.
Literary Theory Application	– Explanation: Students learn to apply various literary theories, such as formalism, structuralism, and postcolonial theory, to analyze and interpret texts critically. This element deepens their understanding of the theoretical frameworks that shape literary analysis in a comparative context.
Historical Contextualization	– Explanation: Placing literature within its historical and cultural contexts is essential. It enables students to appreciate how societal and cultural forces influence literary production and interpretation. This contextualization enriches their analysis and comprehension of texts.
Comparative Methodology	– Explanation: Comparative methodology involves the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts, exploring similarities and disparities between them. It equips students with the skills to conduct rigorous comparative analyses and identify patterns across texts.
Interdisciplinary Approaches	– Explanation: Comparative Literature often draws from other disciplines such as history, anthropology, and philosophy to gain a comprehensive understanding of texts. Students engage in interdisciplinary dialogues, expanding their perspectives and analytical tools for literary analysis.
Critical and Theoretical Debates	– Explanation: Courses delve into key critical and theoretical debates within Comparative Literature. Students engage in discussions and critical thinking exercises, exploring contemporary issues and evolving perspectives in the field. This fosters intellectual engagement and critical analysis.
Postcolonial and Global Perspectives	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses explore postcolonial literature and global perspectives in literary analysis. Students examine the impact of colonialism, globalization, and diaspora on literary production, enriching their understanding of cultural dynamics and literary representation.
Cultural Diversity and Inclusivity	– Explanation: Promoting the study of literature from diverse cultures and voices is central. Students are encouraged to appreciate the richness of global literary traditions, fostering intercultural understanding, and recognizing the importance of inclusivity and diverse perspectives in literary analysis.
Research and Writing Skills	– Explanation: Developing research and analytical writing skills is a fundamental aspect. Students learn to conduct scholarly research, analyze texts critically, and communicate their findings effectively through academic writing. These skills are essential for producing high-quality comparative literary analysis.

Criticism Against Comparative Literature

While Comparative Literature is a widely respected and valuable field of study, there are some criticisms that have been leveled against it. Here are a few examples:

Eurocentrism and Cultural Bias: Critics argue that Comparative Literature has historically been Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western literary traditions. This bias can marginalize non-Western cultures and fail to represent a truly global perspective.
Lack of Defined Methodology: Some critics contend that Comparative Literature lacks a consistent and well-defined methodology, making it challenging to establish standardized approaches to literary analysis across cultures.
Reductionism and Oversimplification: Comparative Literature can sometimes oversimplify complex cultural and historical contexts, reducing literary works to mere textual comparisons without fully considering the intricacies of their origins and interpretations.

Ethnocentrism and Stereotyping: Critics assert that Comparative Literature courses may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes and ethnocentric viewpoints, especially when analyzing works from non-Western cultures, leading to misrepresentations and biases.
Relevance and Practicality: Skeptics question the practicality and relevance of Comparative Literature in today’s rapidly changing academic landscape, suggesting that it may struggle to address contemporary global issues and interdisciplinary demands effectively.

It’s important to note that these criticisms are not universally accepted and that Comparative Literature continues to evolve and address these concerns as the field develops.

Examples of Comparative Literature Courses

Comparative Literature Survey: A foundational course that provides an overview of major literary traditions, movements, and theories from different cultures and time periods. Students analyze texts from various regions and examine cross-cultural themes.
World Literature in Translation: This course explores significant literary works from around the world, typically focusing on texts translated into a common language. It allows students to delve into global literature while emphasizing translation issues.
Postcolonial Literature and Theory: This course examines literature from former colonized regions and explores postcolonial theory. Students analyze how colonialism and decolonization have shaped literary production and representation.

Literary Genres Across Cultures: Courses in this category focus on a particular genre, such as the novel, poetry, drama, or short story, and compare how it has evolved in different cultures and literary traditions.
Literature and Film Comparative Analysis: Combining literature and film, this course explores how literary works are adapted into films. Students analyze both the written and visual narratives, considering the challenges and opportunities of adaptation.
Literature and the Environment: Comparative Literature courses may delve into the intersection of literature and the environment, exploring how different cultures and literary traditions represent and engage with ecological issues.

Gender and Sexuality in Comparative Literature: These courses examine representations of gender and sexuality across cultures, addressing themes such as feminism, LGBTQ+ literature, and gender identity in diverse literary contexts.
Classical Literature Comparative Studies: Courses in classical literature might compare ancient Greek, Roman, Chinese, Indian, or other classical traditions, highlighting the enduring impact of classical works on global literature.
Multilingual Poetry Workshop: Practical courses may focus on creative writing and translation,

Examples of Literary Works in Comparative Literature Courses

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: This novel is frequently studied because it combines elements of magical realism with a deep exploration of Latin American history and culture. It allows students to analyze how a unique literary style can convey complex themes and historical narratives, making it a prime example for cross-cultural analysis.
The Odyssey by Homer: An ancient epic that forms a foundational text for Western literature, The Odyssey is often included to illustrate the enduring impact of classical literature on global storytelling. Comparative Literature courses use it to explore themes of heroism, adventure, and the journey in various cultural contexts.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe: This novel is a significant work in postcolonial literature and is included to examine the effects of colonialism on African societies. It serves as a starting point for discussions on cultural identity, imperialism, and the clash of cultures, making it an essential text for comparative analysis.

The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka: Kafka’s work is a prime example of existential literature and surrealism. Comparative Literature courses often include it to explore the portrayal of alienation, identity, and absurdity in different cultural and linguistic contexts.
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: This classic novel is studied to examine the themes of chivalry, madness, and self-delusion. It is included in Comparative Literature to demonstrate how a single work can be interpreted and reinterpreted across cultures, illustrating the global reach of a literary masterpiece.

Keywords in Comparative Literature Courses

Cross-Cultural Analysis: The examination of literary texts from different cultures to identify commonalities and differences, often focusing on how cultures influence and reflect each other through literature.

Multilingualism: The recognition of the importance of studying and appreciating literature in multiple languages, including both original and translated texts.
Interdisciplinarity: The incorporation of insights from various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to gain a comprehensive understanding of literary texts and their contexts.
Global Perspective: The recognition of literature within a global context, emphasizing the interactions and influences between different literary traditions and cultures.

Comparative Methodology: The systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts and their contexts, aiming to identify similarities, differences, and interactions between texts.
Cultural Diversity: The appreciation of diverse literary traditions and the study of literature from various cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.
Literary Theory: The utilization of various theoretical frameworks (e.g., formalism, structuralism, postcolonial theory) to analyze and interpret literary texts.

Contextualization: The emphasis on placing literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, recognizing that literature is shaped by societies and cultures.
Critical Analysis: The in-depth analysis of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements of literary texts, considering historical and cultural forces that shape the texts.
Postcolonial Literature: The examination of literary works from formerly colonized regions, often exploring themes related to colonialism, identity, and cultural representation.

Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field centered on analyzing and comparing literary texts from various languages and cultures.

Introduction to Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary academic field centered on analyzing and comparing literary texts, typically from various languages and cultures. Its primary goal is to examine common themes, motifs, and aesthetic principles that transcend national and linguistic boundaries, showcasing the interconnectedness of literary traditions and the influence of cultural exchange on literary creation. Comparative Literature scholars utilize cross-cultural examinations to gain insights into the broader human condition and the rich diversity of human experiences.

Features of Comparative Literature

Feature	Explanation
Interdisciplinary Study	Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field that combines elements of literary analysis, cultural studies, linguistics, and more.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	It involves the comparison of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify commonalities and differences.
Exploration of Themes	Comparative Literature examines shared themes, motifs, and aesthetic elements present in literature across cultures.
Cultural Exchange	It highlights the influence of cultural exchange on literary production and how literature reflects interactions between cultures.
Human Experience	The field seeks to gain insights into the broader human condition and the diversity of human experiences through the study of literature.
Global Perspective	It offers a global perspective on literary works, emphasizing the importance of multilingualism and multiculturalism in literary analysis.
Transcending Boundaries	Comparative Literature transcends national and linguistic boundaries, promoting a broader understanding of literature as a global phenomenon.

Comparative Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

Emerged in the 19th century as an academic discipline.
Rooted in the European tradition of studying literature from multiple languages and cultures.

Prominent Theorists:

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Notable for his interest in world literature and early comparative approaches, making him an influential figure in the field.
Leo Spitzer: Known for his work on literary stylistics and the concept of literary morphology.
Erich Auerbach: Renowned for his book Mimesis, which explores the representation of reality in Western literature.

René Wellek and Austin Warren: Authors of Theory of Literature, a foundational text in the field.
Edward Said: Pioneered the study of post-colonial literature and introduced the concept of Orientalism.
Franz Fanon: Known for his influential works on post-colonialism and identity.

Significant Works:

Mimesis by Erich Auerbach: Examines the representation of reality in literature from ancient to modern times.
Theory of Literature by René Wellek and Austin Warren: Discusses the nature of literature, criticism, and theory.
Orientalism by Edward Said: Critiques Western representations of the East in literature and culture.

The Wretched of the Earth by Franz Fanon: Addresses the psychological effects of colonialism and the struggle for liberation.
Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: A seminal work that explores universal themes and serves as a rich source for comparative analysis.

Key Arguments:

Cross-Cultural Analysis: Comparative Literature involves the examination of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes and differences.

Literary Morphology: Leo Spitzer’s concept of literary morphology suggests recurring patterns and structures in literature across cultures.
Post-Colonial Critique: Edward Said’s work encourages the critical examination of colonial and post-colonial literature to understand power dynamics and cultural representations.
Identity and Liberation: Franz Fanon’s writings highlight the complex intersections of identity, colonialism, and the struggle for independence in post-colonial societies.

Globalization: Contemporary Comparative Literature addresses the challenges and opportunities posed by globalization, including digital technologies and multiculturalism.

Principles of Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the analysis of literary texts and their cultural, historical, and social contexts. The principles of Comparative Literature include:

Principal	Explanation	Example
Cross-Cultural Analysis	Cross-Cultural Analysis involves the examination of literary works originating from diverse cultures, languages, and genres. Its purpose is to discern the influences, interactions, and reflections of distinct literary traditions on one another.	For instance, a cross-cultural analysis might entail a comparative exploration of themes of love and honor in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and the Persian epic Layla and Majnun, offering insights into the diverse cultural expressions of romance.
Comparative Methodology	Comparative Methodology encompasses the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts along with their respective historical and cultural contexts. Its aim is to identify both commonalities and disparities, fostering a deeper understanding of the texts and their interplay.	An illustrative example involves an analysis of symbolism in Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick and Yann Martel’s Life of Pi, examining how authors employ symbolic elements to convey intricate layers of meaning.
Literary Theory	Literary Theory entails the utilization of various theoretical frameworks such as formalism and structuralism to analyze and interpret literary texts.	For instance, the application of postcolonial theory to scrutinize Chinua Achebe’s works, including Things Fall Apart, offers insights into the repercussions of colonialism on African literature.
Multilingualism	Multilingualism underscores the importance of acquiring proficiency in multiple languages and encourages the exploration of literature in its original and translated forms. It places value on the insights derived from multilingualism and intercultural exchange.	An exemplification of this principle involves reading Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s Cien años de soledad in its original Spanish, facilitating a nuanced understanding of language intricacies and cultural contexts.
Interdisciplinarity	Interdisciplinarity entails the engagement with various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to attain a comprehensive grasp of literary works and their contextual underpinnings. It recognizes the interrelatedness of different fields of knowledge.	A practical application involves the incorporation of historical analysis to examine Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist, illuminating its resonance with the socio-cultural milieu of Victorian England.
Contextualization	Contextualization underscores the significance of situating literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, acknowledging that literature is profoundly shaped by the societies and cultures in which it emerges.	For instance, a contextualization approach might entail an examination of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart within the backdrop of Nigerian colonial history and the profound impact of European imperialism.
Critical Analysis	Critical Analysis entails the comprehensive scrutiny of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements within literary texts, taking into consideration the historical and cultural forces that shape them.	An illustrative case involves the analysis of symbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, delving into its allegorical representations of Puritan society and its cultural context.
Cultural Diversity	Cultural Diversity emphasizes the recognition of the importance of diverse cultures and the appreciation of various literary traditions. It encourages the study of literature emanating from a multitude of cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.	Exploration of works by poets like Pablo Neruda and Rabindranath Tagore exemplifies the richness and diversity of Latin American and South Asian literature, contributing to a broader appreciation of global literary traditions.
Global Perspective	Global Perspective acknowledges literature within a worldwide context, aiming to comprehend the interactions and influences among diverse literary traditions. It places value on the insights gained from a global viewpoint.	An investigative approach might involve an exploration of the impact of Japanese haiku poetry on the evolution of American imagist poetry during the early 20th century, demonstrating the significance of global literary perspectives.
Intellectual Engagement	Intellectual Engagement places importance on active participation in literary seminars, conferences, and discussions, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and curiosity. It recognizes the value of lifelong learning and the pursuit of knowledge.	Participating in scholarly dialogues and debates, as well as engaging in discussions during literary seminars and conferences, exemplifies intellectual engagement, fostering the exchange of ideas and the cultivation of critical thinking skills among scholars and peers.

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is an analytical approach that centers on the literature and narratives produced by Indigenous authors and communities.

Introduction to Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is an analytical approach that centers on the literature and narratives produced by Indigenous authors and communities. It seeks to deconstruct and challenge colonial representations and stereotypes in literary works, aiming to highlight Indigenous voices, perspectives, and cultural nuances.

This theory emphasizes the importance of respecting Indigenous storytelling traditions and promoting Indigenous self-expression within the realm of literature.

Indigenous Critical Theory and Indigenous Disciplines

Indigenous Disciplines	Indigenous Critical Theory
Recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems	Deconstruction of colonialism and colonial narratives
Decolonization of academic disciplines	Recognition of the ongoing effects of colonization
Incorporation of traditional Indigenous methodologies	Empowerment of Indigenous peoples and communities
Respect for Indigenous protocols and ethics	Critique of Western epistemologies and knowledge production
Emphasis on community collaboration and engagement	Analysis of power structures and systemic oppression
Reclamation and revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultural practices	Intersectionality and understanding of the interconnectedness of various forms of oppression
Centering Indigenous perspectives, experiences, and voices	Advocacy for self-determination and sovereignty
Addressing power imbalances and promoting equity in research and education	Reclaiming and preserving Indigenous languages, cultures, and identities
Valuing holistic and interconnected approaches to knowledge	Challenging Eurocentric frameworks and paradigms
Emphasizing land-based and place-based learning	Development of alternative frameworks for social, cultural, and political analysis from Indigenous perspectives

Criticism Against Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Essentialism: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be essentialist in its emphasis on the unique perspectives and experiences of Indigenous peoples. They argue that this emphasis on identity can obscure the diversity and complexity of Indigenous communities and reinforce a static notion of Indigenous identity.

Lack of generalizability: Because Indigenous Critical Literary Theory centers on Indigenous perspectives and experiences, some critics argue that it may not be generalizable to other contexts or communities. They argue that this focus on Indigenous knowledge and experience may not be relevant to other groups or communities.
Limited engagement with non-Indigenous frameworks: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be insular and isolated from other academic frameworks, particularly those developed in non-Indigenous contexts. They argue that this can limit the potential for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.
Political bias: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is inherently political and biased, and that it lacks the objectivity and neutrality that is valued in other academic disciplines. They argue that this can undermine the legitimacy of Indigenous Critical Theory as an academic framework.

Lack of practical solutions: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be overly focused on critique and analysis, and that it may not offer practical solutions to the challenges faced by Indigenous peoples. They argue that this can limit the potential for Indigenous Critical Theory to effect real change.

Examples of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Work and Author	Literary Example with Features of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory
*Ceremony* by Leslie Marmon Silko	*Ceremony,* a novel by Leslie Marmon Silko tells the story of a young Laguna man named Tayo who returns home from World War II with post-traumatic stress disorder. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Silko centers Laguna Pueblo perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
*Monkey Beach* by Eden Robinson	**Monkey Beach, a novel by Eden Robinson,** tells the story of a young Haisla woman named Lisa who returns to her ancestral village in British Columbia to search for her missing brother. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Robinson centers Haisla perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and cultural imperialism, and advocates for Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination.
*Tracks* by Louise Erdrich	Tracks, a novel by Louise Erdrich, tells the story of two Anishinaabe families in North Dakota in the early 20th century. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Erdrich centers Anishinaabe perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
“Eulogy for a Native” by Sherman Alexie	Sherman Alexie is a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene writer and poet whose work often explores the experiences of contemporary Indigenous peoples in the United States. “Eulogy for a Native,” a poem, honors the life of a Native American man who has died of alcoholism and challenges the cultural and historical forces that have contributed to his struggles. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous peoples have been impacted by colonization, cultural genocide, and systemic oppression.
“My Heart is a Phoenix” by Louise Bernice Halfe	Louise Bernice Halfe is a Cree poet from Canada whose work often explores the experiences of Indigenous women. “My Heart is a Phoenix,” a poem, uses imagery from Cree culture to explore the themes of survival and resilience. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous women have been impacted by colonialism, racism, and gender-based violence, and to celebrate the strength and resistance of Indigenous women.

Keywords in Indigenous Critical Theory Literary Theory

Decolonization: It is the process of undoing the cultural, political, and economic impacts of colonialism, and reclaiming Indigenous knowledges, identities, and ways of being.
Sovereignty: It means the right of Indigenous peoples to govern themselves and determine their own futures, free from outside interference and domination.

Indigenous epistemologies: It means the ways of knowing and understanding the world that are rooted in Indigenous cultures, languages, and histories, and that challenge Western ways of knowing and understanding.
Cultural imperialism: It mans the process by which dominant cultures impose their values, beliefs, and practices on subordinate cultures, often leading to the erasure or marginalization of Indigenous cultures and identities.
Positionality: It means how an individual’s social, cultural, and historical location shapes their experiences, perspectives, and understandings.

Resilience: It means the ability of Indigenous peoples to resist and survive the impacts of colonialism and oppression, often through the revitalization and reclamation of Indigenous knowledges, languages, and practices.
Oral tradition: It means the transmission of cultural knowledge and history through spoken word, often through storytelling, song, or ceremony.
Indigenous futurisms: It means the imagining of Indigenous futures that are rooted in Indigenous knowledges, languages, and cultures, and that challenge Western notions of progress and development.

Intersectionality: It means the recognition that multiple forms of oppression (e.g. racism, sexism, colonialism) intersect and reinforce each other, and that an individual’s experiences are shaped by multiple and overlapping identities.
Land-based knowledges: It means the ways of knowing and being that are rooted in Indigenous relationships with the land, and that challenge the Western separation of humans from nature.

Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Every literary piece has a multiplicity of meanings, a quality that makes it popular and deeper such as the case of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis.

Introduction to Comparison of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Every literary piece has a multiplicity of meanings, a quality that makes it popular and deeper such as the case of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis. The readers and the audiences extract their own meanings, each one thinking he is right. Joseph Conrad and Franz Kafka both have lived apart. There is nothing common between them. Even their works do not have any common theme. However, what they have highlighted in their respective novellas is that there are always deeper meanings behind the surface, which are not only different but also sometimes highly contradictory. These are hidden behind literary devices such as metaphors, symbols, allegories, and even the characters themselves. Both the stories, Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis show the deeper and seamy side of everyday life, and actions and intentions wrapped up in different motives. Although there are thousands of perceptions and theories written to explain the ideas lying in both novellas, the major themes deal with the modern issues of imperialism and the nothingness or absurdity of life. Whereas Heart of Darkness highlights how human beings hide their real motives behind their carnal desires and vices, The Metamorphosis shows how human beings adjust or not adjust to the circumstances without going deeper to find out the real reasons to address the issue.

Desire in Heart of Darkness

As far as the question of real motives hidden behind carnal desires and other moral vices in Heart of Darkness is concerned, Marlow gives hints to these desires and vices through his description using different specific words such as savages, savagery, darkness, and mystery. At one place, Marlow, the mouthpiece of Conrad says, “Land in a swamp, march through the woods, and some inland post feel the savagery…all that mysterious life of wilderness” (Conrad 7). The important point here is that Conrad is presenting a simple journey of Marlow to Congo, exposing the real and destructive motives of the white man though the surface motive is that the entire Europe has gone there to teach civilization to those savage Congolese natives. This is the imperialism hidden under the garb of spreading the blessings of civilization. It is the extraction of minerals and other resources which in the case of Heart of Darkness is ivory. Several trade companies are involved in this racket. They are committed atrocities against the locals, showing in Europe how they were doing a noble deed of teaching the basics of civilized ways to the local brutes and savages. In this connection the exploitation is running rampant in Congo which is not the same in both, Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis.

Personal Experience in Heart of Darkness

Conrad has beautifully presented the personal experience of Marlow, his fascination of Kurtz, the role of Kurtz in the company’s profit, and Kurtz’s excellent exploitation of the natives for his greed. Marlow’s statement, “The conquest of the earth, which mostly means taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What redeems it is the idea only” is a reflection of how the idea of civilizing the brutes has turned into plundering their natural resources and killing them en masse (8). The entire enterprise revolves around ivory and getting to the other resources important for the industrial progress of Europe. This was the imperialism of the worst order, but it was painted as if it was the burden of the white people to educate those black savages. Therefore, the deeper meanings of Heart of Darkness are lying in the spiritual journey of Marlow that he not only experiences the limits of human spirit and its working but also of twists and turns of motives and their propagation.

Transformation in Metamorphosis

In the same way, Franz Kafka, in his phenomenal novella, The Metamorphosis, has presented his character Gregor Samsa in a unique situation where he is transformed into a despicable insect. The Metamorphosis is an attempt to see human beings how they adjust to the new situation without going deeper into the causes behind the problem and trying to fix it. For example, when Samsa is transformed into a giant insect, neither does he, nor does his father or mother or even sister try to evaluate the major reason behind his physical transformation. Even Gregor himself does not know or try to find out why he is transforming at night in the first place. All of them seem to be adjusting themselves to the new routine of finding ways to earn after the absence of the working hand. For example, instead of visiting a physician or psychic, Gregor only says, “How about if I sleep a little bit longer and forget all this nonsense” a usual way of putting things into oblivious (Kafka 8). However, this does not work, and he is permanently transformed. Also, when nobody tries to find out the reason, there is no solution. However, in this case, both Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis are different.

Characters and Transformation of Gregor in The Metamorphosis

This is what happens in The Metamorphosis, for nobody is trying to find out the major reason behind the transformation of Gregor Samsa.That is why nobody has paid attention to what will ensue. They only face the situation on a daily basis and try to address the incoming issues. It is because when a person faces an issue, and finds out its reason, he finds it easy to go for the solution. However, in the case of Samsa, the entire family faces the dilemma of his sudden transformation, but there is no try from any character except a little sympathy from his sister. Even that finishes with the passage of time. Therefore, this story goes deeper to find out the absurdity of human life and the absurd response of human beings to some natural happenings. It is not the same in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis if both are compared.

Conclusion of Deepr Meanings in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

In short, each of these novellas has very deeper meanings. Heart of Darkness argues the sordid side of imperialism, human greed and features of commercialism wrapped in good intentions, the spread of religion and civilization. Marlow finds it out during his spiritual journey to the Congo, that the savageness is being committed and the plunder is being wreaked in the name of the spread of civilization. This shows the seamy side of imperialism. In the same way, the story of Gregor Samsa in Metamorphosis is a fictional narrative of a person having transformed physically into a giant insect. But it tells how absurd human life is and how irrational attitude of a person becomes when facing such situations. It clearly concludes that a person can change is situation consciously, if he wants. However, the problem is that nobody thinks on these lines as is shown by Kafka in Metamorphosis. Therefore, it is clear that both the novellas, Heart of Darkness and Metamorphosis, have deeper meanings than the just surface stories of Marlow or Gregor Samsa. These deeper meanings have been displayed through the use of different literary devices couched into the very language of the stories.

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

How do the themes of darkness and transformation in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis symbolize deeper societal and psychological issues in the respective narratives?
In Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis, how do the central characters, Kurtz and Gregor Samsa, grapple with their internal transformations and the moral darkness within themselves? What do these struggles reveal about the human condition?

What parallels can be drawn between the exploration of the Congo in Heart of Darkness and Gregor’s isolation within his own home in The Metamorphosis? How do these settings symbolize deeper existential and colonial themes in the two works?

Chorus in Antigone

This choral ode falls after the second episode and is full of praise for human beings when it comes to analyzing the role of the chorus in Antigone.

Introduction to Chorus in Antigone

This choral ode falls after the second episode and is full of praise for human beings when it comes to analyzing the role of the chorus in Antigone. It dilates upon the achievements of human beings saying that man has tamed everything that nature has offered to him, everything is in reference to Antigone by Sophocles. However, the point of contention is between different translators, as far as I can see, for some have used the word “strangest” such as Fitzgerald, some others as “frightful or terrible” and George Theodoridis has used “wonder” but coming out of this polemics, the play Antigone supports all the reasons given in the ode even the last one that is the opinion of the democratically minded public of the city of Thebes. The points that the play supports through this chorus in Antigone are the inventiveness of human wisdom and language, his growth as a social animal, and his capricious nature of having the ability to commit both good and evil acts.

Wisdom and Chorus in Antigone

The ode dilates upon the wisdom of man starting from “Wonders abound in this world yet no wonder is greater than man. None! / Through the wild white of a frenzied sea and through the screaming northerlies beneath him and through all the furious storms around him, through all this, man can pass!” (Antigone 332-335) that enumerates further how he has harvested the sea, catches the net and this is only because of the skillfulness of man. It further elaborates how man’s wisdom have done wonders in this world and this is what the blind seer Tiresias supports “What I’m trying to tell you, Creon, is that man’s best endowment is wisdom” (1042) at the end when he asks Creon to be reasonable and control his emotions under his intellectual capability so that he could be inventive about his own nature. Chorus also supports this point presented by Tiresias that we should use wisdom in these arguments. Above all it is the speech and thought that the man has learnt to use in each case. For example, just see how Creon has changed from Oedipus the King to Antigone. In Oedipus the King, he is patient. He uses every word not before carefully weighing the implications they might have. However, here he is not only rash but also impatient and uses whatever he wants to say not considering the height of his emotions. Just see his inventiveness in that he gives his own command respect that should be given to divine laws and he calls his command a divine law and consent of the gods that Antigone is not ready to accept as she states “Hades, however seeks similar laws for all” (529) where she wants equal laws in this world as well and he very masterly amalgamates it within the divine ambit saying “Whereas he who violates the laws of the gods and his city, or wants to command its leaders, will never gain my respect” (666) which is a sign of his wisdom that according to the chorus in Antigone he has achieved as it says;

“And man has learnt speech and thought, swifter than the wind he mastered

And learnt to govern his cities well.”

And the laughing matter is that he does not care who violates the law though he himself is violating the golden principle of moderation. He is going to the extremes in both ways in reasoning as well as in using his own speech to attribute it to the god. This he is doing to avoid death of his son, his own downfall in the city. Hence, he turns against Antigone but when Chorus also sides her argument, how cunningly comes to the point to save his son as ode points it out;

“And though his wisdom is great in discovery -wisdom beyond all imaginings!

Yet one minute it turns to ill the next again to good.” (352-354)

And this is the view of the populace to which the chorus is representing here.

Social Growth of Mankind and Chorus in Antigone

The next argument is human social growth as how the city of Thebes has turned into a civic society with divine laws at work as given in the chorus in Antigone. The word law has been repeated several times with different connotations. The command Creon issues to put Antigone to death and refuses for the burial rights to her brother that the ode refers to “But whoever honors the laws of his land and his sworn oaths to the gods, he’ll bring glory to his city” 374) also becomes law. This is the right path that he insists he is on until the end when he says “I am afraid! It’s best to live by ancient laws, the laws which apply to all!” (1115) Although there is a difference in interpretations that he makes and Antigone and the chorus makes. The choral ode does not accept his interpretation here as claims by Creon and this is the same point that Antigone insists on when she states that “These are the laws our Lord Creon has decreed for us two, Ismene! “ (32). She carries on; “Yes, because this was not a law decreed by Zeus, nor by Zeus’ daughter, Justice, who rules with the gods of the Underworld. Nor do I believe that your decrees have the power to override those unwritten and immutable laws decreed by the gods. These are laws which were decreed neither yesterday nor today but from a time when no man saw their birth; they are eternal! How could I be afraid to disobey laws decreed by any man when I know that I’d have to answer to the gods below if I had disobeyed the laws written by the gods after I died? I knew that my death was imminent, of course I did and even if it came sooner, I would still think it a good thing because when one lives in such a dreadful misery why should he not think death to be a good thing?” (449-463). Even she is not alone in thinking this. The chorus is afraid of the commands of the king and that is why does not say explicitly what she is saying but says it in the ode clearly. This is the same arrogance that led Oedipus to devastation and this is the same path that Creon has chosen here which is quite contrary to the social evolution of the society but of course, it is the ingenuity of the human mind that he mixes it up into the divine laws. The glory does not lie in obeying the king the chorus in Antigone says, but evolution and progressing evolution lie in the laws inherent in the holiness of the divine blessings.

Human Nature and Chorus in Antigone

The third point is the capriciousness of human nature that has both abilities to commit errors. First, there is a clear reference to Oedipus when Tiresias comes and he points out the mistake committed by Creon who berates him for behaving in an arrogant manner. The chorus comments on this by saying “The arrogant man, on the other hand, the man who strays from the righteous path is lost to his city. / Let that man never stay under the same roof as me or even be acquainted by me!” (370-372). The veiled reference is to the arrogance of Creon in insisting that what he says has divine blessings. It is what the laws of the land say. He states, “We must obey those whom the city has ordained to be its leaders. / We should obey them, unquestioningly, in all things, minor or great, those we agree with and those we oppose” (668-670) and again states the same thing “Yet, it’s impossible to understand the soul, the mind, the wisdom of any man before he’s tested by the great power and laws” (181-183). However, it does not mean that there is no evolution in the common man as the chorus states again “You said it yourself quite rightly: he who thinks that he’s the only one with a brain or a tongue or a soul, if you open him up you’ll find that he’s a hollow man. On the contrary, it is no shame for even a wise man to continue learning” (694-697) using words cautiously that a man is in the process of learning despite making so much progress and there is no shame in it but this is the arrogance and the pride in having power that obstructs this learning. This is an endorsement of the theory by Sophocles that man has found ways to defy gods through amalgamating his own words within the divine laws and interfering with the holiness of the laws. However, it could also be interpreted as free will by which a man comes to his own downfall like Creon whose arrogance in stating that what he says is good and not evil leads to his own downfall, death of his son and his wife. He has done the same as Oedipus has done after reaching the zenith. In one way, this is also a critique of human life that could go up by good deeds and come to downfall by the evil deed committed by the same person. In fact, chorus is also witness to the downfall of Oedipus from such a great height and now of Creon for the same reason. Hence, the ode is a sequel to the final ode of Oedipus the King exactly a la chorus in Antigone.

Works Cited

Sophocles. Antigone. Trans. George Theodoridis. 2004. Web. 19 April 2014 < http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Greek/Antigone.htm>

Relevant Questions about the Chorus in Antigone

What is the role and function of the chorus in “Antigone,” and how does it contribute to the overall structure and dramatic impact of the play?

How does the chorus’s perspective on the events and characters in “Antigone” evolve throughout the play, and what does this evolution reveal about the shifting moral and political dynamics in the story?
Can you identify any specific choral odes or moments in “Antigone” where the chorus’s commentary or reflections on the actions of the characters provide insight into the deeper themes and conflicts of the play?

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Works:

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Principles of Deconstructionism

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Human Nature and Chorus in Antigone

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