September 2023 - Page 7 of 23

Interpellation in Literature & Literary Theory

Interpellation, as a theoretical term in literature and cultural studies, refers to the process through which individuals are hailed or called upon by societal norms and ideologies to adopt specific social roles and identities.

Etymology of Interpellation

The term “interpellation” has its origins in French and Latin. It derives from the French word “interpellation,” which means “to question” or “to challenge.” This French word, in turn, has its roots in the Latin word “interpellare,” where “inter” means “between” and “pellare” means “to summon” or “to call.”

In its etymological essence, interpellation conveys the act of interrupting or questioning someone, often in a formal or authoritative manner, to elicit a response or clarification.

In the realm of literary and cultural theory, “interpellation” has taken on a specialized meaning, referring to the process by which individuals are hailed or called upon to assume specific social roles and identities through ideological and societal norms.

Philosopher Louis Althusser explored this concept in his work on ideological state apparatuses.

Meanings of Interpellation

Meaning	Explanation
Social Identity Construction	In literature and literary theory, interpellation refers to the process through which individuals are hailed or called upon by societal norms and ideologies to adopt specific social roles and identities. It is a concept used to analyze how literature can reinforce or challenge societal expectations related to identity, class, gender, and more.
Reader Engagement	In the context of literature, interpellation can be observed in the way texts address and engage with readers. Authors often employ narrative techniques and rhetorical strategies to interpellate or “hail” readers, inviting them to identify with certain characters, ideologies, or themes within the text. This engagement can significantly shape readers’ interpretations and emotional responses.
Narrative Perspective	Interpellation is relevant to narrative theory as it plays a crucial role in determining the narrative perspective and positioning of the reader within the story. For example, the choice between a first-person or third-person narrator can interpellate readers differently, either encouraging them to align closely with a character’s point of view or adopt a more objective stance.
Ideological Critique	Literary critics often use the concept of interpellation to analyze how texts reflect and reinforce societal ideologies. By examining how characters are interpellated within a narrative, critics can uncover the underlying ideological messages and power dynamics at play in a literary work.
Subversion and Resistance	Interpellation isn’t limited to reinforcing dominant ideologies; it can also be a site of resistance and subversion in literature. Some literary works challenge or disrupt interpellation by offering alternative perspectives or critiquing established societal norms, encouraging readers to question and reflect on established identities and power structures.
Psychological Impact	Interpellation can have profound psychological effects on both readers and characters within a narrative. It can shape their sense of self, belonging, and agency, often leading to complex character development and emotional resonance in literature.
Postcolonial and Feminist Analysis	In postcolonial and feminist literary analyses, interpellation often takes center stage. These critical perspectives examine how texts interpellate characters based on factors like race, gender, or colonial status. Such analyses shed light on the power dynamics inherent in identity construction, offering deeper insights into literary works.
Intertextual Connections	The concept of interpellation can also be explored through intertextual connections between literary works. Authors may interpellate characters from other texts, invoking shared cultural or literary identities and enriching the reading experience by adding layers of meaning and context.
Cultural and Historical Context	The meaning and impact of interpellation in literature are deeply intertwined with the cultural and historical context of a work. Different time periods, settings, and societal norms interpellate characters and readers in distinct ways, significantly influencing the themes and messages conveyed in literature.

Definition of Interpellation as a Theoretical Term

It encompasses the ways in which texts, ideologies, and narratives shape individuals’ understanding of themselves and their positions within broader societal structures. This concept, popularized by Louis Althusser, is central to the analysis of how literature and media reinforce or challenge prevailing norms and power dynamics.

Interpellation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Louis Althusser: Louis Althusser, a prominent Marxist philosopher, introduced the concept of interpellation in his essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” He argued that individuals are subjected to ideological structures and institutions through interpellation, leading them to assume specific social roles and identities.
Stuart Hall: Stuart Hall, a cultural studies scholar, expanded on Althusser’s ideas and applied interpellation to the analysis of media and popular culture. He emphasized the role of media in hailing individuals into specific subject positions and shaping their identities.

Works:

“Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” (1970) by Louis Althusser: In this influential essay, Althusser outlines the concept of interpellation and its role in the functioning of ideological state apparatuses. He argues that individuals are hailed by these apparatuses, which include education, religion, and media, and are thus interpellated into specific social roles.

“Encoding/Decoding” (1980) by Stuart Hall: In this work, Hall discusses the process of encoding and decoding messages in media. He introduces the idea of media interpellating audiences and highlights the agency of individuals in decoding media messages, which may not always align with the intended interpellation.

Arguments:

Power Dynamics and Control: The concept underscores how power dynamics are perpetuated in society. The argument is that those in control of ideological structures can interpellate individuals into roles that serve their interests, reinforcing existing power structures.
Resistance and Agency: Some arguments emphasize that it is not a one-sided process; individuals can also resist or reinterpret it, asserting their agency and challenging dominant ideologies.

Media Influence: Scholars argue that media plays a significant role in interpellating individuals into certain subject positions. Media texts, through framing and representation, can shape how individuals perceive themselves and others within societal contexts.
Intersectionality: Interpellation is often analyzed in the context of intersectionality, considering how individuals may be subject to multiple interpellations simultaneously based on factors such as race, gender, class, and more. This argument highlights the complexity of identity formation.
Cultural and Historical Specificity: Arguments stress the importance of considering the cultural and historical context when analyzing interpellation. Different cultures and time periods interpellate individuals differently, leading to variations in identity construction.

These theorists, works, and arguments collectively contribute to our understanding of how interpellation functions in society and within the realm of media and cultural studies.

Interpellation and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Marxist Literary Theory	Interpellation aligns with Marxist theory’s focus on ideology and class struggle. It reveals how literature can interpellate characters into specific class roles and reinforces or critiques the dominant socioeconomic order.
Feminist Literary Theory	Interpellation is crucial for understanding how literature enforces or challenges gender norms and roles. It sheds light on how female characters are interpellated into patriarchal constructs and their potential for resistance.
Postcolonial Theory	Interpellation is central to postcolonial theory’s examination of colonial power dynamics. It helps analyze how literature interpellates colonized and colonizer characters, highlighting the complexities of identity, race, and cultural hegemony.
Reader-Response Theory	In reader-response theory, interpellation is relevant as it underscores the active role of readers in the interpretive process. Readers are interpellated into specific reading positions, affecting their engagement with and interpretation of texts.
Narrative Theory	Narrative theory explores how interpellation shapes narrative perspectives. The choice of a narrative voice interpellates readers into particular viewpoints, influencing their understanding of the story.
Queer Theory	Interpellation is pertinent to queer theory’s analysis of sexuality and identity. It examines how literature interpellates characters into heteronormative roles and how LGBTQ+ characters may resist or subvert these interpellations.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory can use interpellation to delve into characters’ subconscious and psychological development. It explores how characters’ interpellation into societal roles relates to their inner conflicts and desires.
Structuralism and Semiotics	Interpellation aligns with structuralist and semiotic approaches, as it focuses on how signs and symbols in literature interpellate readers into specific interpretations. This theory examines how language and symbols construct meaning.
Postmodernism	In postmodern literature, it is often subverted or questioned, challenging the stability of identities and narratives. It highlights the blurring of authorial and reader roles, inviting readers to critically engage with texts.
New Criticism	New Criticism emphasizes close reading and the autonomy of the text. It is relevant for understanding how texts interpellate readers into specific interpretive approaches, such as formal analysis and close reading.

Interpellation in Literary Criticism

“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman:
- Interpellation: In this novel, the protagonist’s descent into madness due to her confinement in a room with yellow wallpaper can be seen as an interpellation into the societal norms of women’s roles and mental health during the 19th century. Her struggle against this interpellation reflects the broader issues of women’s autonomy and mental well-being.

“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson:
- Interpellation: The townspeople’s participation in the annual lottery and their willingness to stone one of their own can be viewed as an interpellation into a blind adherence to tradition and conformity. The story highlights the dangers of unquestioningly accepting societal norms and practices.
1984 by George Orwell:
- Interpellation: The dystopian society depicted in “1984” interpellates its citizens into submission to a totalitarian regime, erasing individuality and critical thinking. The concept of “Newspeak” is a clear example of linguistic interpellation, as it limits the range of thought and expression.
“A Doll’s House” by Henrik Ibsen:
- Interpellation: In “A Doll’s House,” Nora Helmer’s interpellation into the role of a submissive wife and mother is central to the play’s themes. Her awakening to her own identity and her rejection of societal norms exemplify a break from interpellation and a quest for self-realization.

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:
- Interpellation: The novel follows the journey of Holden Caulfield, who rebels against the interpellation into the adult world and its perceived phoniness. His alienation and resistance to societal expectations serve as a commentary on the pressures placed on young adults to conform to conventional norms.

Implied Author in Literature & Literary Theory

The Implied Author, as a theoretical term in literary studies, refers to the hypothetical, constructed persona within a literary work that communicates the narrative’s style, tone, and perspective, separate from the actual author’s identity.

Etymology of Implied Author

The term “Implied Author” finds its origins in the realm of literary theory and was initially coined by Wayne C. Booth in his seminal work, “The Rhetoric of Fiction,” first published in 1961. T

his concept serves as a crucial distinction, highlighting the separation between the persona projected within a literary work, known as the Implied Author, and the living, breathing author. It underscores the notion that a text possesses its own unique authorial voice, stylistic elements, and perspective, which may not necessarily align with the personality or intentions of the real author.

Resultantly, the concept of the Implied Author provides a valuable framework for literary scholars and critics to dissect the intricate interplay of narrative voices and authorial presence within the world of literature.

Meanings of Implied Author

Meaning	Explanation
Narrative Persona	In literature and literary theory, it represents the narrative persona or voice constructed within a literary work, distinct from the real-life author.
Artistic Projection	It signifies the artistic projection of an authorial presence within the text, encompassing style, tone, and perspective.
Interpretive Tool	The concept serves as a valuable interpretive tool for understanding the text’s underlying intentions, values, and moral stance.
Separation from Real Author	It underscores the separation between it and the actual author, emphasizing that the text may convey a persona that differs from the author’s identity.
Reader Engagement	It influences reader engagement by shaping the reader’s perception of the text’s narrator and the message being conveyed.
Critical Analysis	Scholars employ this concept in literary criticism to explore the complexities of authorship, reader response, and narrative perspective.
Subjective Interpretation	Different readers and critics may have varying interpretations, leading to nuanced discussions in literary analysis.
Debates on Importance	It has sparked debates about the extent to which readers should consider the Implied Author in their interpretation, given its separation from the actual author.
Continued Relevance	Despite evolving literary theories, the concept remains a relevant and enduring tool for understanding the relationship between authors, texts, and readers in literary analysis.

Definition of Implied Author as a Theoretical Term

This concept allows scholars to analyze and interpret texts by considering the implied intentions, values, and moral stance presented through the narrative voice, highlighting the distinction between the author as a person and the author as a literary construct. It serves as a pivotal tool in understanding the complexities of authorship, narrative control, and reader engagement in the realm of literary theory and criticism.

Implied Author: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Wayne C. Booth: In his groundbreaking work The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961), Booth introduced the concept of the Implied Author, highlighting its significance in literary analysis. He argued that understanding the Implied Author is essential for comprehending the narrative persona and the authorial voice within a literary work, distinct from the actual author.

Wolfgang Iser: In The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1976), Iser explored the Implied Author‘s pivotal role in shaping how readers interpret and engage with texts. He emphasized that the Implied Author guides readers’ aesthetic responses, contributing to the meaning-making process.
Umberto Eco: Eco’s The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (1979) explores the term the Implied Author from a semiotic perspective. He highlighted how readers actively participate in constructing the Implied Author through their interactions with the text, underscoring the collaborative nature of meaning creation.
E.D. Hirsch: Hirsch’s work, Validity in Interpretation (1967), focused on the relationship between the Implied Author and textual meaning. He argued that recognizing the Implied Author‘s intentions is crucial for valid interpretations, emphasizing the author’s role in determining a text’s significance.

Key Works:

The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961) by Wayne C. Booth: Booth’s groundbreaking work introduced the Implied Author as a key concept for analyzing narrative persona and authorial voice.
The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1976) by Wolfgang Iser: Iser’s book explores how the Implied Author influences reader responses and the aesthetic experience of literature.
The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (1979) by Umberto Eco: Eco’s work discusses the Implied Author in the context of semiotics and reader participation in constructing meaning.

Validity in Interpretation (1967) by E.D. Hirsch: Hirsch’s book examines the Implied Author‘s role in determining the validity of interpretations and its connection to textual meaning.

Key Arguments:

Booth introduced the Implied Author as a fundamental concept for understanding the narrative persona, emphasizing its importance in distinguishing the authorial voice within the text from the actual author.
Iser highlighted the Implied Author‘s influence on reader interpretation, emphasizing how it guides readers’ aesthetic responses and contributes to the construction of meaning.

Eco’s perspective emphasized the active role of readers in constructing the Implied Author through their interactions with the text, underscoring the collaborative nature of meaning-making.
Hirsch argued that recognizing its intentions is essential for valid interpretations, emphasizing the author’s role in determining a text’s significance and meaning.

Implied Author and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Reader-Response Theory	The concept of the Implied Author is relevant to reader-response theory as it underscores the role of the reader in constructing the implied authorship. Readers actively engage with the text and contribute to shaping the Implied Author, making it a dynamic component in the reader’s interpretive process.
Authorial Intent Theory	In the context of authorial intent theory, the Implied Author holds significance as it reflects the author’s intended narrative voice and perspective. This theory emphasizes the need to consider the Implied Author to understand the author’s purpose and meaning behind a work.
Narrative Theory	Within narrative theory, it is central to analyzing the narrative structure and point of view. It helps scholars examine how the implied authorial presence influences the storytelling techniques, character development, and narrative choices in a text.
Deconstructionism	In deconstructionist literary theory, the concept is a construct that deconstructionists question and challenge. It serves as a point of contention regarding the stability of meaning and the extent to which the implied author’s intentions can be discerned.
Semiotics and Structuralism	In the realm of semiotics and structuralism, the Implied Author aligns with the focus on sign systems and codes. It represents the authorial code within the text, providing a means to explore how signs and symbols shape meaning in literature.
Reception Theory	Reception theory considers the role of the reader in interpreting and receiving a text. The Implied Author is relevant here because it influences how readers perceive and engage with the text, affecting the reception and interpretation process.
Postcolonial Theory	In postcolonial theory, it is examined for its potential reflection of colonial or postcolonial perspectives. It becomes relevant when exploring how literature may carry implicit ideological positions related to colonialism and its aftermath.
Feminist Literary Theory	Within feminist literary theory, the Implied Author can be analyzed for its portrayal of gender roles and perspectives. Examining the implied authorship helps in understanding how gender-related themes are constructed and conveyed in literature.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory can use the Implied Author to explore subconscious elements in a text. It can reveal how the implied authorial presence might reflect the author’s psychological motivations and unconscious influences on the narrative.
Postmodernism	In the context of postmodernism, the Implied Author is relevant because it challenges the notion of a fixed, authoritative authorial voice. Postmodernist literature often blurs the boundaries between author and narrator, making the concept of the Implied Author a subject of inquiry.
Marxist Literary Theory	In Marxist literary theory, it is studied for its reflection of class relations, ideology, and social critique. It is relevant for examining how literature may implicitly convey or contest Marxist perspectives.
New Criticism	The Implied Author aligns with the principles of New Criticism, which emphasize close reading and the text’s autonomy. New Critics often analyze the implied authorial presence to understand how a work creates meaning within itself.
Queer Theory	In queer theory, the Implied Author can be explored for its representation of LGBTQ+ identities and experiences. It is relevant for examining how literature may implicitly engage with or challenge heteronormative norms.
Structuralist Linguistics	In structuralist linguistics, the Implied Author can be related to the linguistic structures within a text. Analyzing the implied authorial presence aids in understanding how language functions as a system in literature.

Implied Author in Literary Criticism

The Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Wolfe (1987): Wolfe’s satirical novel offers a wealth of material for examining the Implied Author’s perspective on the excesses of the 1980s and the characters navigating the social milieu of New York City. Literary critics often explore how Wolfe’s authorial voice influences the reader’s perception of the story’s themes.

The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro (1989): Ishiguro’s novel shows the themes of memory, repression, and the role of the past in shaping identity. Literary analysis of this work often considers how the Implied Author’s narrative choices affect the reader’s understanding of the protagonist’s introspective journey.
The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien (1990): O’Brien’s collection of interconnected short stories about the Vietnam War invites examination of the Implied Author’s role in conveying the emotional and psychological burdens carried by soldiers. Critics often explore how O’Brien’s narrative voice influences reader empathy and engagement.
The Blind Assassin by Margaret Atwood (2000): Atwood’s novel is notable for its layered narrative structure and intertextuality. Literary critics often analyze how the Implied Author constructs multiple narrative voices and explores themes of storytelling and truth.

Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (1999): Lahiri’s collection of short stories demonstrates themes of cultural identity and human connection. Critics often examine how the Implied Author’s narrative style and perspectives shape the reader’s understanding of the characters’ experiences in a foreign land.

Intertextuality in Literature & Literary Theory

Intertextuality, in theoretical terms, is the concept that highlights the interconnectedness of literary works and cultural artifacts. It signifies that texts are in constant dialogue with those that came before, shaping and influencing one another.

Etymology of Intertextuality

The term “intertextuality” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “textus,” which means “text” or “fabric.” The prefix “inter-“ denotes the idea of “between” or “among.”

Therefore, “intertextuality” essentially conveys the notion of texts being interwoven or interconnected, reflecting how literary works often reference, borrow from, and engage with other texts. It creates a complex web of textual relationships.

This term underscores the dynamic and dialogical nature of literature. In this way, it shows how texts are not isolated entities but part of a broader literary fabric.

Meanings of Intertextuality

Key Points	Description
Interconnected Literary References	Authors incorporate elements, themes, or phrases from earlier works, creating rich literary connections.
Dialogues Between Texts	Texts respond to, critique, or reinterpret each other, enriching the reader’s experience through exploration of connections and contrasts.
Cultural and Contextual Significance	Literature reflects cultural and historical context by commenting on social norms, values, and ideologies of the time.
Reader Engagement and Interpretation	Readers actively engage with texts by recognizing and deciphering references, deepening their understanding through exploration of layers of meaning.
Postmodern Deconstruction of Authorship	Challenges traditional notions of authorship and originality, blurring the lines between author, text, and reader by emphasizing collaborative creation.
Poststructuralist Analysis	Reveals the decentered nature of language and meaning, highlighting the shaping influence of diverse texts and discourses.
Intertextual Strategies in Postcolonialism	Empowers marginalized voices by referencing and subverting colonial texts, allowing them to challenge dominant narratives.
Critical Examination of Influence and Authority	Prompts critical analysis of power dynamics in literature, questioning the authority of certain texts or voices and their impact on cultural discourse.
Literary Creativity and Innovation	Serves as a source of literary innovation, enabling authors to reinterpret and transform existing narratives, contributing to the evolution of literary traditions.

Definition of Intertextuality as a Theoretical Term

This perspective emphasizes how authors draw from, reinterpret, or challenge existing texts to enrich their works and convey deeper smeaning. It challenges traditional notions of originality and authorship, emphasizing the dynamic and collaborative nature of textuality within broader cultural contexts.

Intertextuality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Julia Kristeva:

Work: Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art

Argument: Kristeva introduced the term as part of her semiotic approach, emphasizing the interplay of signs and the continual referencing of other texts within a literary work.

Roland Barthes:

Work: The Death of the Author
Argument: Barthes questioned the authority of the author and highlighted how readers actively contribute to the meaning of a text through intertextual connections and interpretations.

Mikhail Bakhtin:

Work: Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics
Argument: Bakhtin’s concept of “dialogism” emphasizes the multi-voiced nature of texts and the ongoing dialogue between different texts, contributing to intertextual analysis.

Kristeva’s Intertextuality Theory:

Work: Word, Dialogue, and Novel

Argument: Kristeva’s theory explores the idea of the “intertext,” where texts intersect and generate new meanings through their interactions.

Postmodern Intertextuality:

Works: Various postmodern literature
Argument: Postmodern authors often engage in playful intertextuality, blurring the lines between high and low culture and challenging conventional narrative structures.

Intertextuality in Postcolonial Literature:

Works: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea
Argument: Postcolonial literature uses intertextuality to reframe and subvert colonial narratives, giving voice to marginalized perspectives.

Intertextuality and Adaptation:

Works: Film adaptations of literary classics

Argument: Adaptations in different media, such as film, engage in intertextuality by referencing and reinterpreting source texts, offering new insights and perspectives.

These theorists, works, and arguments collectively contribute to our understanding of how intertextuality operates in literature, theory, and cultural discourse.

Intertextuality and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Structuralism and Semiotics	Structuralism and semiotics explore the underlying structures and signs within texts. Intertextuality is relevant as it highlights how texts are connected through a network of signs and references, emphasizing the role of signs in creating meaning.
Poststructuralism and Deconstruction	Poststructuralism challenges the fixed meanings of texts and emphasizes the fluidity of language. Deconstruction, a part of poststructuralism, deconstructs texts to reveal their multiple meanings and contradictions. Intertextuality is relevant as it underscores how texts are continually deconstructed and reconstructed through their connections with other texts.
New Historicism and Cultural Studies	New Historicism and Cultural Studies examine the cultural and historical context in which texts are produced. Intertextuality is relevant as it shows how texts engage with and reflect the cultural and historical influences of their time by referencing other works.
Postcolonialism	Postcolonialism explores the effects of colonialism on colonized cultures. Intertextuality is relevant in postcolonial literature as it often involves the reappropriation and subversion of colonial texts, providing a voice to marginalized cultures.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory, particularly in postcolonial contexts, examines how women’s voices are silenced or appropriated in literature. Intertextuality is relevant as it is used to analyze how women writers engage with and reinterpret male-dominated literary traditions.
Reception Theory	Reception theory focuses on how readers interpret and receive texts. Intertextuality is relevant as it highlights how readers actively engage with texts by recognizing intertextual references, contributing to the diverse interpretations of a work.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into the psychological aspects of characters and authors. Intertextuality is relevant as it is used to analyze how authors’ personal experiences and traumas may be reflected in intertextual references within their works.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning. Intertextuality is relevant as it invites readers to actively engage with texts by recognizing references, impacting their interpretation and response.

Intertextuality in Literary Criticism

Work	Intertextuality Critique
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood (1985)	Atwood’s use of intertextuality enriches the narrative significantly. She skillfully references religious texts, historical events, and feminist literature, which deepens the exploration of an oppressive patriarchal society. By reinterpreting biblical stories, particularly the story of Rachel and Leah, Atwood highlights the subjugation of women. Furthermore, her references to feminist literature of the 1970s, such as “The Second Sex” by Simone de Beauvoir, effectively delve into themes of female oppression and resistance. This meticulous intertextuality adds layers to the narrative, resonating with readers and provoking critical reflection on contemporary social and political issues.
Beloved by Toni Morrison (1987)	Morrison’s intertextual elements from African American history, folklore, and the slave narrative tradition contribute profoundly to the narrative. Her references to historical events like the Middle Passage and the incorporation of the ghostly presence of the titular character, who symbolizes the trauma of slavery, create a haunting and emotionally resonant story. Moreover, Morrison’s interweaving of elements from African folklore, such as the concept of “rememory,” strengthens the connection between personal and collective histories of African Americans. This deliberate use of intertextuality underscores the importance of remembering and acknowledging the past.
The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien (1990)	O’Brien’s intertextuality, drawn from war literature and his own experiences as a soldier in the Vietnam War, significantly enhances his stories. His references to historical accounts and other war literature, such as Hemingway’s “In Another Country” and Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness,” add authenticity and emotional depth to his narratives. By blurring the lines between fiction and reality through these intertextual references, O’Brien masterfully explores the complexities of truth and storytelling, especially within the context of war.
White Noise by Don DeLillo (1985)	DeLillo’s satirical novel is intricately connected to consumer culture, media, and popular culture of the 1980s through intertextuality. His references to advertisements, television shows, and consumer products serve as a poignant critique of the superficiality and alienation prevalent in contemporary society. Furthermore, the incorporation of elements of postmodernism, reminiscent of works by Thomas Pynchon and J.G. Ballard, adds depth to the narrative. DeLillo’s deliberate intertextual references highlight the absurdity of consumer-driven culture and its profound impact on individual identity. The novel’s intertextual layers effectively comment on the overwhelming influence of mass media and technology in the modern world.

Candide: Themes, Elements, & Issues

Candide by Voltaire is a typical fictional work having elemental value on the basis of thematic strands that seem to have surpassed generations and civilizations.

Introduction to Candide

Candide by Voltaire is a typical fictional work having elemental value on the basis of thematic strands that seem to have surpassed generations and civilizations. This fiction written during the eighteenth century not only shows the importance of wealth in social relations and social setups but also shows the work of religion, human desires, and civilizational clashes through its protagonist Candide, and other characters associated with him. The ancient controversies and dialectics about the existence of God, the creation of the world, the role of power and money, and religious dogmas in shaping human lives and cultures have been kept engaged not only by philosophers like Voltaire but also by other figures. Shown through his character such as Pangloss whose mantra of “For, everything having been made for a purpose, everything is necessarily for the best purpose” (Voltaire 4) to complete pessimism of Martin that he has never met goodness (53) when replying to Candide, Voltaire has touched upon the fundamental issues concerning human life. In fact, comprises how religion sometimes becomes a source of solace and at other times a source of persecution for those who hold different views. Therefore, some of the themes about the role of wealth, human lust and love, religion and its misuse, and civilizational clash are elements that can resonate with contemporary audiences.

Wealth in Candide

As far as the role of wealth in concerned, the initial chapter about Baron Thunder-ten-trenconckh and the description of his castle, his farmyard, and his living style show that he is called “Your Lordship” on account of his wealth (03). Candide soon comes to know that he has no means to pay his corner (05). Ken Ewell in his book, Travelling with Philosophes, says that Candide gets a lot of wealth from El Dorado but when he sees that it is all lost, he is unable to locate Cunegonde and his associate as he has no means to bribe the officials in Turkish land (252). It means that he has pointed out the importance of wealth. In fact, wealth plays an important part in the officials as well as the private world. In the official world, it works when Candide thinks of meeting the governor to buy Cunegonde, his former beloved (252). Although Ken Ewell has associated it with his philosophy that he learns from Pangloss the mention of wealth is very much there, as it makes him easy to travel and buy freedom for his mentor and beloved. In other words, wealth still has a significant role in the lives of people for traveling, purchasing amenities of life, and even buying officials to freedom. It even works when an individual wants to fulfill his desires.

Human Desire in Candide

In fact, human desires, in Candide, have been shown responsible for bringing trouble as well as showing the future of the characters. Candide is forced to leave the castle of Baron when he is caught flirting with Cunegonde (Voltaire 05). Desires may comprise lust or love or simply love for wealth as has been shown above, they drive the people away. Although Candide is forced to leave the castle, his heart is with Cunegonde. He is always after her when he is all right and has enough wealth to pursue his desire even if to go to Turkey(80-81). A desire-satisfaction theoretical perspective by Dale Dorsey highlights that although desires lead to temporal welfare or satisfaction, they hardly fulfill permanent satisfaction level (152-153) for it depends on the time, context, and various other factors springing up in the new research (152). Perhaps that is the very reason that the lust or desire for sex of Candide ends by the end of the novel when he sees ugly Cunegonde in Turkey and does not marry her though he does not budge from his earlier stand of marrying her. The same goes for human desires and emotions with the contemporary audience when they see the same things happening with characters on the screen in front of them.

Religion in Candide

Whereas religion is concerned, it has always led to wider fissures among human beings rather than filling the existing gaps. The whole episode of Candide with the Jesuits and his flip-flop to prove that he is with his captors (Voltaire 214) show that religious creed, indeed, plays an important part in the life of human beings, and it is still important in that every religious person holds that his religious is as true as the old man in El Dorado who speaks to Candide about it (Voltaire 44). However, the interesting thing about Candide coming to know such religious beliefs is that it forces one to reflect on his religious ideas which is metacognition as Mark Bracher has asserted with reference to Candide (73). It means that a person meets followers of other religions and comes to know about shortcomings in his own beliefs. The same goes for either acceptance or resistance of religious ideas and beliefs which show the clash of civilizations as is happening notoriously between Christianity and Islam in the Middle East though both sides are engaged in rapprochement in one or the other way.

Conclusion

All of these thematic strands, elements and events in Candide by Voltaire seem quite relevant to contemporary readers and audiences. They find relevant elements in them to think solutions to the problems they face and resolve them accordingly. That is why Candide is still popular among the masses as they see their fundamental desires, petty religious disputes, and civilizational clashes at work in the text and its presentation on the stage.

Works Cited

Bracher, Mark. Educating for Cosmopolitanism: Lessons from Cognitive Science and Literature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

Dorsey, Dale. “Desire-satisfaction and Welfare as Temporal.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol, 16. no. 1 (2013): 151-171.
Ewell, Ken. Traveling with Philosophes. New York: iUniverse Inc. 2006.
Voltaire, Francoise. Candide and Other Stories. Trans. by Roger Pearson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

**Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues**

How does Voltaire use satire and irony in Candide to critique and comment on the philosophical optimism of the Enlightenment era, and what is the impact of this critique on the overall themes of the novella?
In Candide, the character Pangloss embodies the idea that “all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.” How does Pangloss’s philosophy evolve or change throughout the story, and what does this transformation reveal about the novel’s exploration of optimism and reality?
Voltaire tackles numerous societal issues in Candide, including religious hypocrisy, the nature of evil, and the corrupting influence of power. Can you provide examples from the text that illustrate Voltaire’s commentary on these issues and explain how they contribute to the novel’s overall message and themes?

The Book of the Dead by Ibrahim al-Faqih

This excerpt occurs in brahim al-Faqih’s book, The Book of the Dead, in which he presents the mental predicament of a Libyan school teacher.

Introduction to Part of The Book of the Dead

This beautiful short excerpt has been taken from Ibrahim al-Faqih’s book, The Book of the Dead, in which he presents the mental predicament of a Libyan school teacher, Abd al-Hafiz, which not only presents the whole Libyan patriarchal thinking, but also the status of women and role of men as custodian of the social norms and customs. Abd al-Hafiz is a primary school teacher in a some remote Libyan village. The Book of the Dead shows the school management appoints him as a religious education teacher to teach the students in a local school in this remote area, where there is no girls’ school. The girls are sent to their exclusive girl’s school in Libya. It happens that one day he enters the school, but does not meet the usual humdrum that he used to find the past. The students used to fight, and show vulgarity and bad manners whenever he used to enter the school. However, this time, there is no such humdrum and vulgarity. He is rather surprised at this queer silence. The first thinking that enters his mind is that the students are absent, but when he glances inside the classroom, he sees nothing. His second glance makes him wonder struck, as there is a young girl sitting with the boys whom he thinks is surely a demon. The most surprising thing is that the entire class is sitting in silence, as if nothing has happened to them. He considers it a conspiracy against him from the management to force him to resign, but he decides otherwise. The presence of the girl first makes him turn against her to provoke her through several tricks, but then one day she is absent, which gives him a feeling of remorse. When she comes again, he instantly falls in love with her despite being a married person, and a religious teacher. This situation of passionate love, however, conflicts with his ingrained religious and traditional ideas. He feels that somebody has done black magic on him and becomes hysterical by the end of the story. Through this story from The Book of the Dead, Ibrahim al-Faqih beautifully presents the improvement in the class situation by placing a female student among the unruly boys, the mental conflict that ensues in the religious teacher, and the local cultural setting that makes the religious teacher almost mad with agony.

Classroom Presentation from The Book of the Dead

Whereas the improvement in the classroom environment as presented in this part of The Book of the Dead is concerned, it is sure that it has improved except a first hiccup. The first sign of this improvement is witnessed when Abd al-Hafiz enters the school and walks toward his class. It is because his first glance returns empty. He is surprised that there is silence, and nobody is in the class. When he glances again, “much to his surprise, he discovered that they were all three…sitting properly in their seats” and “They behaved as if they had suddenly transformed into grown men” (al-Hafiz 43). This is not all. There is change in their manners, in their clothes, in their speaking and working style. They are sitting at the same place they have been made to sit since the first day of the year. Although they are the same students that al-Hafiz used to see every day, but today they are different. First, he attributes this eerie silence to the inspection team that used to come to check the teachers for coming late. He discovers immediately that this is not the case. The wall clock tells him that he has come on time. He checks the blackboard, the desk, and everything to see what is wrong with the classroom today. It then occurs to him that this is only because a girl is present over there in the classroom. It is another thing that he first considers it some spirit or a demon, and prays that it should not be so. But it is a fact that there is a girl sitting in the classroom, whose presence has made the classroom silent. Her presence has also impacted the students.

Abd al-Hafiz and The Book of the Dead

Despite this visible improvement that he has acknowledged with his first entry, he still does not like her presence as shown by this part of The Book of the Dead. His first thinking is that she should have been in the girls’ school which the place of “mystery and secrecy” (76). Despite being a father of some children and a husband of a wife, he does not consider it appropriate that a girl should be sitting among the boys. As he is a religious teacher, he thinks in the same way. This is against the “principles of decency and modesty” which in his views reflect a total lack of “shame and morals” (76). With these thoughts in his mind, he thinks this a ploy against him, so that he could resign. His first thought is to resign immediately, but then he sticks to his decision of not resigning and making life hell for the girl in the class, so that she could leave. However, another very strange thing happens in his mind too with this improvement in the class. It is perversion of his piety. He glances at her breasts and long hair and thinks her of a blossomed woman of married age. This perversion in his thinking is entirely against the silence and improvement in the classroom environment, but it is this mental conflict in him, which is present in the background of peace and calmness of the class.

The Mental Conflict in The Book of the Dead

This mental conflict rather makes a hell of noise in the mind of Abd al-Hafiz, instead of making him comfortable and peaceful in this part of The Book of the Dead. His first though is that it is a demon or some satanic spirit. It is because he is a religious teacher and his mental makeup does not allow him to let girls mix with the boys. He does not imagine that a girl can enter the school exclusively reserved for boys. In the Libyan educational system, girls have separate schools, while boys have separate school. He starts questioning himself how this girl has entered the school and sat with the boys defiantly despite restrictions on the girls’ entry. Her presence among the boys have made him wonderstruck and speechless. However, when he realizes the presence of the boys, he gathers himself and starts asking her name. His second thought about the girl is that the management is conspiring against him. He is of the view that the management and inspectors are against him. As they have already blocked his promotion and transfer, this is a new ploy from their side to trap him. This thinking takes hold of him so much so that he forgets what he is going to teach. He feels exhausted and weak. This mental consternation sends him into internal mental conflict. He thinks about his whole life that he has spent in piety. He thinks that he has always obeyed the decrees of God. He believes that women are “inviolable and must be protected, and that their place is in the home, far from the gaze of men” (81). However, there is a young and beautiful Zahra sitting among the boys in front of him, which means that Satan is also there, and if there is a majority of men, it means some catastrophe is at hand, “while the Judgement Day will be nigh.” (82).

Transformation in The Book of the Dead

A third transformation in his thoughts takes place that he tortures her in every way. He decides that she is obstinate and defiant. Therefore, he will be playing tricks on her, so that she should leave the class. Despite his animosity towards her, she is always calm and peaceful and never shows that he is unjust in his marking. Even this makes him feel consternation even more. In fact, this internal animosity in him is due to this feeling of patriarchal thinking that men are always superior, and they have every right to treat women in a way they think fit. He thinks that “He would neither yield nor scold, as the question was one of principle and dignity, life or death” (90). Despite his animosity and mental consternation, she takes a deep interest in lessons. She does her homework regularly and beautifully. She does not give al-Hafiz any opportunity to mistreat her, but he is always on the forefront in humiliating her. It is her calmness that makes him feel that she is also against him. He waits for that supposed catastrophe that never befalls on him or on the school, and he always finds her sitting in front of him with the boys. A fourth mental transformation takes place when one day she becomes absent. This is the first time that Abd al-Hafiz finds himself reflecting on his actions. He thinks that this is not a victory; rather it is unjust. He thinks that he has been mean in his treatment toward her. His thoughts about her as a demon, or Satan or a dragon are totally baseless, as “she was only a small, innocent child,” who has become a victim of his traditional thinking about women and girls (92). It makes him think that had he a girl, he would not have mistreated her. Now he turns to think positively. He realizes that her presence has made the class behave well and orderly. However, without her, it wears a deserted look and seems as if some spirit has haunted the boys. This makes him think that if she has left, he will visit her father and request him to send her again as shown in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead.

Love and The Book of the Dead

However, this absence of the girl makes him fall in love with her, a strange feeling for him in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead. He imagines her meeting at odd places. This further complicates his mental thinking, because he has never imagined to meet such a young girl even in his wild dreams. One the one hand, there is a young and beautiful girl to whom he loves, and on the other hand, he is a pious religious teacher who cannot imagine to think in such a way about a girl who is the age of his daughter. This situation ensues a battle of ideas in his mind. On the one side is his “inflamed passion”, while on the other side are his religious ideas (92). He thinks in a strange way about her, as if they are Adam and Eve, and have fallen on the earth, but then this thinking makes him ashamed of himself. Even his dreams are full of the meetings between Zahra and al-Hafiz which seem to him, “terrifying, sweet, horrible, beautiful and loathsome clash” (96). In fact, this is a clash in his ideas between what he has been harboring since childhood and the new situation in which he is placed. Therefore, this mental clash continues torturing him until the end of the story.

Cultural Setting in The Book of the Dead

The theme of the cultural setting has been beautifully woven in this part of the excerpt. This is the traditional Libyan cultural setting which is witnessing some transformation in which he Abd al-Hafiz is also entangled somehow. As Libya is an Islamic country, religion holds supreme over everything including education and educational administration. Boys and girls and men and women are not allowed to intermingle. If this happens, according to the strict religious teachings, Satan enters that place, and it means that some catastrophe is about to take place. That is why when he sees the girl in the class sitting with the boys, his first thought is that she is not a girl, but a demon, and he immediately senses some danger. His second thought is that it is a conspiracy, because traditionally women or girls are not allowed in the schools reserved only for boys. It is because girls have always separate schools in Libya. Therefore, this is against the traditional setup that a girl is sent to a school where only boys study. It is also a traditional patriarchal thought that he sees defiance on the face of Zahra and thinks of mistreating her to show her status she holds in the society, but then his reflection on his action makes him think about his unjust behavior. This is a sort of rebellion against the traditions, but the traditional thinking mixed up with religious ideas make him almost go mad. It is because he is already in an agony and to top it all, he falls in love with her. This is even torturing, because then he thinks that he is quite old, almost the age of his father. It is because in Libyan culture it never happens that such a man of more than forty years start loving a young girl, who is half of his age and that person is religious too. Therefore, these cultural customs, traditions and religions ideas put Abd al-Hafiz on the pedestal of mental agony in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead.

Conclusion

Concluding the analysis, it becomes clear that this story reflects the original cultural setting of the Libyan society where women are given a status lower than men in every way, even if it is an educational setting. Although this girl has been sent to this school of boys on the recommendation of the higher authorities, the religious faces not only mental dilemma but also physical shock over her presence in the class. He faces a mental agony where he displays contradictory feelings of hate, love, torture, religious fervor, piety and then hysteria. In fact, Ibrahim al-Faqih got his education in the United Kingdom and saw gender equality in the western society. He is fully aware of this fact that such things will create such a feeling of shock and mental conflict among the native Libyans. He has successfully portrayed such a character by placing a girl in the boys’ classroom.

Works Cited

al-Faqih, Ibrahim.”Excerpt from the Book of Dead.” Editors. Husni, Ronak & Daniel L. Newman. Modern Arabic Short Stories: A Bilingual Reader. SAQI. London. 2008. Print. 70-144.

Relevant Questions about “Excerpt from the Book of Dead”

What literary techniques or stylistic elements are prominent in the analyzed excerpt from “The Book of the Dead” by Ibrahim al-Faqih, and how do they contribute to the overall tone and theme of the work?
Could you provide insights into the historical and cultural context surrounding Ibrahim al-Faqih’s writing of “The Book of the Dead,” and how this context might influence the interpretation of the analyzed excerpt?
In the analysis of the excerpt from “The Book of the Dead” by Ibrahim al-Faqih, were there any specific symbols, motifs, or recurring themes that stood out, and how do they relate to the broader narrative or message of the book?

The Realm of Possibility: Body Image

Each person has a different experience with growing up and becoming the person they are meant to be as shown by Levithan in The Realm of Possibility.

Introduction to Body Image in The Realm of Possibility

Each person has a different experience with growing up and becoming the person they are meant to be as shown by David Levithan in The Realm of Possibility. Many times, childhood experiences shape and define how we view the world and interpret our experiences. The Realm of Possibility, the book by David Levithan, shows the experiences of childhood and young adulthood are combined into a beautiful and descriptive work of poetry that demonstrates the experiences of young adults from many different backgrounds whose experiences are different in and of themselves and which all show a different side of the individual struggle to find oneself. Throughout childhood, images and ideas of physical perfection come at children and young adults from every angle. Through this, individuals are able to create an idea of how it is socially acceptable to look and what images and representations of physical characteristics should be followed and emulated. These images and interpretations of how one should look are often confusing and frustrating, leading many to be unsatisfied with themselves and their bodies, constantly striving for perfection that they will never be able to obtain. In this book The Realm of Possibility, Levithan addresses these issues and pressures head-on in three of his poems entitled “Tinder Heart”, “Suburban Myths” and “Strong”.

The Realm of Possibility and “Tinder Heart”

“Tinder Heart” in The Realm of Possibility is a poem dedicated to the fragility of the heart and how closely this relates to body image, specifically the development of an eating disorder. The poem begins with Mary who does not allow herself to love a boy. This comes from her dissatisfaction with herself and her body. Throughout the poem, Mary is constantly observing the bodies of others, both men and women. She notices her friend Elizabeth and how she does not worry herself about how she looks. It seems as if Mary cannot comprehend this, but is still a little jealous. She is constantly in denial of her problem, despite her friends and the boy that she loves telling her that they are worried about her. At one point in the poem, she begins to realize the extent of her obsession when she questions the meaning behind size zero. She says, “Who was it who invented size zero?” adding “Who was it who promised that if you got to a certain point you would no longer be there?” (Levithan). In this moment of self-realization, she seems to be both hopeful and disgusted; hoping for a size zero herself, yet disgusted by the fact that someone could decide on a size that would mean that you no longer existed on that scale. The poem ends with her looking into the refrigerator and breaking down. She then goes to the boy who loves her and says “I need help”. Her opinion of herself was created by what she wanted to be but could never achieve. Because she would never be able to achieve her goal of size zero, she deprived herself of everything good to the point of even depriving herself of human interaction.

“Suburban Myths” in The Realm of Possibility

“Suburban Myths” in The Realm of Possibility is a mixture of very short stories, each telling their own story of a certain aspect of society that has been perpetuated. One such story in this collection is of a woman who would never leave her house. The only people seen going to and from her door were those who would bring her food, such as the pizza delivery man or the Chinese food delivery man. Those on the outside judged her and would make comments about this fact, despite not knowing her actual situation and what had driven her to become this way. They assumed she was lazy and that she was stupid for staying that way all day. They also assumed the obvious, that she was very large. Although they knew little about her, the people in the neighborhood knew that she loved to eat. When some young boys decided to break into her house as a prank, she played the ultimate prank on them by being dead. The boys noticed that the woman had brought her bed into the kitchen, therefore dying surrounded by the things she loved. The lifestyle of this woman was stigmatized due to the seeming non-conformity of her choices with what society valued. It is clear from her conversation that she was capable of love and any other human emotion, but was confined to her house by her own decisions, which eventually resulted in her inability to leave her house, as is clear from her behavior shown in the first story. However, society plays an important role and further stigmatizes this woman. It made her a victim of its customs, norms, and traditions and ultimately she succumbed due to being of a weaker nature. Hence her life was deeply affected, which resulted in her death.

“Strong” in The Realm of Possibility

Although young women are pressured to look a certain way, so are young men. In the poem “Strong” in The Realm of Possibility, a boy recounts his story of how his quest for strength and physical perfection changed his life. From a young age, the boy had decided that he wanted to be the apex of physical perfection. In his mind, a boy without a strong body, one that was “well-defined” was “nothing”. The boy was complimented on his physique and rewarded for his hard work, often being rewarded because of it and envied by both men and women. One day he sees Mary and falls in love with her. In line with society’s expectations, Mary is thin as a rail and seems as if she is ready to break, fragile in every way. The boy comes to the realization that Mary and the human relation is more important than the strength of his body and the way he looks. “To get something, you must give something away,” he says in realization at the end of the poem.

Conclusion

In the collection of stories The Realm of Possibility, author David Levithan explored the role of body image in defining the lives of young adults. He examines the pain and inadequacy they can feel, as well as the advantages physical perfection can bring. Through the lives of three young people, Levithan explores all of these things and more. This book accurately depicts the conflicted nature of growing up in modern society, where physical perfection is demanded, but role models are created by Photoshop.

Works Cited

Levithan, David. The Realm of the Possibility. Random House. 2004. Print.

How does David Levithan, in his book “The Realm of Possibility,” address the issues and pressures faced by young people in today’s world through the poems “Tinder Heart,” “Suburban Myths,” and “Strong”?
What themes and messages does Levithan convey in the poems “Tinder Heart,” “Suburban Myths,” and “Strong” from his book “The Realm of Possibility” regarding the challenges and dilemmas young individuals encounter?
In “The Realm of Possibility” by David Levithan, how do the poems “Tinder Heart,” “Suburban Myths,” and “Strong” contribute to the exploration and discussion of contemporary issues and pressures facing the characters and their generation?

Beowulf as an Epic

Generally, an epic is a long narrative poem, a la Beowulf as an epic, written about the journey/adventures of a hero, in dactylic hexameter.

**Introduction to Beowulf as an Epic**

Generally, an epic is a long narrative poem, a la Beowulf as an epic, written about the journey or adventures of a hero, in dactylic hexameter and spanned over twelve or more books. The hero is often a larger-than-life figure who comes out victorious in every sort of expedition, more than often aided by gods and fate but has human qualities. The events relate to the history and society in which they are set. If judged on these yards sticks, it seems that at least in some respects, Beowulf comes up to the standard of an epic. As it is one of the oldest surviving pieces in English Literature, it seems that it has some of the basic qualities that an epic should have in English according to the yardsticks of definition, conventions, qualities of a hero, and social climate that an epic should have.

**Oral Traditions in the Making of Beowulf as an Epic**

As far as Beowulf as an epic is concerned, it has come to us in oral traditions with having the hands of several writers in writing it. The objective of these oral traditions jotted down together into a story is to narrate and record the events, exploits, and adventures of the old Anglo-Saxon heroes specifically Beowulf and others who joined the national ideals through several strains used in it. It is a long narrative poem having 3,182 lines with several portions missing which shows that it must have been long enough to be called an epic. It has a grand style and extended similes that an epic should have such as the comparison of the feelings of King Hrethel with a father whose son is about to be hanged and melting of the way like that of ice. The other Aristotelian requirements of unity and the entirety of action and its grandeur are also present in it but not as Aristotle demands. For example, there is a unity of action but somewhere the action goes in some other direction with two separate narratives such as that of King Horathghar’s and Beowulf’s who is a young prince of Geats. The second is entirety which means that this Beowulf as an epic does not start from the in medias res as other epics do and also that the story does not have a proper beginning, a middle, and an end like other epics as Odyssey and Aeneid have. It is also that although the action is somewhat grand but not like that of Paradise Lost and Odyssey, for the hero loses his life at the end.

**Hero in Beowulf as an Epic**

The second point is the qualities of a hero and in this respect, this comes up to the standard of an epic hero. The hero of an epic is a larger than life figure or a great legend when reading Beowulf as an epic. He shows unusual courage and power and Beowulf fits into this category. A hero must be aided by deus ex machina and it is also that Beowulf is helped in several ways at several places. His physical courage, strength, and far superior acumen make him a perfect hero but not that of the category of Odysseus and Aeneas. It is also that he dies at the end in his fight against a dragon after living and ruling for several years. This makes him a lesser than a hero, but still, he retains some of the qualities of legends.

**Epic Conventions in Beowulf as an Epic**

The claim of Beowulf as an epic is not short of examples in several other ways such as epic conventions. Epics display a good use of war vocabulary and Beowulf is rich in it. Its best instance is when Beowulf fights against Grendel and his mother. His sabers, armor, and helmets have specific names. His sword Hrunting does well in his fight against Grendal’s mother and their fight in the boiling lake water and then in the swampy jungle is also a reminder of the great fights of great epics. The journey that the prince takes from Geats to Denmark is a long one and then his fights over there to assist King Horathghar are also legendary.

Conclusion

As far as the culture and social context of Beowulf as an Epic are concerned, Beowulf is full of themes regarding Anglo-Saxon culture, beliefs, and codes. It was a traditional theme to help good versus evil and Beowulf commits himself to help good and fight evil such as demons, dragons, and monsters. Other important themes are reputation and heroism. Beowulf commits himself to fight the monster Grendel and he does so at every peril even to his own life. The second one is that he fights like a hero with passion and courage even at the risk of death. Other such themes as loyalty and the elegiac nature of human beings are also tied to Anglo-Saxon period. Other female characters such as Wealhtheow and Hildeburgh also demonstrate that hospitality, honor, and importance of female figures in society were given much importance.

Works Cited

Lawrence, William Witherle. Beowulf and Epic Tradition. Harvard University Press, 1928.

Relevant Questions about Beowulf as an Epic

How does Beowulf as an epic reflect the values and heroic code of its time?
In what ways do the supernatural battles in Beowulf contribute to its epic quality?
How does the unique poetic structure of Beowulf as an epic enhance its literary significance?

You may read more on Short Essays below:

“The Brown Wasps”: Life of Comfort, Memory and Illusion

Paper Pills and Nobody Knows: Aggressive Males

Sherwood Anderson is popular for weaving cobwebs for his characters as he has done in two stories “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”.

Introduction to “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Sherwood Anderson is popular for weaving cobwebs for his characters as he has done in two stories “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”. However, mostly he has demonstrated male characters who are aggressive, and bold and show their adventurism in case of confrontation with female characters. In fact, this is not merely an encounter, it is a phenomenon that has taken place in the world of fiction and Sherwood Anderson did not stay unaffected by feminism. His both stories “Nobody Knows” and “Paper Pills” show two male characters. It is another case that there are two extra male characters in “Paper Pills” but they also show the sinister side of the male nature. However, the rest of the two protagonists dominate the female characters at the end but they both demonstrate their aggressiveness, boldness, and dominating nature.

Males in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Males are naturally aggressive and it is in their nature to be so in both stories “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”. It is in their nature that whenever they see a female, they get aggressive due to a psychological bent of mind. George Willard in “Nobody Knows” is a male of adventurous nature, which clearly shows that he should be aggressive, and he is that he shows at the end. Although he is not so courageous that he should get aggressive, as “he did not dare think” (Anderson 20) . He is first timid to face Louise Trunnion when he goes there. However, at the end when they met, “he became wholly the male, bold and aggressive” (22). Similar is the case of Doctor Reefy when he makes paper balls and says, “This is to confound you” (7) which is said when confronting a female. Both male characters show their dominance in their aggression and both females suffer due to their aggressive behavior, though in the case of Willard, Louise does not suffer, but their secret love affair does not mature, while in the case of the doctor, the girl dies after marrying him. This is a sign of male aggression.

Boldness of Male Characters in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

The second thing is boldness which is also natural to a male when confronting a female. Anderson has shown this male character trait in both stories “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”. This is clear in case of George Willard when he meets Louise and goes to her house. He thinks differently than he actually does as he thinks “I am not very bold” (22) by which he means that he is not actually a bold person that he should take such a huge step to meet the lady secretly. However, when he meets her, he becomes bold and courageous saying her, “Ah, come on, it’ll be all right” (22) which shows that he is showing her that he is a bold fellow. His last predictive sentence that “She hasn’t got anything on me” is also a demonstration of his boldness. Similarly, it is the boldness of Doctor Reefy that he has formed a truth in his mind out of his thoughts and knows that “the truth clouded the world” which is a sign of boldness.

Dominating Males in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

The third point is that male is always dominating in one or the other way, as in the case of George Willard, he not only invites the girl but also meets and after meeting her he has his own ways. It is because domination is necessary for having sex and his coaxing the girl to come with him that nothing would happen is a sign of his domination over females. However, it is another issue that it proves meaningless. Similarly, Doctor Reefy in “Paper Pills” and meets the dark little girl who has already been made pregnant by a silent young man instead of the chatterbox to whom she gave most of her time. However, when the doctor proves his domination, she got attracted to him. It is quite another matter that she shortly died after that, leave the doctor alone. His domination could not let him enjoy love and he is left without anybody to take care of him.

Conclusion to Male Characters of Anderson in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

In a nutshell, Sherwood Anderson has given a fine touch to his male characters that sometimes seems bordering on feminism which means that he is favoring female characters. This somewhat shows that his tendency is to demonstrate male in bold terms. However, it is quite natural that male is always dominant, bold, and aggressive when confronting female. This not only happens in the world of ours, but also happens in the animal world where male is found dominating the female even when courting for sex. George and Doctor Reefy both play their male games in order to court their females and they succeed in their adventures. However, the point is that they show all the masculine qualities that female loves to see in men. That is why Louise is attracted to George and the dark little girl to Doctor Reefy though it could not be found whether the young man having made pregnant was also dominating and bold or not. This is not shown in the story.

Works Cited

Anderson, Sherwood. Winsesburg, Ohio. Penguin. New York. 2010. Print.

Relevant Questions about “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”: Bold and Aggressive Males

How do the characters in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows” exemplify the portrayal of bold and aggressive males, and how do these traits impact their relationships and interactions within the respective narratives?
In “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows,” how do the depictions of bold and aggressive males shed light on the broader themes of masculinity, vulnerability, and power dynamics in Sherwood Anderson’s storytelling?
What parallels and differences can be drawn between the bold and aggressive males presented in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows,” and how do these characters contribute to the overall exploration of human nature and behavior in Anderson’s works?

Imperialism in Literature & Literary Theory

Imperialism is geopolitical ideology in which a dominant nation or state seeks to extend its influence, control, or authority over others.

Etymology of Imperialism

The term “imperialism” has its origins in the Latin word “imperium,” which means “supreme authority” or “command.” It specifically denotes the extension of a nation’s power and influence.

In the 19th century, during the era of European colonialism, it gained prominence as European powers expanded their dominion overseas. With the passage of time, it has come to signify various forms of political and cultural control by dominant nations over less powerful ones.

Meanings of Imperialism

Aspect of Imperialism	Definition in Literary Context
Political Dominance	In literature, the extension of one nation’s political control over another, often explored through themes of colonization and annexation.
Economic Expansion	Denotes the economic control of dominant nations over others, with a focus on resource exploitation, labor, and market influence in literary analysis.
Cultural Hegemony	Refers to the imposition of dominant culture or nation’s values, norms, and beliefs on others, examined in literature for its impact on cultures and identities.
Narrative Imperialism	The dominance of specific storytelling traditions, styles, or voices in literature, often seen as the imposition of particular narrative perspectives or structures.
Metaphorical and Symbolic Imperialism	The use of imperialism as a metaphor or symbol to explore themes of power, control, and influence in various literary contexts.
Literary Imperialism	Describes the influence of one dominant literary tradition or canon on others, which may lead to the marginalization of indigenous or less-recognized literatures.

Definition of Imperialism as a Theoretical Term

Imperialism, as a theoretical term, refers to a geopolitical ideology or practice in which a dominant nation or state seeks to extend its influence, control, or authority over other regions, often through political, economic, or cultural means.

This concept is central to the analysis of power dynamics, global politics, and historical relationships between dominant and subordinate entities. Imperialism manifests itself in various forms, including territorial expansion, resource exploitation, cultural assimilation, and the imposition of ideologies.

Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists and Their Works:

J.A. Hobson:
- Imperialism: A Study
- Key Argument: Hobson argued that economic interests, particularly benefiting financial elites drove this movement. He believed that it served as a means to secure profits and investments abroad.
Vladimir Lenin:
- Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism
- Key Argument: Lenin expanded on Hobson’s ideas and viewed it as an advanced stage of capitalism. He emphasized the export of capital, the dominance of monopolies, and the intensification of class conflicts as central features of imperialism.
Edward Said:
- Orientalism
- Key Argument: Said’s work on post-colonialism and Orientalism explored how it was not only a physical occupation but also a form of cultural domination. He examined how the West constructed and misrepresented the East in literature and discourse.
Frantz Fanon:
- The Wretched of the Earth
- Key Argument: Fanon’s work focused on the psychological and social impact of imperialism on colonized peoples. He argued that colonialism led to the dehumanization and alienation of the colonized, advocating for anti-colonial resistance.
Hannah Arendt:
- The Origins of Totalitarianism
- Key Argument: Arendt’s analysis of imperialism and totalitarianism explored how imperialism could lead to oppressive regimes. She highlighted the consequences of statelessness and the loss of rights.

Key Arguments:

Economic Motivations: Many theorists, including Hobson and Lenin, emphasized economic interests as a driving force behind imperialism. This includes resource extraction, market control, and profit generation.
Political and Strategic Competition: Imperialism often involves geopolitical rivalries among powerful nations seeking to expand their influence and secure strategic advantages. This competition can lead to conflicts and wars.

Cultural and Ideological Justifications: Imperialism is sometimes justified through cultural and ideological narratives. It portrays the dominant nation as bringing civilization, progress, or enlightenment to less-developed regions, as analyzed by Said and others.
Psychological and Social Impact: The works of Fanon and others highlight the psychological and social consequences of imperialism, including the dehumanization, alienation, and resistance of colonized populations.

These key theorists, their works, and arguments contribute to a comprehensive understanding as a complex and multifaceted phenomenon encompassing economic, political, cultural, and psychological dimensions.

Imperialism and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Marxist Literary Theory	It is analyzed through a Marxist lens to explore how economic interests, class struggles, and exploitation are depicted in literature. This perspective emphasizes the role of imperialism in perpetuating capitalist structures and inequality.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Postcolonial theory directly engages with its legacy, focusing on the impact of colonialism on colonized peoples, cultures, and literature. It examines themes of identity, resistance, and cultural hybridity in postcolonial texts.
Feminist Literary Theory	Feminist theory intersects it by examining the gendered aspects of colonialism and how women’s experiences under imperialism are depicted in literature. It explores issues of power, agency, and representation.
Cultural Studies and Cultural Imperialism	Cultural studies explore the effects of cultural imperialism, including the dominance of one culture over others. It analyzes how literature and media contribute to cultural hegemony and how marginalized voices are silenced.
Postmodernism and Deconstruction	Postmodern and deconstructive approaches to literature challenge traditional narratives and discourses, including those shaped by imperialism. They deconstruct power dynamics and question authoritative narratives.
Critical Race Theory	Critical race theory examines how it interacts with racism. It analyzes how racial hierarchies are reinforced and resisted in literature, shedding light on the racial dimensions of imperialism.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory applies to characters in literature who grapple with the psychological effects of imperialism, such as identity conflicts, trauma, and alienation.
Ecocriticism	Ecocriticism explores the environmental impacts of imperialism, such as resource exploitation and ecological degradation, as represented in literature. It considers how literature reflects ecological concerns related to imperialism.

Imperialism in Literary Criticism

Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad:
- Critique: Conrad’s Heart of Darkness provides a powerful critique of European imperialism in Africa. Through the journey of the protagonist, Marlow, into the Congo, Conrad exposes the brutality and moral decay that often accompanied imperialistic endeavors. The novel delves into the psychological impact of both the colonizers and the colonized, revealing the darkness within the hearts of those involved in the imperial project.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:
- Critique: Achebe’s novel offers a postcolonial critique of it by focusing on the Igbo society in Nigeria before and during British colonial rule. Through the character of Okonkwo, Achebe portrays the devastating effects of cultural clash, the erosion of indigenous traditions, and the loss of identity that came with colonialism. It challenges the Eurocentric narratives of African primitivism prevalent during the imperial era.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:
- Critique: Márquez’s masterpiece critiques both foreign imperialism and neocolonialism in Latin America. The fictional town of Macondo represents a microcosm of the region’s history, where foreign powers exploit resources, manipulate politics, and influence social dynamics. Márquez’s magical realism serves as a narrative tool to unveil the surreal and absurd consequences of imperialism on the people and the land.

Burmese Days by George Orwell:
- Critique: Orwell’s novel is a critical examination of British imperialism in Burma. Through the character of John Flory, an Englishman living in colonial Burma, Orwell exposes the inherent racism, corruption, and moral decay of the colonial system. The novel challenges the romanticized notions of empire prevalent during the time and highlights the tension between imperialists and the colonized.

Bourgeois in Literature & Literary Theory

Bourgeois,” as a theoretical term, refers to the social class typically associated with property ownership, professional occupations, and a focus on financial stability within capitalist societies.

Etymology of Bourgeois

The term “bourgeois” originates from the French word “bourgeoisie,” commonly used during the late Middle Ages to describe the urban middle class, particularly merchants, tradespeople, and city-dwelling professionals. The word is rooted in the Old French “burgeis,” which refers to an inhabitant of a town or a walled city.

With time, it evolved to signify the social class that emerged as a result of urbanization and capitalism, characterized by their ownership of property and engagement in commerce.

In the context of political and economic theories, “bourgeois” often denotes the middle or capitalist class, and it has been widely used to critique the values, aspirations, and social attitudes associated with this group.

Meanings of Bourgeois

Meanings	Description
Socioeconomic Class	It refers to the middle class associated with property ownership, professional jobs, and financial stability.
Capitalist Class	In Marxist theory, it represents the capitalist class controlling production and exploiting the working class.
Cultural Attitudes and Values	Describes conventional, conformist, and materialistic behaviors often seen in literature and cultural discussions.
Literary Character Type	In literature, bourgeois characters embody middle-class values and serve as a critique of societal norms.
Societal Critique	It is used to criticize the conformity and conservatism of the middle class in literature and theoretical discourse.
Historical Context	Historically describes the rising urban middle class during the late Middle Ages and early capitalism.

Definition of Bourgeois as a Theoretical Term

“Bourgeois,” as a theoretical term, refers to the social class typically associated with property ownership, professional occupations, and a focus on financial stability within capitalist societies. It is often used in Marxist theory to denote the capitalist class, characterized by its control over the means of production and its perceived exploitation of the working class.

This term is central to critiques of class structures, economic relations, and societal hierarchies, serving as a lens for understanding power dynamics and class struggle in various contexts.

Bourgeois: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Karl Marx: Marx extensively discussed the bourgeoisie in his works, particularly in The Communist Manifesto, emphasizing their role in capitalist society and their exploitation of the proletariat.

Works:

The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: This seminal work provides a comprehensive analysis of the bourgeoisie as a class and their impact on society.

Arguments:

The Bourgeoisie as the Capitalist Class: The theorists argue that the bourgeoisie represents the capitalist class, owning and controlling the means of production, and benefiting from the labor of the working class.
Exploitation of the Proletariat: Marx and Engels contend that the bourgeoisie’s pursuit of profit leads to the exploitation of the working class, resulting in class struggle and alienation.

Historical Materialism: Their analysis of the bourgeoisie is rooted in historical materialism, asserting that economic conditions shape society and class dynamics.

Bourgeois and Literary Theories

Marxist Literary Theory:
- In Marxist literary theory, the bourgeoisie is seen as a central theme in literature. Works of literature are often analyzed to uncover how they portray and critique the bourgeoisie, their values, and their impact on society. The bourgeoisie is typically associated with themes of class struggle, exploitation, and the inequalities of capitalist systems.

Realism and Naturalism:
- The literary movements of realism and naturalism often depict bourgeois life in a detailed and critical manner. These theories emphasize portraying everyday life, including the struggles, desires, and aspirations of the middle class, to provide a realistic representation of society. Authors like Émile Zola explored the bourgeois world in their works to shed light on societal issues.
Feminist Literary Theory:
- Feminist literary theory frequently examines how the bourgeois family structure and gender roles are depicted in literature. It explores the ways in which bourgeois values and norms can reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations. Feminist critics analyze how literature challenges or reinforces these structures.
Cultural Studies:
- Cultural studies explore the role of the bourgeoisie in shaping cultural production and consumption. This theory investigates how the middle class influences the creation and dissemination of culture, including literature. It examines the impact of bourgeois cultural values and tastes on the production of literature and the formation of canons.

Postcolonial Theory:
- Postcolonial literary theory may examine how the bourgeois class, often of colonial or imperial origins, is depicted in literature. It delves into the tensions and contradictions within bourgeois identity in colonial and postcolonial contexts, as well as the ways in which literature reflects or challenges these dynamics.

Bourgeois in Literary Criticism

Author and Work	Description
*Émile Zola – Germinal* (1885)**	Set in 19th-century France, Germinal delves into the lives of coal miners, depicting their grueling work conditions and abject poverty. The novel serves as a powerful critique of the bourgeoisie, particularly mine owners, and their exploitation of the working class. It explores themes of class struggle and social injustice.
*John Steinbeck – The Grapes of Wrath* (1939)**	The Grapes of Wrath is a powerful portrayal of the Joad family’s journey during the Great Depression. This novel critiques the capitalist system and the bourgeoisie’s impact on ordinary people as the family faces adversity and exploitation while seeking a better life. Steinbeck’s work is a vivid exploration of social and economic inequality.
*Upton Sinclair – The Jungle* (1906)**	Set in Chicago’s meatpacking industry, The Jungle exposes the harsh working conditions and unsanitary practices faced by immigrant laborers. While primarily focusing on the working class, the novel also critiques the bourgeoisie, particularly those who profit from labor exploitation. Sinclair’s work is a scathing critique of capitalism and the industrial bourgeoisie.
*Maxim Gorky – Mother* (1907)**	Mother follows the journey of Pelageya Nilovna, a working-class woman who becomes politically radicalized. The novel explores her transformation and her role in the labor movement. While centered on the working class, the novel also critiques the bourgeoisie, including factory owners and the oppressive government, as sources of suffering and injustice. Maxim Gorky’s work is a powerful portrayal of class struggle and revolutionary potential.

Etymology of Interpellation

Meanings of Interpellation

Definition of Interpellation as a Theoretical Term

Interpellation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Arguments:

Interpellation and Literary Theories

Interpellation in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Implied Author

Meanings of Implied Author

Definition of Implied Author as a Theoretical Term

Implied Author: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Key Works:

Key Arguments:

Implied Author and Literary Theories

Implied Author in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Intertextuality

Meanings of Intertextuality

Definition of Intertextuality as a Theoretical Term

Intertextuality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Julia Kristeva:

Roland Barthes:

Mikhail Bakhtin:

Kristeva’s Intertextuality Theory:

Postmodern Intertextuality:

Intertextuality in Postcolonial Literature:

Intertextuality and Adaptation:

Intertextuality and Literary Theories

Intertextuality in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Introduction to Candide

Wealth in Candide

Human Desire in Candide

Religion in Candide

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues

Introduction to Part of The Book of the Dead

Classroom Presentation from The Book of the Dead

Abd al-Hafiz and The Book of the Dead

The Mental Conflict in The Book of the Dead

Transformation in The Book of the Dead

Love and The Book of the Dead

Cultural Setting in The Book of the Dead

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about “Excerpt from the Book of Dead”

Introduction to Body Image in The Realm of Possibility

The Realm of Possibility and “Tinder Heart”

“Suburban Myths” in The Realm of Possibility

“Strong” in The Realm of Possibility

Conclusion

Works Cited

Introduction to Beowulf as an Epic

Oral Traditions in the Making of Beowulf as an Epic

Hero in Beowulf as an Epic

Epic Conventions in Beowulf as an Epic

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Beowulf as an Epic

You may read more on Short Essays below:

Introduction to “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Males in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Boldness of Male Characters in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Dominating Males in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Conclusion to Male Characters of Anderson in “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about “Paper Pills” and “Nobody Knows”: Bold and Aggressive Males

Etymology of Imperialism

Meanings of Imperialism

Definition of Imperialism as a Theoretical Term

Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists and Their Works:

Key Arguments:

Imperialism and Literary Theories

Imperialism in Literary Criticism

**Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues**

**Introduction to Beowulf as an Epic**

**Oral Traditions in the Making of Beowulf as an Epic**

**Hero in Beowulf as an Epic**

**Epic Conventions in Beowulf as an Epic**