May 2024 - Page 7 of 13 - English Studies

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Jonathan Swift was first published in posthumously in 1765, not appearing in any collection during his lifetime.

Introduction: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Jonathan Swift was first published in posthumously in 1765, not appearing in any collection during his lifetime. The poem utilizes sharp wit and irony to dismantle the traditional elegy form. Swift employs feigned surprise and exaggerated mourning to expose the supposed general’s lack of true merit

Text: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

His Grace! impossible! what dead!

Of old age too, and in his bed!

And could that mighty warrior fall?

And so inglorious, after all!

Well, since he’s gone, no matter how,

The last loud trump must wake him now:

And, trust me, as the noise grows stronger,

He’d wish to sleep a little longer.

And could he be indeed so old

As by the newspapers we’re told?

Threescore, I think, is pretty high;

’Twas time in conscience he should die

This world he cumbered long enough;

He burnt his candle to the snuff;

And that’s the reason, some folks think,

He left behind so great a stink.

Behold his funeral appears,

Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,

Wont at such times each heart to pierce,

Attend the progress of his hearse.

But what of that, his friends may say,

He had those honours in his day.

True to his profit and his pride,

He made them weep before he died.

Come hither, all ye empty things,

Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings;

Who float upon the tide of state,

Come hither, and behold your fate.

Let pride be taught by this rebuke,

How very mean a thing’s a Duke;

From all his ill-got honours flung,

Turned to that dirt from whence he sprung.

Annotations: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Line	Annotation
His Grace! impossible! what dead!	Swift’s use of “His Grace” is ironic, as it is a title of respect, but the speaker is being sarcastic. The exclamation “impossible!” and “what dead!” convey shock and disbelief at the general’s death, but also hint at the speaker’s insincerity.
Of old age too, and in his bed!	The phrase “of old age” is a euphemism for a natural death, but the addition of “and in his bed” emphasizes the unglamorous and unheroic circumstances of his death. This contrasts with the typical heroic death in battle expected of a great general.
And could that mighty warrior fall?	This rhetorical question expresses mock surprise and disbelief that the general, once powerful and mighty, could actually die. The word “fall” implies a sense of decline and weakness.
And so inglorious, after all!	The word “inglorious” means without glory or honor, emphasizing the general’s unheroic death. The phrase “after all” suggests that despite his past achievements, his death is still unimpressive.
Well, since he’s gone, no matter how,	This line conveys a sense of resignation and indifference to the circumstances of the general’s death. The phrase “no matter how” implies that the speaker doesn’t care about the details of his death.
The last loud trump must wake him now:	The “last loud trump” symbolizes the call to judgment or the final summons. The word “wake” implies that the general is being roused from sleep, suggesting that death is a kind of awakening.
And, trust me, as the noise grows stronger,	The phrase “trust me” is ironic, as the speaker is being sarcastic and untrustworthy. The “noise” refers to the sound of the trumpet, and the phrase “grows stronger” implies that the call to judgment is becoming more insistent.
He’d wish to sleep a little longer.	This line is humorous and ironic, suggesting that the general would rather avoid judgment and sleep a little longer. It pokes fun at the idea that even the mighty general is not ready to face death.
And could he be indeed so old	This line questions the truth of the general’s reported age, suggesting that he might be older than claimed.
As by the newspapers we’re told?	This line references the unreliability of media reports, implying that the general’s age might be exaggerated or distorted for public consumption.
Threescore, I think, is pretty high;	The phrase “threescore” means sixty, and the speaker’s comment that it’s “pretty high” is an understatement, as sixty was considered old in Swift’s time. The irony lies in the speaker’s casual tone, downplaying the significance of the general’s age.
‘Twas time in conscience he should die	This line is sarcastic, suggesting that the general lived too long and it’s a good thing he finally died. The phrase “in conscience” implies a sense of moral obligation, but the speaker is being facetious.
This world he cumbered long enough;	The word “cumbered” means to encumber or hinder, implying that the general’s presence in the world was a burden. The phrase “long enough” suggests that he overstayed his welcome.
He burnt his candle to the snuff;	This metaphor compares the general’s life to a candle, suggesting that he lived excessively and wastefully, burning himself out. The phrase “to the snuff” means to the very end, implying that he exhausted his resources.
And that’s the reason, some folks think,	This line is ironic, as the speaker attributes the general’s death to his excessive lifestyle, but the phrase “some folks think” implies that this is just one opinion among many.
He left behind so great a stink.	This line is an exaggeration, using hyperbole to emphasize the negative impact of the general’s life. The word “stink” implies a strong and unpleasant odor, symbolizing the general’s corrupt and harmful legacy.
Behold his funeral appears,	This line is ironic, as the speaker describes the general’s funeral as if it’s a grand and impressive spectacle, but the tone is sarcastic.
Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,	This line notes the absence of genuine mourning or emotional response to the general’s death. The phrase “widow’s sighs” and “orphan’s tears” implies that even those closest to him are not truly grieving.
Line	Annotation
Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,	This line notes the absence of genuine mourning or emotional response to the general’s death. The phrase “widow’s sighs” and “orphan’s tears” implies that even those closest to him are not truly grieving.
Wont at such times each heart to pierce,	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general’s death should have caused emotional pain, but the word “wont” means accustomed or usual, implying that this is not the case. The phrase “each heart to pierce” means to affect everyone deeply.
Attend the progress of his hearse.	This line is sarcastic, as it describes the general’s funeral procession as if it’s a grand and impressive spectacle, but the tone is mocking. The word “progress” implies a sense of grandeur and ceremony.
But what of that, his friends may say,	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general’s friends are downplaying his death and legacy. The phrase “what of that” is a dismissive expression, implying that his friends don’t care about his impact.
He had those honours in his day.	This line references the general’s past achievements and honors, but the phrase “in his day” implies that they are now distant and irrelevant.
True to his profit and his pride,	This line is critical, suggesting that the general was motivated by self-interest and arrogance. The phrase “true to” means loyal or faithful to, but in this case, it implies a negative quality.
He made them weep before he died.	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general caused others to suffer or grieve during his lifetime, but not in a positive or heroic way. The phrase “before he died” implies that his impact was felt before his death, but not in a lasting or meaningful way.
Come hither, all ye empty things,	This line addresses the empty and vain symbols of power and status, using the phrase “come hither” to summon them. The word “empty” implies a lack of substance or value.
Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings;	This line uses a metaphor to compare the symbols of power to bubbles, implying that they are fragile and ephemeral. The phrase “breath of kings” suggests that they are created and sustained by the whims of powerful people.
Who float upon the tide of state,	This line continues the metaphor, comparing the symbols of power to objects floating on the surface of water. The phrase “tide of state” implies the changing fortunes of political power.
Come hither, and behold your fate.	This line summons the symbols of power to witness their own fate, using the phrase “come hither” to command their attention. The word “behold” implies a sense of spectacle or display.
Let pride be taught by this rebuke,	This line addresses the proud and arrogant, using the word “rebuke” to imply a sense of correction or chastisement. The phrase “let pride be taught” suggests that pride should be instructed or humbled.
How very mean a thing’s a Duke;	This line is satirical, using the word “mean” to imply a sense of worthlessness or insignificance. The phrase “a thing’s a Duke” reduces the title of Duke to a mere object or trinket.
From all his ill-got honours flung,	This line is critical, suggesting that the general’s honors and achievements were gained through corrupt or unjust means. The phrase “ill-got” implies a sense of wrongdoing or illegitimacy.
Turned to that dirt from whence he sprung.	This line uses a metaphor to compare the general’s legacy to dirt or earth, implying that he has returned to his humble origins. The phrase “from whence he sprung” suggests a sense of circularity or return to one’s starting point.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	” The *last loud* trump must wake him now: “	Repetition of initial consonant sounds for musical effect
Amplification	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ‘Twas time in conscience he should die”	Emphasizing a point by repeating or expanding on it
Enjambment	“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!”	Carrying a sentence or phrase over to the next line without a pause
Epigram	“He burnt his candle to the snuff; / And that’s the reason, some folks think, / He left behind so great a stink.”	A witty, satirical remark
Hyperbole	“He left behind so great a stink”	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect
Irony	“His Grace! impossible! what dead! / Of old age too, and in his bed!”	Saying the opposite of what is meant, often to convey contempt or scorn
Juxtaposition	“Behold his funeral appears, / Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears”	Placing two contrasting ideas or images side by side
Metaphor	“He burnt his candle to the snuff”	Comparing two unlike things without “like” or “as”
Mock Elegy	Entire poem	A satirical poem that mocks the traditional elegy form
Onomatopoeia	“The last loud trump must wake him now”	Words imitating the sounds they describe
Oxymoron	“inglorious, after all”	Combining two contradictory words or ideas
Paradox	“He made them weep before he died”	A statement that contradicts itself or appears illogical
Personification	“Pride be taught by this rebuke”	Attributing human qualities or actions to non-human entities
Refrain	“Come hither”	Repeating a phrase or line at intervals throughout the poem
Rhyme	Various examples throughout the poem	Using similar sounds in words to create a musical effect
Satire	Entire poem	Using irony, sarcasm, and ridicule to criticize or expose vices or follies
Simile	“Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings”	Comparing two unlike things using “like” or “as”
Symbolism	“Duke”	Using an object, color, or other element to represent an abstract idea or concept
Understatement	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high”	Saying less than what is meant, often for ironic or humorous effect
Wordplay	“stink” (multiple meanings)	Using words with multiple meanings or connotations for clever effect

Themes: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

The Transience of Fame and Glory: In Swift’s satire, the theme of the fleeting nature of fame and glory is evident. The poem mocks the general’s lack of a heroic demise, emphasizing the irony of a once-mighty warrior meeting an inglorious end in old age. Lines such as “And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!” (lines 3-4) underscore the general’s descent from power and significance. Swift highlights how worldly achievements ultimately fade into insignificance with the passage of time, serving as a commentary on the ephemeral nature of human accomplishments.
The Futility of Worldly Honors and Titles: Swift critiques the superficiality of societal recognition, suggesting that honors and titles hold little value in the face of mortality. He derides the emptiness of such accolades, emphasizing their insignificance in the grand scheme of life and death. Lines like “How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung” (lines 30-31) underscore the poem’s theme of the emptiness of worldly distinctions. Swift’s satire challenges the notion that social status and titles confer lasting importance, highlighting their transient nature.

Hypocrisy in Mourning Rituals and Social Expectations: The poem addresses the hypocrisy inherent in mourning rituals and societal expectations surrounding death. Despite the general’s lack of genuine mourners, his friends may still seek to claim honor for his past deeds. Swift satirizes this insincerity, critiquing the tendency to prioritize appearances over genuine emotion. Lines such as “But what of that, his friends may say, / He had those honours in his day” (lines 21-22) highlight the discrepancy between public displays of mourning and private motivations. This theme serves as a commentary on the performative nature of social customs related to death.
The Universality of Mortality: Through humor and satire, Swift reminds readers of the universal inevitability of mortality. The poem serves as a stark reminder of the impermanence of human existence and the ultimate equalizer that is death. Lines like “Come hither, and behold your fate. / Let pride be taught by this rebuke” (lines 28-29) underscore the poem’s theme of mortality. Swift’s satire challenges individuals to confront their mortality and consider the futility of worldly pursuits in the face of death. This theme resonates throughout the poem, serving as a sobering reflection on the human condition.

Literary Theories and “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
1. New Historicism	New Historicism examines literary works within the context of historical events, social norms, and cultural attitudes of the time period.	Swift’s satire reflects contemporary views on power, mortality, and societal norms.
	In the poem, Swift critiques the societal obsession with fame and glory, suggesting that the general’s death exposes the transience of worldly honors.	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ’Twas time in conscience he should die” (lines 7-8)
2. Satire	Satire uses humor, irony, and exaggeration to criticize societal follies, vices, or shortcomings.	Swift employs satire to mock the superficiality of societal recognition and the hypocrisy of mourning rituals.
	The poem satirizes the empty rituals of mourning and the insincerity of those who seek to claim honor for the deceased.	“Come hither, all ye empty things, / Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings” (lines 24-25)
3. Deconstruction	Deconstruction challenges binary oppositions and hierarchical structures in texts, revealing contradictions and ambiguities.	Swift deconstructs the notion of fame and glory, highlighting their fleeting nature and ultimate insignificance.
	The poem undermines traditional notions of honor and status, suggesting that titles and accolades are ultimately meaningless.	“How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung” (lines 30-31)
4. Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-Response Criticism emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text and considers how individual experiences shape meaning.	Readers may respond to Swift’s satire based on their own views of societal norms and mortality.
	Readers may find Swift’s critique of societal values thought-provoking and may reflect on the transient nature of human achievements.	“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!” (lines 3-4)

Critical Questions about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

What is the tone of the poem and how is it achieved?

The tone of the poem is satirical, ironic, and sarcastic, achieved through Swift’s use of language, imagery, and rhetorical devices. The speaker’s mock surprise and disbelief at the general’s death (“His Grace! impossible! what dead!”), the use of irony (“And could that mighty warrior fall?”), and sarcasm (“Well, since he’s gone, no matter how”) create a tone that is both critical and humorous. The poem’s use of hyperbole (“He left behind so great a stink”) and metaphor (“He burnt his candle to the snuff”) also contribute to its satirical tone.
What is the speaker’s attitude towards the general and his legacy?
The speaker’s attitude towards the general and his legacy is one of criticism and disdain. The poem portrays the general as a self-interested, arrogant, and corrupt individual who has left behind a negative impact (“He left behind so great a stink”). The speaker also mocks the general’s achievements and honors, reducing them to mere “empty things” and “bubbles raised by breath of kings.” The poem suggests that the general’s legacy is one of harm and suffering, and that his death is not worthy of genuine mourning or praise.

How does the poem use imagery and metaphor to convey its themes?
The poem uses imagery and metaphor to convey its themes of corruption, excess, and the fleeting nature of power and status. The image of the general burning his candle to the snuff suggests a life of excess and waste, while the metaphor of the “bubbles raised by breath of kings” implies that the symbols of power and status are fragile and ephemeral. The poem’s use of hyperbole, such as the “great stink” left behind by the general, also creates vivid imagery that reinforces its themes.
What commentary does the poem offer on the social and political context of its time?

The poem offers a commentary on the social and political context of its time by critiquing the excesses and corruption of the powerful and wealthy. The poem suggests that those in power are often motivated by self-interest and pride, and that their achievements and honors are often gained through corrupt or unjust means. The poem also implies that the symbols of power and status are empty and fleeting, and that true value lies in humility and virtue rather than wealth and prestige. The poem’s satire and irony offer a commentary on the social and political context of Swift’s time, critiquing the excesses of the wealthy and powerful.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Essay Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
The Power of Satire	How does Swift’s use of satire in the poem critique the excesses and corruption of the powerful and wealthy, and what impact does this have on the reader?	Through his masterful use of satire, Swift exposes the hypocrisy and superficiality of the general’s legacy, prompting the reader to question the true value of power and status.
Imagery and Theme	How does the poem’s imagery and metaphor contribute to its themes of corruption, excess, and the fleeting nature of power and status, and what insights do these literary devices offer into the human condition?	The poem’s imagery and metaphor, particularly the candle burning to the snuff and the bubbles raised by breath of kings, offer a scathing critique of the human tendency towards excess and corruption, highlighting the transience of earthly achievements.
Death and Legacy	How does the poem use the general’s death and legacy to comment on the fleeting nature of human achievement and the importance of humility and virtue, and what message does this convey to the reader?	Through the general’s empty and fleeting legacy, Swift cautions against the dangers of pride and ambition, emphasizing the importance of humility and virtue in human life and encouraging the reader to prioritize moral character over earthly success.

Literary Works Similar to “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson – This poem satirizes the human desire for wealth, power, and fame, exploring the futility of worldly ambitions and the inevitability of death.
“The Dunciad” by Alexander Pope – Pope’s mock-epic poem satirizes the literary and cultural figures of his time, lampooning the decline of intellectual standards and the rise of mediocrity.

“The Rape of the Lock” by Alexander Pope – This mock-heroic poem humorously critiques the frivolity and vanity of aristocratic society, focusing on a trivial incident involving the cutting of a woman’s hair.
“The Canterbury Tales” by Geoffrey Chaucer – Chaucer’s collection of tales features a variety of satirical elements, lampooning societal norms, religious hypocrisy, and human folly through the diverse characters and narratives.
“The Flea” by John Donne – While not an elegy, Donne’s metaphysical poem employs wit and irony to explore themes of seduction, persuasion, and the blurring of physical and spiritual boundaries, making it a compelling work of satirical poetry.

Representative Quotations “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“His Grace! impossible! what dead!”	The speaker expresses disbelief at the death of the general, emphasizing his high status.	New Historicism: Reflects contemporary views on power and societal norms.
“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ’Twas time in conscience he should die”	Swift questions the accuracy of reports regarding the general’s age and suggests it was time for him to die.	Deconstruction: Challenges traditional notions of honor and status.
“How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung”	The speaker derides the emptiness of worldly distinctions and titles.	Satire: Critiques the superficiality of societal recognition and the hypocrisy of mourning rituals.
“Come hither, all ye empty things, / Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings”	Swift addresses the vanity and insignificance of those who depend on the favor of kings.	Satire: Mocks the pursuit of worldly honors and the transient nature of power.
“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!”	The speaker questions the lack of a heroic death for the once-mighty general.	New Historicism: Reflects societal expectations of heroism and glory.
“True to his profit and his pride, / He made them weep before he died”	Swift comments on the general’s self-serving nature, causing others to mourn him.	Reader-Response Criticism: Readers may respond based on their views of societal norms and mortality.
“Let pride be taught by this rebuke, / How very mean a thing’s a Duke”	The speaker advises humility in the face of mortality and criticizes the importance placed on titles.	New Historicism: Reflects societal attitudes towards status and humility.

Subjectivism in Literature and Literary Theory

Subjectivism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the central role of human consciousness in shaping reality.

Subjectivism: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology of Subjectivism

The concept “Subjectivism” can be traced back to the Latin word ‘subjectus,’ meaning ‘subordinate’ or ‘underlying.’

In the 16th century, the French word ‘sujet’ emerged, signifying ‘an individual’ or ‘a person considered as the source of experience.’
The English term ‘subjectivism’ appeared in the 17th century, initially referring to a philosophical doctrine that emphasized the role of the subject in knowledge acquisition.

Meanings

The belief that knowledge and experience are subjective and depend on the individual’s perspective.
The emphasis on personal feelings, emotions, and interpretations in various fields, including literature, art, and ethics.

Concept

Focus on the Individual: Subjectivism highlights the role of the individual’s mind, experiences, and biases in shaping their understanding of the world.

Varying Interpretations: It acknowledges that a single text, event, or artwork can have multiple valid interpretations based on individual perspectives.
Limited Objectivity: Subjectivism suggests that achieving complete objectivity in knowledge acquisition might be difficult or even impossible.
Value of Personal Experience: It emphasizes the importance of individual experiences and perspectives in constructing meaning.

Subjectivism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Subjectivism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the central role of human consciousness in shaping reality. It suggests that knowledge, values, and meaning are not fixed or external but are instead constructed by individual minds based on their unique experiences and perspectives. Thus, subjectivism posits that there is no single, absolute truth; instead, truths are relative to the individual observer.

Subjectivism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists

Protagoras (5th century BC): One of the earliest and most influential Sophists, Protagoras believed that what appears to be true for one individual may not necessarily be true for another. He famously stated, “Man is the measure of all things,” suggesting that reality is shaped by individual perceptions and experiences.
David Hume (18th century): A key figure in the Enlightenment, Hume’s skepticism challenged the notion of objective knowledge. He argued that all our knowledge is derived from sensory experience, which is always subjective and personal. Hume stressed that even our understanding of cause and effect is based on habitual expectations rather than on a fixed external reality.

Friedrich Nietzsche (19th century): Nietzsche rejected traditional notions of objective morality and truth. He proposed that life is ultimately about the individual’s will to power and the creation of their own values. Nietzsche’s perspectivism views all knowledge and truth claims as contingent on individual perspectives and interpretations.
Edmund Husserl (20th century): The founder of phenomenology, Husserl revolutionized the way we think about consciousness. He emphasized the intentional nature of consciousness, meaning it is always directed towards objects or experiences. Husserl’s focus on the lived experience, including biases and presuppositions, influenced later thinkers in the areas of existentialism and postmodernism.
Nelson Goodman (20th century): A prominent philosopher of language, Goodman challenged the notion of a single, absolute reality. He introduced the concept of “worldmaking” to propose that individuals actively construct realities through their use of symbols, classifications, and interpretations. For Goodman, there are multiple valid world versions, shaped by distinct perspectives and organizing principles.

Works

Protagoras’ Theaetetus (Plato): This dialogue by Plato records and grapples with Protagoras’ views on subjectivism and relativism. Plato ultimately argues against Protagoras’ ideas, but the exchange stimulates a deeper understanding of the role of individual perception in knowledge.
Hume’s A Treatise of Human Nature: A cornerstone of Western philosophy, this work presents Hume’s skeptical empiricism. He dissects the concepts of cause and effect, morality, and identity, emphasizing the subjective origins of our knowledge and beliefs.
Nietzsche’s Beyond Good and Evil: This influential critique challenges traditional Western morality. Nietzsche explores the subjective nature of values, contending that “truths” are often just interpretations that have become dominant through force of will.

Husserl’s Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology: This foundational work outlines Husserl’s phenomenological method. It highlights the concept of bracketing (setting aside preconceptions) to focus on the essential structures of experience and consciousness.
Goodman’s Ways of Worldmaking: One of Goodman’s most celebrated works, this book explores the multiplicity of realities. He highlights how symbols, systems, and interpretive frameworks shape our understanding of the world, emphasizing the constructed and subjective nature of reality.

Arguments

The Argument from Perception: Our senses are imperfect and can be deceived. Different people experience the world through different sensory filters, leading to varied and often conflicting interpretations.

The Argument from Language: The very language we use shapes our reality. Words and linguistic categories influence our perception, often in ways we don’t fully realize.
The Argument from Experience: Our personal experiences, including our upbringing, cultural background, and emotional states, profoundly influence how we perceive and interpret the world.
The Argument from Culture: Cultural norms and values shape our worldview and understanding. Different cultures have distinct ways of understanding concepts such as morality, beauty, and truth, underscoring the subjective nature of such interpretations.

Subjectivism: Major Characteristics

Major Characteristic	Description	Literary Reference
Emphasis on Individual Perspective	Subjectivism privileges the unique viewpoint and experiences of the reader/observer.	Hamlet by William Shakespeare: The play’s ambiguity allows for multiple valid interpretations, depending on the reader’s focus on Hamlet’s inner conflict, political intrigue, or philosophical themes.
No Single, Absolute Truth	There is no fixed, universal truth; instead, truth is relative to the individual.	The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: The novel can be interpreted through different lenses – a social commentary, a love story, or a tale of illusion and disillusionment – highlighting the lack of a singular interpretation.
Significance of Personal Experiences	An individual’s experiences shape their understanding and interpretation of a text.	In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust: The novel’s focus on involuntary memory demonstrates how past experiences shape present perceptions and interpretations.
Role of Emotion and Intuition	Subjectivism acknowledges the influence of emotions and instincts on interpretation.	The poetry of Emily Dickinson: Dickinson’s emotional intensity and unconventional language offer a unique and deeply personal perspective on themes of nature, death, and love.
Importance of Context	The reader’s background, culture, and knowledge influence their understanding.	Beloved by Toni Morrison: Understanding the novel’s context of slavery and its legacy in the US is crucial for a nuanced reading of the characters’ experiences and perspectives.

Subjectivism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Subjectivism
Reader-Response Criticism	Subjectivism is central to this theory, emphasizing the active role of the reader in creating meaning. Individual experiences, knowledge, and biases shape a reader’s interaction with a text.
Postmodernism	Subjectivism aligns with postmodern skepticism towards fixed truths and “grand narratives.” Postmodern works often play with multiple interpretations, suggesting the constructed and fluid nature of meaning.
Feminist Criticism	Subjectivity reveals the influence of gender, power structures, and marginalized voices in text interpretation. It uncovers how dominant narratives may silence alternative perspectives.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Acknowledges the subjective role of the unconscious mind, desires, and personal experiences in shaping the reader’s interpretation and relationship with a text.
New Historicism	Considers context and power relations, recognizing that historical readings are subjective. It highlights how interpretations are influenced by the reader’s cultural background, their own historical moment, and their position within power structures.

Subjectivism: Application in Critiques

Novels

*Jane Eyre (Charlotte Brontë)
- Focus on Jane’s Experience: A subjective analysis emphasizes Jane’s first-person narrative, exploring how her childhood experiences shape her views on love, class, and independence.
Ambiguity and Interpretation: Readers may differ in their readings of Rochester; is he a Byronic hero or a manipulative abuser? Subjectivity highlights varying interpretations based on personal values and experiences.

*Ulysses (James Joyce)
- Multiple Perspectives: The novel’s stream-of-consciousness style mirrors the subjective nature of thought processes. Each character’s inner monologue reveals their distinct worldview.
- Difficulty as Subjectivity: The novel’s experimental form challenges traditional notions of plot and coherence. A reader’s struggle with the text can be seen as a reflection of the subjective nature of meaning-making.

Non-Fiction

*A Brief History of Time (Stephen Hawking)
- The Reader as Participant: Hawking’s simplified explanations of complex scientific theories invite the reader to co-construct an understanding of the universe.
- The Limits of Knowledge: Even a scientific text is subjective in relation to the reader’s pre-existing knowledge and their ability to conceptualize abstract theories.

*Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Yuval Noah Harari)
- Challenging Grand Narratives: Harari critiques traditional historical narratives, highlighting their subjective origins and the biases embedded within them.
- Speculative Interpretations: The book’s bold claims about the future of humanity encourage individual contemplation and reflection, leading to diverse and subjective responses.

Subjectivism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that focuses on the study of lived experience and consciousness.
Relativism	The belief that there is no absolute truth or knowledge, and that these concepts are relative to individuals or cultures.
Reader-Response Theory	A literary theory that emphasizes the active role of the reader in constructing meaning from a text.
Perspectivism	The view that all knowledge and interpretations are shaped by an individual’s perspective and context.
Solipsism	The philosophical belief that the self is the only thing that can be known to exist.
Hermeneutics	The theory and practice of interpretation, particularly as applied to texts.
Intentionality	The concept that consciousness is always directed towards something, giving experiences and thoughts their meaning.
Worldmaking	The idea that individuals actively construct their own versions of reality through their experiences, language, and systems of belief.
Deconstruction	A critical approach that challenges traditional assumptions about meaning and unveils hidden biases and power structures within texts.
Postmodernism	A broad cultural and philosophical movement characterized by skepticism towards absolute truths, a focus on subjectivity, and the playful use of language.

Subjectivism: Suggested Readings

Books

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2011. (Provides clear definitions of key terms related to subjectivism, like reader-response theory, phenomenology, and more)
Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. 2nd ed., U of Minnesota P, 2008. (Offers a historical overview of literary theories, including the development of subjectivist thought.)
Goodman, Nelson. Ways of Worldmaking. Hackett, 1978. (A seminal work exploring how individuals construct their understanding of reality)

Kukkonen, Karin. Contemporary Postmodern Fiction. Routledge, 2013. (Analyzes literary works that exemplify the concepts of subjectivity and constructed reality)

Articles

Culler, Jonathan. “Literary Criticism and the Sciences of Man.” The Georgia Review, vol. 31, no. 4, 1977, pp. 865-883, [invalid URL removed]. (Explores the interconnections between literary criticism and subjectivism).
Fish, Stanley. “Is There a Text in This Class?” Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard UP, 1980, pp. 303-321. (A cornerstone of reader-response theory, arguing for the role of interpretive communities in shaping meaning.)

Tompkins, Jane. “An Introduction to Reader-ResponseCriticism.” Reader-Response Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structuralism. Ed. Jane Tompkins. John Hopkins UP, 1980, pp. ix-xxvi. (Excellent overview of reader-response theory).

Websites

The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism https://litguide.press.jhu.edu/: A comprehensive resource with articles and explanations of a wide array of literary theories, including those addressing subjectivism.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy https://plato.stanford.edu/: Contains in-depth entries on topics like phenomenology, relativism, and other philosophical concepts relevant to subjectivism.

Subjectivation in Literature & Literary Theory

Subjectivation is the process by which individuals develop their unique sense of self in relation to societal forces, power structures, and cultural influences.

Subjectivation: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Subjectivation derives from the Latin root subjectum, meaning that which is “thrown under.” In philosophy and social theory, it refers to the complex processes by which individuals become subjects. These processes are shaped by power relations, social norms, cultural discourses, and a person’s own agency. Subjectivation is not a passive process of being molded, but an ongoing, dynamic one where the individual both internalizes and potentially resists these shaping forces.

Meanings and Concepts

Formation of Subjectivity: The development of a sense of self, including thoughts, feelings, desires, and a unique identity within the context of society.
Power and Subjection: Subjectivation is often inseparable from power; we become subjects through systems of control and discipline (think schools, laws, social expectations), subtly shaping how we understand ourselves.

Agency within Constraints: While influenced by external forces, individuals are not entirely determined by them. Subjectivation involves a degree of choice and the possibility of resistance or transformation of those forces.
Interpellation: The process where ideologies “hail” or call out individuals, inviting them to recognize themselves as particular kinds of subjects (for example, a “good citizen,” a “consumer,” etc.).
Foucault and Butler: Key theorists on subjectivation, though with different emphases. Foucault analyzed power in shaping subjectivity, while Butler emphasized performativity – the idea that we become subjects through repeated actions and expressions within a social framework.

Subjectivation: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Subjectivation is the process by which individuals develop their unique sense of self in relation to societal forces, power structures, and cultural influences. It involves a complex interplay between being shaped by external factors and the individual’s own capacity for agency and resistance. Subjectivation is an ongoing process, where our sense of self is continuously negotiated and reshaped throughout life.

Subjectivation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Michel Foucault (1926-1984):

Works: Discipline and Punish, History of Sexuality

Argument: Subjectivation is the ongoing process by which individuals are shaped by power relations. Power doesn’t just repress, it produces subjects through discourse, institutions, and social practices. We are not simply subjected to power, but actively involved in shaping our own identities within these power structures.

Louis Althusser (1918-1990):

Work: Interpellation (concept from his writings on Ideology and State Apparatuses)

Argument: Focuses on the concept of “interpellation,” where individuals are “called into being” as subjects through ideology. Social institutions like schools and media hail us as particular kinds of subjects, shaping our sense of self.

Judith Butler (b. 1956):

Works: Gender Trouble

Argument: Builds on Althusser’s interpellation to explore how gender is a performative act. We are not assigned a fixed gender identity, but rather perform gender through our actions and expressions. Subjectivation here is the ongoing process of becoming a gendered subject.

Key Points about Subjectivation:

Dual Nature: Subjectivation is a double process of both being subjected to external forces and actively becoming a subject through our interpretations and actions.
Power and Agency: Power shapes subjectivity, but individuals also have some agency in negotiating their identities within these power structures.

Ongoing Process: Subjectivation is not a one-time event, but a continuous process that unfolds throughout our lives as we interact with the world.

Additional Notes:

Subjectivation is a complex concept with various interpretations. These are just some of the major theorists who have explored the idea.
The concept is used in various fields like sociology, psychology, and cultural studies.

Subjectivation: Major Characteristics

Characteristic	Description	Literary Reference
Dual Nature	Individuals are both shaped by external forces (subjected) and actively participate in shaping their identities (becoming).	* Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë: Jane is subjected to the harsh conditions of Lowood School, yet actively rebels and forms her own sense of self.
Power and Agency	Power relations influence subjectivity, but individuals have some agency in negotiating their identities within these structures.	* 1984 by George Orwell: Winston Smith is subjected to the totalitarian regime of Oceania, but attempts to resist through his forbidden relationship with Julia.
Discourse and Identity	Language and social narratives shape how we understand ourselves and others.	* To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee: Scout Finch’s understanding of race and justice is shaped by the narratives she encounters in her Southern town.
Performance and Subjectivity	Our actions and expressions contribute to the performance of our identities.	* The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Jay Gatsby reinvents himself through wealth and extravagant parties, performing a new identity to gain Daisy’s love.
Unfixed and Ongoing	Subjectivity is not static; it’s a continuous process influenced by experiences throughout life.	* Hamlet by William Shakespeare: Throughout the play, Hamlet grapples with revenge, grief, and his sense of purpose, demonstrating the ongoing evolution of his subjectivity.

Subjectivation: Relevance in Literary Theories

Understanding Character Development: Traditionally, character development might focus on a character’s arc from point A to point B. Subjectivity, however, offers a more nuanced perspective. It allows us to see characters as constantly influenced by internal desires, external pressures, and their interactions with the world around them. This approach reveals a dynamic process where characters are not simply passive recipients of experience but actively engaged in shaping their identities. We can see how a traumatic event, a chance encounter, or even a shift in internal beliefs can lead to a character questioning their values, goals, and sense of self. This focus on ongoing subjectivity allows for a richer portrayal of character development, capturing the complexities of how individuals form and reform their identities.
Power Dynamics and Narrative: Literary narratives often depict characters navigating power structures, whether it be social class, gender roles, or political systems. Subjectivity helps us examine how these power dynamics shape characters’ sense of self. We can analyze how characters resist or conform to societal expectations, and how these struggles influence their actions and choices. For instance, a character from a marginalized background might constantly negotiate their self-presentation to navigate a dominant culture. Conversely, a character in a position of power might struggle with the limitations it imposes on their personal identity. By analyzing the interplay between power and subjectivity, we gain a deeper understanding of the forces shaping characters’ lives and the narratives that unfold.
Social and Historical Context: Subjectivity emphasizes the influence of a character’s social and historical context on their identity formation. Characters are not isolated entities; their experiences and beliefs are shaped by the social norms, cultural values, and historical events of their time. Analyzing characters through the lens of subjectivation allows us to explore how these broader contexts influence their thoughts, motivations, and actions. For example, a character living during a period of social upheaval might question traditional values and seek to forge a new identity that aligns with their evolving beliefs. Similarly, a character from a rigidly stratified society might grapple with the limitations placed upon them by their social class. By considering the social and historical context, we gain a richer understanding of why characters behave in certain ways and the challenges they face in shaping their identities.

Subjectivation: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Author	Subjectivation Analysis
1984	George Orwell	Winston Smith’s subjectivity is shaped by the totalitarian regime of Oceania. He is subjected to constant surveillance and indoctrination, which attempts to control his thoughts and actions. However, Winston exhibits agency by maintaining an internal rebellion through his forbidden relationship with Julia. This act of resistance demonstrates the ongoing negotiation of subjectivity even under oppressive power structures.
The Great Gatsby	F. Scott Fitzgerald	Jay Gatsby reinvents himself through wealth and extravagant parties. This performance of a new identity is driven by his desire to recapture the past and win Daisy’s love. However, Gatsby’s subjectivity remains tied to his past experiences and ultimately proves unsustainable. This analysis highlights how subjectivity is constructed through actions and social interactions, but can also be limited by past experiences and social expectations.
Jane Eyre	Charlotte Brontë	Jane Eyre endures harsh conditions at Lowood School, which attempts to suppress her individuality. Despite being subjected to this institutional power, Jane rebels through her strong will and unwavering sense of self-worth. She actively seeks opportunities for education and personal growth, forming her own subjectivity in defiance of societal expectations placed upon a young woman of her social class. This highlights the dual nature of subjectivation, where individuals are both shaped by external forces and actively participate in shaping their identities.
To Kill a Mockingbird	Harper Lee	Scout Finch’s understanding of race and justice is shaped by the narratives she encounters in her Southern town. Initially influenced by the prevailing racist attitudes, Scout’s encounters with Atticus Finch and Tom Robinson challenge her existing worldview. Through these experiences, Scout’s subjectivity evolves as she develops a stronger sense of empathy and social justice. This analysis demonstrates how discourse and social narratives shape subjectivity, highlighting the influence of external forces on our understanding of ourselves and the world.

Subjectivation: Relevant Terms

Term	Short Definition
Ideology	A system of ideas and beliefs that justifies a particular social order and shapes how we understand the world.
Discourse	Specific ways of using language that reflect and produce knowledge within a particular social context.
Power Relations	Unequal distribution of power that shapes social interactions and individual identities.
Interpellation	Process by which individuals are “hailed” into particular subject positions by ideology and social institutions.
Hegemony	Dominant cultural ideology that shapes the way we think and behave, often in subtle ways.
Abjection	The process of being excluded or cast out from a social group or category.
Agency	The capacity of individuals to act and make choices, even within constraining social structures.
Embodiment	The way our lived experiences are shaped by our physical bodies.
Performativity	The idea that identity is not fixed but rather produced through our actions and social interactions.
Becoming	The ongoing process of forming and reforming our identities throughout our lives.

Subjectivation: Suggested Readings

Althusser, Louis. Interpellation. Lenin and Philosophy, and Other Essays. New Left Books, 1971.
Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
Discourse Analysis & Subjectivity. http://www.drps.ed.ac.uk/20-21/dpt/cxlasc11159.htm, University of Edinburgh. Accessed 25 March 2024.

Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. Translated by Alan Sheridan, Penguin Books, 1977.
—. History of Sexuality. Vol. 1, An Introduction, translated by Robert Hurley, Pantheon Books, 1978.
Hall, Stuart. “The Subject and Power.” On Ideology, edited by Colin Critical Reader in Contemporary Cultural Theory, Routledge, 2000, pp. 188-201.

subjectivity | social theory. https://plato.stanford.edu/. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Accessed 25 March 2024.
Žižek, Slavoj. The Subject Less Knows: Lacan Between Althusser and Marx. Continuum, 2008.

Stylistic Fidelity in Literature & Literary Theory

Stylistic fidelity refers to the faithfulness in capturing the original author’s distinctive way of expressing themselves, encompassing aspects like voice, tone, register, and figurative language, while balancing accuracy with naturalness in the target language.

Stylistic Fidelity: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology and Term

Stylistic fidelity is a term used in various fields, including linguistics, literature, and translation. It originates from the Latin words “stylus” meaning “pen” or “manner of writing” and “fidelis” meaning “faithful.” Therefore, stylistic fidelity literally translates to “faithfulness of style.”

Meanings and Concept

Faithfulness to the source text: In translation, stylistic fidelity refers to the translator’s attempt to preserve the original style of the source text in the target language. This includes aspects like the author’s voice, tone, register, and use of figurative language.
Maintaining the stylistic effect: It is not just about copying the source language’s surface features but also about recreating the same stylistic effect in the target language. This can be challenging, as different languages have different stylistic conventions.

Balancing fidelity with fluency: Translators often need to strike a balance between faithfulness to the source text and fluency in the target language. This means they may need to make some adjustments to the style of the source text to ensure that the translation reads naturally in the target language.

Stylistic Fidelity: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Stylistic fidelity refers to the faithfulness in capturing the original author’s distinctive way of expressing themselves, encompassing aspects like voice, tone, register, and figurative language, while balancing accuracy with naturalness in the target language.

Stylistic Fidelity: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theoretical Underpinnings

Walter Benjamin, in his seminal work “The Task of the Translator” (1923), argued that inherent linguistic differences preclude perfect stylistic fidelity. He emphasized the importance of capturing the “intention” of the source text, prioritizing meaning over literal replication.

Eugene A. Nida, with his “Principles of Correspondence” (1964), championed a dynamic equivalence approach. This prioritizes the naturalness of the target language while ensuring the message and meaning of the source text are conveyed effectively.
George Steiner, in “After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation” (1975), presented a more idealistic view. He posits stylistic fidelity as the ultimate goal of translation, achievable only through a profound understanding of both source and target languages and their respective cultural contexts.

Arguments for Stylistic Fidelity

Preservation of Authorship: Stylistic fidelity safeguards the author’s voice and artistic expression, ensuring the translated work retains the intended impact and emotional effect.

Nuanced Understanding: A faithful rendering of style allows for a more complete and nuanced understanding of the original work, enriching the target language audience’s experience.

Arguments Against Stylistic Fidelity

Unnatural Language: Strict adherence to stylistic elements of the source text can lead to unnatural or awkward phrasing in the target language, potentially hindering comprehension.
Linguistic and Cultural Barriers: The inherent differences between languages and cultures can make achieving true stylistic fidelity an elusive goal.

Prioritization of Form: A focus solely on replicating style may neglect the essential function of translation – clear and effective communication of meaning.

Stylistic Fidelity: Major Characteristics

Major Characteristics of Stylistic Fidelity

Tone: Maintaining the overarching mood, whether formal, satirical, introspective, or otherwise.
Diction: Preserving the author’s specific word choices, including levels of formality, technical vocabulary, or regional dialect.

Syntax: Reproducing the original sentence structures, lengths, and rhythms.
Figurative Language: Accurately conveying the use and nuance of metaphors, similes, symbolism, and other literary devices.
Voice: Capturing the distinctive personality of the author’s writing, as expressed through their stylistic choices.

Importance of Stylistic Fidelity

Respect for Authorial Intent: Stylistic fidelity ensures that the reader’s experience aligns closely with the author’s original vision and message.
Cultural and Historical Preservation: Style often reflects the social and linguistic norms of a work’s origin. Maintaining these stylistic elements provides valuable insights into these contexts.
Acknowledgement of Artistic Value: An author’s style represents a significant component of their creativity and artistry. Stylistic fidelity demonstrates respect for the unique qualities of their writing.

Literary References

Ernest Hemingway’s Short Stories: Hemingway’s signature use of terse, direct sentences and unadorned vocabulary creates a sense of immediacy and understated power.
The King James Bible: This translation’s elevated language, with formal pronouns and verb conjugations (“thou,” “doth,” etc.), maintains a tone of reverence and historical significance.
Jane Austen’s Novels: Austen’s intricate prose, marked by wit, social commentary, and complex sentence structures, reflects the refined manners and social critique of her era.

Stylistic Fidelity: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Stylistic Fidelity
Formalism	Crucial. Formalists emphasize the intrinsic value of literary devices and structures. Stylistic fidelity preserves these elements, allowing for the analysis of the form itself as the primary source of meaning.
New Criticism	Highly valued. Like Formalism, New Criticism involves close reading of the text. Stylistic fidelity ensures that the close reading is performed on the author’s intended style, not a distorted translation or interpretation.
Reader-Response Criticism	Important, but with nuance. Stylistic fidelity provides a consistent foundation for reader responses. However, this theory also acknowledges that individual readers may have valid reactions based on their own experiences and understanding, even if there are deviations from the author’s exact style.
Structuralism	Mixed significance. Structuralists focus on underlying patterns and systems within literature. While preserving elements of style can contribute to this analysis, this focus is more on the broader structures of language instead of an author’s unique choices.
Post-Structuralism (including Deconstruction)	Less emphasized. Post-structural theories often challenge the concept of a singular authoritative meaning. Translations and adaptations could be seen as new, valid interpretations, meaning that direct stylistic fidelity may be less important than capturing the spirit or the deconstructed elements of the work.

Important Notes:

These are generalizations; there is diversity within each literary theory.
The role of stylistic fidelity in translation studies is a complex field in itself.
Stylistic fidelity remains a valuable concept even when not the primary focus of analysis. It ensures respect for the author’s work and a shared basis for critical discussion.

Stylistic Fidelity: Application in Critiques

1۔ The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Stylistic Feature: Lyrical prose filled with rich imagery and symbolism, reflecting the decadence and disillusionment of the Jazz Age.
Critique with Stylistic Fidelity: An analysis would examine how Fitzgerald’s word choices (e.g., “golden girl,” “dust”, “orgiastic future”) create a sense of allure and underlying melancholy. It would explore how sentence structures build a rhythmic quality that mirrors the parties’ energy and the emptiness that follows.

Loss of Fidelity: A critique ignoring style, focusing only on plot, would miss Fitzgerald’s nuanced critique of American materialism and idealism.

2. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka

Stylistic Feature: Unflinchingly direct language, matter-of-factly describing the fantastical situation of Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect.

Critique with Stylistic Fidelity: An analysis would note how the stark contrast between bizarre subject matter and straightforward style highlights the absurdity and alienation of Gregor’s condition. It would focus on how the dispassionate tone mirrors the indifference of his family.
Loss of Fidelity: An overly emotional or figurative reading risks undercutting the chilling impact of Kafka’s style, which emphasizes the mundane horror of the situation.

3. Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison

Stylistic Feature: A first-person narrative voice, shifting between raw expressiveness, philosophical musings, and surreal imagery, mirroring the protagonist’s search for identity.
Critique with Stylistic Fidelity: An analysis would look at how Ellison uses dialect, shifting registers, and vivid metaphors to convey the character’s internal struggles and his encounters with racism and disillusionment.
Loss of Fidelity: Focusing solely on the novel’s themes without consideration for Ellison’s complex, almost musical, voice would neglect a core element of the work’s power.

4. Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Stylistic Feature: Dramatic soliloquies filled with wordplay, metaphors, and varying verse forms reflecting Hamlet’s tumultuous inner world.
Critique with Stylistic Fidelity: An analysis would dissect Hamlet’s use of figurative language (“to be or not to be”), shifts between iambic pentameter and broken rhythms, and his use of puns, to reveal his internal conflict, philosophical dilemmas, and feigned or genuine madness.

Loss of Fidelity: Reading or performing Hamlet with a flat, prosaic delivery would obscure the psychological depth and theatricality of the play.

Key Point: Stylistic fidelity doesn’t prevent unique interpretations. However, it ensures that those interpretations are rooted in the author’s deliberate choices and expressive techniques, leading to a more robust and insightful critique.

Stylistic Fidelity: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Tone	The overall mood or attitude conveyed in a text (e.g., somber, playful, ironic).
Diction	The author’s specific word choice, including formality, slang, technical terms, etc.
Syntax	The arrangement of words into sentences, including sentence length, structure, and rhythm.
Figurative Language	The use of literary devices like metaphors, similes, personification, and symbolism to create meaning beyond the literal.
Voice	The distinctive “sound” of an author’s writing, created through their stylistic choices.
Register	The level of formality or informality in language, often influenced by context or audience.
Dialect	A regional or social variation of a language, distinguished by pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
Imagery	Language that evokes sensory experiences (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell).
Pacing	The speed at which the text unfolds, influenced by sentence length, punctuation, and narrative techniques.
Juxtaposition	The placement of contrasting elements close together for emphasis or effect.

Stylistic Fidelity: Suggested Readings

Books

Nord, Christina. Translating as a Purposeful Activity. Routledge, 2018. Explores translation theories focused on preserving a text’s style and function. https://www.routledge.com/Translating-as-a-Purposeful-Activity-Functionalist-Approaches-Explained/Nord/p/book/9781138573345

Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2001. Provides an overview of major translation theories, addressing stylistic fidelity. https://books.google.com/books/about/Contemporary_Translation_Theories.html?id=RTOUcp1YzaAC
Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility. Routledge, 2008. Examines trends in translation that often sacrifice the original author’s style for ‘fluency’ in the target language. https://www.amazon.com/Translators-Invisibility-Routledge-Translation-Classics/dp/1138093165

Articles

Boase-Beier, Jean. “Taking the High Road: Stylistics.” Translation Journal, vol. 10, no. 4, 2006. Offers a breakdown of stylistic components in translation. https://www.translationjournal.net/Home.html

Duff, Alan. “Translation Techniques & Procedures.” Translation: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by Juliane House, Palgrave Macmillan, 1997, pp. 55–69. Classic overview of translation strategies, including attention to stylistic approaches.

Additional Resources

Scholarly journals focusing on Translation Studies:
- Meta: Translators’ Journal (https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/meta/)
- The Translator (https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rtrn20)
- Target (https://benjamins.com/catalog/target)

Spiritualization in Literature & Literary Theory

Spiritualization refers to the process by which something mundane or material is elevated to a higher spiritual or metaphysical level.

Spiritualization: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymological Roots and Terminology:

The term “spiritualization” emerged in the mid-17th century, derived from the verb “spiritualize.” This neologism combined “spiritual” with the “-ization” suffix, signifying the act or process of something becoming imbued with spiritual essence.

Semantic Nuances:

Spiritualization encompasses two core meanings:

Imbuing with Spirituality: This involves infusing an object, experience, or concept with spiritual content or significance. This can manifest as:
- Investing objects or experiences with deeper meaning: For instance, appreciating the intricate beauty of nature as a manifestation of the divine.
- Transforming mundane activities into spiritual practices: Cultivating mindfulness and intentionality in everyday tasks like cooking or cleaning.
Ascribing Spiritual Significance: This entails interpreting non-religious elements through a spiritual lens, such as:
- Attributing deeper meaning to life events: Viewing challenges as opportunities for personal growth or finding spiritual connection within personal relationships.
- Unveiling spiritual significance in history and culture: Analyzing historical events or cultural artifacts through a spiritual framework.

Conceptual Framework:

Spiritualization is a multidimensional concept with diverse applications across contexts and individuals. However, some key aspects can be identified:

Primacy of the Non-Material: It emphasizes dimensions beyond the physical and tangible, delving into the realm of the spirit, soul, or the sacred.
Quest for Deeper Meaning: It involves a search for significance and purpose transcending the material world, often connecting with a higher power or experiencing a sense of transcendence.
Potential for Transformation: It can be a tool for personal growth and transformation, fostering inner peace, establishing meaningful connections, and cultivating a sense of purpose.

Caveats:

It is crucial to acknowledge the subjective and nuanced nature of spiritualization, as it is heavily influenced by individual beliefs and practices. Additionally, interpretations and applications of spiritualization can vary significantly across diverse cultures and religious traditions.

Spiritualization: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Spiritualization refers to the process by which something mundane or material is elevated to a higher spiritual or metaphysical level. It involves imbuing ordinary aspects of life with deeper meaning, purpose, or significance beyond their immediate physical manifestations. This concept often entails a shift in perspective or consciousness towards recognizing the interconnectedness of all things and the presence of a transcendent reality.

Spiritualization: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Western Philosophy
- Plato (428-348 BCE): In his work, Plato argued that the physical world is a pale reflection of the perfect world of Forms. The process of spiritualization, for Plato, would involve turning away from the material world and towards the contemplation of the Forms.
- Plotinus (204-270 CE): A key figure in Neoplatonism, Plotinus believed that the ultimate reality is the One, a transcendent and unknowable source of all being. Spiritualization, for Plotinus, would involve a process of purification and ascent through various levels of reality until one reaches union with the One.
- Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): In his work, Kant distinguished between the phenomenal world (the world as we experience it) and the noumenal world (the world as it is in itself). Spiritualization, for Kant, could be seen as the attempt to access the noumenal world through reason or faith.

Eastern Philosophy
- Hinduism: The concept of spiritualization is central to Hinduism. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Spiritualization is seen as a necessary step on the path to moksha. There are many different paths to spiritualization in Hinduism, including yoga, meditation, and devotion to a deity.
- Buddhism: Buddhism also emphasizes the importance of spiritual development. The goal of Buddhism is to achieve nirvana, a state of perfect peace and enlightenment. Spiritualization, for Buddhists, involves following the Eightfold Path, which includes right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

Abrahamic Religions
- Judaism: In Judaism, spiritualization is often associated with the concept of tikkun olam, the repair of the world. Jews are called upon to use their actions to make the world a more holy place. This can be seen as a form of spiritualization, as it involves infusing the material world with spiritual meaning.
- Christianity: Christianity teaches that humans are created in the image of God, but that sin has separated us from God. Spiritualization, for Christians, involves the process of reconciliation with God through faith in Jesus Christ. This process can involve repentance, prayer, and good works.
- Islam: In Islam, the goal of spiritualization is to submit oneself to the will of God (Allah). This involves following the teachings of the Quran and the Sunnah, the example of the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe that spiritualization will lead to happiness in this life and the next.

Spiritualization: Major Characteristics

Focus on the Inner Self: Spiritualization involves a turning inward, an exploration of one’s own consciousness, values, and beliefs.
Search for Meaning and Purpose: It often encompasses a deep desire to find meaning beyond the material world, seeking to understand the overarching purpose of existence.

Transcendence of the Ego: Spiritualization often involves the process of letting go of ego-driven concerns and cultivating a sense of connection to something larger than oneself.
Development of Virtues: Many spiritual paths emphasize the cultivation of virtues such as compassion, kindness, forgiveness, and humility.
Experiences of the Sacred: Spiritualization can involve moments of awe, wonder, transcendence, or a sense of deep connection to something considered sacred or divine.

Transformation: Spiritualization is frequently understood as a transformative process, leading to positive changes in one’s perspective, behavior, and understanding of the world.
Non-Materialistic: It often places emphasis on experiences and values that cannot be measured in material terms, prioritizing the intangible aspects of life.

Spiritualization: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Spiritualization
Reader-Response	Spiritualization can influence how readers interpret texts, as they may seek deeper spiritual meanings or connections within the narrative. Readers may engage with texts in ways that reflect their own spiritual beliefs or experiences.
Postcolonial	In postcolonial literary theory, spiritualization can be seen as a way to reclaim indigenous or marginalized cultural practices and beliefs that were suppressed or distorted by colonial powers. It can highlight the resilience of spiritual traditions in the face of colonial oppression and the importance of reconnecting with cultural roots.
Feminist	Spiritualization may intersect with feminist literary theory by examining how gendered experiences intersect with spiritual beliefs and practices. It can offer insights into how women’s spiritual experiences have been marginalized or co-opted by patriarchal structures, as well as how spirituality can empower women’s voices and agency.
Marxist	From a Marxist perspective, spiritualization might be critiqued as a form of ideological mystification that distracts from material conditions and reinforces social hierarchies. Alternatively, it could be interpreted as a means of resistance against capitalist commodification and alienation, providing avenues for communal solidarity and alternative modes of existence.

Spiritualization: Application in Critiques

Siddhartha by Hermann Hesse: In Siddhartha, spiritualization is central to the protagonist’s journey of self-discovery and enlightenment. The novel follows Siddhartha’s quest for spiritual fulfillment, which leads him through various experiences and teachings. Critics could examine how Hesse portrays the process of spiritualization, exploring themes of transcendence, inner peace, and the search for meaning in life.

The Alchemist by Paulo Coelho: Coelho’s novel delves into the theme of spiritualization through the protagonist Santiago’s journey to find his Personal Legend. Critics could analyze how Santiago’s encounters with various characters and experiences contribute to his spiritual growth and understanding of the interconnectedness of the universe. The novel’s emphasis on following one’s dreams and listening to the language of the soul provides fertile ground for discussions on spiritualization.
The Bhagavad Gita: This ancient Indian scripture is rich with themes of spiritualization, as it explores the concept of duty (dharma) and the path to self-realization. Critics could delve into the Gita’s teachings on karma, devotion, and the nature of the self, examining how these concepts relate to the process of spiritualization. Additionally, they could analyze how the Gita’s teachings have influenced spiritual thought and practice throughout history.
The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri: Dante’s epic poem is a profound exploration of the afterlife, morality, and the soul’s journey toward God. Critics could interpret Dante’s depiction of the soul’s purification and ascent through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven as symbolic of the process of spiritualization. They could also analyze how Dante’s understanding of divine love and justice informs his portrayal of the soul’s journey toward spiritual fulfillment.

Spiritualization: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Transcendence	The act of rising above or going beyond ordinary limitations; often refers to surpassing the material world and connecting to a higher reality.
Mysticism	The pursuit of direct, personal experience of the divine or sacred reality through spiritual practices.
Enlightenment	A state of profound understanding, wisdom, and liberation from suffering, often associated with Eastern religions.
Self-Realization	The understanding of one’s true nature or identity, often considered the pinnacle of spiritual development.
Metanoia	A transformative change of heart and mind, often associated with a spiritual awakening or turning point.
Theurgy	Ritual practices aimed at invoking or working with divine beings or forces; intended to achieve a state of spiritual union.
Immanence	The concept of a divine presence within the material world or within oneself.
Esotericism	Refers to hidden or inner knowledge, traditions, and practices focused on spiritual development or transformation.
Asceticism	Self-discipline and the practice of renunciation of worldly pleasures, often seen as a pathway to spiritual purification.
Gnosis	Intuitive or experiential knowledge of spiritual truth, often contrasted with rational or intellectual knowledge.

Spiritualization: Suggested Readings

Bellah, Robert N., et al. Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life. Updated ed., University of California Press, 2008.
Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. 3rd ed., New World Library, 2008.
Carrette, Jeremy, and Richard King. Selling Spirituality: The Silent Takeover of Religion. Routledge, 2005.

Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. Translated by Willard R. Trask, Harcourt Brace, 1959.
Heelas, Paul, and Linda Woodhead, eds. The Spiritual Revolution: Why Religion is Giving Way to Spirituality. Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
James, William. The Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in Human Nature. Longmans, Green & Co.,1902.

Otto, Rudolf. The Idea of the Holy: An Inquiry into the Non-Rational Factor in the Idea of the Divine and its Relation to the Rational. Translated by John W. Harvey, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1950.
Tacey, David. The Spirituality Revolution: The Emergence of Contemporary Spirituality. Routledge, 2004.
Tolle, Eckhart. The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment. New World Library, 1997.

Wilber, Ken. Integral Spirituality: A Startling New Role for Religion in the Modern and Postmodern World. Shambhala, 2006.

Spectrality in Literature & Literary Theory

Spectrality is a theoretical concept examining how the absent or intangible retains a presence that disrupts notions of linear time and singular reality.

Spectrality: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Spectrality

Derived from the Latin “spectrum” (apparition or image), spectrality encompasses the quality of the spectral, the intangible, and the otherworldly. Key meanings and conceptual uses include:

The Persistence of Absence: Spectrality addresses how that which is absent continues to hold influence or presence. This can manifest in the haunting of historical traumas, unresolved sociopolitical issues, or deeply personal memories.
The Elusive Nature of Identity: Spectrality questions fixed notions of identity and representation. It highlights how both are fluid and subject to constant reconfiguration, especially within social and technological contexts.

Deconstruction and Theoretical Frameworks: In literary and critical theory, spectrality is a powerful tool for deconstructing texts and challenging ideas of fixed meaning or singular truth. It finds particular resonance in movements like hauntology.
Technological Mediation: In contemporary life, spectrality explores the ways technology creates a sense of presence and absence simultaneously. Digital images, representations, and virtual identities can become spectral, possessing a reality independent of their source.

Spectrality: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Spectrality is a theoretical concept examining how the absent or intangible retains a presence that disrupts notions of linear time and singular reality. It explores the persistence of memory, trauma, and the ways in which technology shapes spectral representations that blur boundaries between the real and the virtual. Spectrality often serves as a tool in critical theory to challenge fixed meanings and identities.

Spectrality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Spectrality: A Haunting Presence in Theory and Literature

Spectrality, transcending the literal realm of ghosts and apparitions, delves into the theoretical terrain of presence, absence, and the persistence of the past. It explores how these concepts resonate within cultural forms, literary works, and philosophical discourse.

Foundational Theorists

Jacques Derrida: Derrida, a pivotal figure in this field, brought spectrality to the forefront with his work “Spectres of Marx.” Here, he uses the ghost as a metaphor for the lingering influence of past ideologies on the present, highlighting their unfulfilled promises and ongoing impact.
Jacques Lacan: Through the lens of the “mirror stage,” Lacan explores the formation of self-identity through image-based identification. Spectrality, in Lacanian theory, signifies the failure of this identification, resulting in a haunting sense of incompleteness.
Slavoj Žižek: Building upon Derrida’s work, Žižek delves into the political dimensions of spectrality. He argues that unresolved societal contradictions and traumas from the past continue to haunt and disrupt the present, taking the form of spectral figures.

Literary Manifestations

Hamlet (William Shakespeare): The play hinges on Prince Hamlet’s encounter with the ghost of his murdered father. This specter embodies the past demanding vengeance and disrupting Hamlet’s present reality.
The Turn of the Screw (Henry James): The novella masterfully exploits the ambiguity of the supernatural. Are the ghosts tormenting the governess real or figments of her imagination? This uncertainty reflects anxieties about memory, perception, and the nature of reality itself.

Beloved (Toni Morrison): Sethe, a formerly enslaved woman in Morrison’s novel, is haunted by the ghost of her deceased daughter, Beloved. This specter represents the enduring legacy of slavery and its traumatic impact on individuals and communities, persisting long after the physical chains are broken.

Theoretical Implications

Challenging History and Memory: Spectrality disrupts traditional notions of history as a fixed and knowable entity. It suggests that the past is instead a dynamic and contested space, constantly evolving through interpretation and reinterpretation.

Critiquing Power Structures: By highlighting the unresolved contradictions of the past, spectrality offers a critical lens for analyzing dominant ideologies and the power structures they uphold.
Grappling with Loss and Trauma: Spectrality provides a framework for understanding loss, trauma, and the experience of mourning. It acknowledges the ongoing presence of the absent and facilitates the process of coming to terms with them.

Spectrality: Major Characteristics

A Sense of Haunting: Spectrality often involves a lingering presence of the past—a ghost, a memory, or a trauma that disrupts the present. It’s about the return of something that should be gone.
- Example: Hamlet’s encounter with his father’s ghost in Hamlet by William Shakespeare. The ghost unsettles Hamlet and shapes the course of the play.
Displacement and the Uncanny: Spectrality creates a feeling of the “uncanny,” where something is familiar yet unsettling. It suggests a space or situation that is not quite right, or a blurring of boundaries.
- Example: The eerie atmosphere and psychological distortions of Edgar Allan Poe’s stories, like “The Fall of the House of Usher.”

The Blurring of Time: Spectral elements defy a linear sense of time. The past and present co-exist, and sometimes even the future becomes entangled in a spectral return.
- Example: In Toni Morrison’s Beloved, the ghost of a murdered child embodies the unhealed wounds of slavery. The past intrudes forcefully on the present.
Spectral Figures and Motifs: Spectrality often manifests in recurring images or figures:
- Ghosts – The most obvious example, but they may be metaphorical as well as literal.
- Doubles – Like in Robert Louis Stevenson’s Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, where one person splits into two, suggesting a spectral haunting of self.
- Ruins and Abandoned Places – Representing a lingering sense of what has been lost.

Ambiguity and Unresolved Meanings: Spectrality rarely provides clear answers. It revels in the uncertainty of what is real, what is memory, and what is truly gone or not.
- Example: Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw leaves it ambiguous whether the ghosts are real, or are hallucinations of the troubled governess.

Spectrality: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Spectrality
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Spectrality reveals repressed desires, traumas, and the workings of the unconscious mind. Ghosts and uncanny figures can represent unresolved conflicts from the past or aspects of the self that are hidden.
Gothic Literature	Spectrality is a core element of the Gothic, creating an atmosphere of suspense, decay, and the supernatural. Ghosts, haunted settings, and a focus on the past’s influence on the present are common spectral features.
Marxist Criticism	Specters can embody the unresolved histories of oppression and exploitation. They can represent the lingering effects of social inequalities, economic injustice, or a return of the repressed voices of the marginalized.
Postcolonial Criticism	Spectrality highlights the lasting consequences of colonialism. Ghosts can represent displaced peoples, lost cultures, and the ongoing struggles against lingering power dynamics.
Deconstruction	Spectrality challenges notions of a stable present and fixed meaning. The spectral blurs boundaries (life/death, past/present), undermining the idea of a single, authoritative interpretation of a text.
Feminist Criticism	Spectrality can illuminate the marginalized or silenced voices of women. Spectral figures can be a means of reclaiming forgotten female histories and experiences, or disrupting patriarchal narratives.

Spectrality: Application in Critiques

1. Beloved by Toni Morrison:

Argument: Spectrality is applied to the character of Beloved, who embodies the lingering trauma of slavery and the spectral presence of the past within the present.
Theorists: Drawing on Derrida’s hauntology, the novel explores how the specter of slavery haunts the lives of the characters, shaping their identities and relationships.
Analysis: Beloved, the ghostly figure, represents the unresolved trauma of slavery and the ways in which its horrors continue to exert influence on subsequent generations.

2. The Turn of the Screw by Henry James:

Argument: Spectrality is central to the ambiguity surrounding the ghosts in the story, blurring the boundaries between reality and imagination.
Theorists: Lacan’s concept of the mirror stage and the construction of the self through identification with the other can be applied to the governess’s perception of the ghosts.

Analysis: The ghosts in the story function as projections of the governess’s repressed desires and anxieties, revealing the spectral nature of the psyche.

3. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:

Argument: Spectrality is used to explore the cyclical nature of history and the persistence of memory across generations.

Theorists: Foucault’s idea of the discursive formation of power and knowledge can be applied to the novel’s portrayal of the ghostly presence of colonialism.
Analysis: The recurring motifs of ghosts and apparitions in the novel serve as reminders of the unresolved conflicts and traumas of Latin American history, highlighting the spectrality of colonial oppression.

4. House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski:

Argument: Spectrality is employed to destabilize the boundaries between reality and fiction, creating an atmosphere of uncanny dread.
Theorists: Derrida’s notion of deconstruction and the blurring of binary oppositions informs the novel’s exploration of the spectral nature of narrative and representation.
Analysis: The labyrinthine structure of the novel, filled with footnotes, appendices, and unreliable narrators, creates a sense of haunting as the reader navigates through layers of text and meaning, encountering specters of the unknown.

Spectrality: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Ghost	A spirit or apparition of a deceased person, often seen as a haunting presence.
Haunting	The lingering presence of the past, often in the form of memories, trauma, or unresolved conflicts.
Uncanny	A feeling of the familiar yet strangely unsettling; a sense of something not being quite right.
Ruins	Decayed structures or remnants of the past, symbolizing loss, forgotten histories, or a spectral presence.
Double/Doppelgänger	A mysterious double of a person, representative of hidden desires, split selves, or a spectral other.
Revenant	A being that returns from the dead, embodying the spectral intrusion of the past on the present.
Trace	A mark or remnant left behind, suggesting a presence that is no longer fully there.
Memory	The faculty of recalling the past, often entangled with spectrality as memories can be haunting or distorted.
Trauma	A deeply distressing experience that leaves lingering psychological or emotional wounds, often manifesting in spectral ways.
Liminality	A state of being in-between or on a threshold; a concept related to spectrality’s blurring of boundaries (life/death, past/present).

Spectrality: Suggested Readings

Key Theoretical Works

Derrida, Jacques. Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International. Trans. Peggy Kamuf. Routledge, 1994. (This seminal work by Derrida explores spectrality in relation to Marxist thought, themes of justice, and the spectral nature of inheritance).
Gordon, Avery F. Ghostly Matters: Haunting and the Sociological Imagination. 2nd ed., University of Minnesota Press, 2008. (Gordon offers a sociological lens on spectrality, examining how histories of oppression, exclusion, and violence create spectral presences that shape the present).
Luckhurst, Roger. Gothic. Reaktion Books, 2022. (This detailed introduction to the Gothic literary tradition provides a strong foundation for understanding spectrality as a core element of the genre).

Primary Literary Examples

Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 1987. (Morrison’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel powerfully demonstrates the spectral legacy of slavery and its haunting impact on individual lives and the American consciousness).
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine, Folger Shakespeare Library, 1992. (A classic exploration of haunting, vengeance, and the ways in which the unsettled past disrupts the present).
James, Henry. The Turn of the Screw. Dover Publications, 1898. (This ambiguous novella exemplifies the potential for psychological spectrality, blurring the boundaries between the real and the imagined).

Further Exploration

Buse, Peter, and Andrew Stott, editors. Ghosts: Deconstruction, Psychoanalysis, History. Macmillan, 1999. (This essay collection offers diverse critical perspectives on spectrality, spanning deconstructionist, psychoanalytic, and historical approaches).
Wolfreys, Julian. Victorian Hauntings: Spectrality, Gothic, the Uncanny and Literature. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. (Wolfreys analyzes the prevalence and function of spectral figures and themes in Victorian-era literature).

Additional Resources:

Academic journals such as Critical Inquiry, Representations, or Gothic Studies often feature articles on spectrality.

Online databases like JSTOR or Project MUSE provide access to scholarly research.

Spatialization of Time in Literature & Literary Theory

Spatialization of time refers to the conceptualization of time as a spatial dimension, akin to length, width, and height.

Spatialization of Time: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term

The term “spatialization of time” stems from the way we understand the abstract concept of time (from the Old English word “tīma”) through spatial concepts and language rooted in the Latin word “spatium” (meaning space).

Meanings and Concept

Cognitive Mechanism: The way we think about time using spatial analogies and visualize it using tools like timelines and calendars.
Linguistic Representation: The prevalence of spatial metaphors in language when describing time (events being “ahead of us,” or a deadline “looming”).

Philosophical Inquiry: A deeper questioning of the nature of time itself, considering how our spatial perceptions of the world might influence our understanding of time’s flow and properties.

Spatialization of Time: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Spatialization of time refers to the conceptualization of time as a spatial dimension, akin to length, width, and height. This theoretical framework suggests that time can be thought of as a dimension through which events are located and ordered, much like objects are positioned in space. It implies that time is not just a linear progression but can be navigated and understood in terms of spatial relationships.

Spatialization of Time: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Philosophy

Immanuel Kant: In his “Critique of Pure Reason”, Kant argued that time (and space) are not inherent qualities of the world but are fundamental ways the human mind structures experience. This heavily influenced our understanding of how we subjectively perceive time.

Henri Bergson: Challenged the linear and quantifiable view of time, proposing a concept of qualitative time or “duration.” He emphasized the subjective experience of time as a continuous flow intertwined with memory and consciousness.
Martin Heidegger: In “Being and Time,” Heidegger explored the nature of time within the context of human existence (Dasein). He stressed the connection between our understanding of time and our awareness of mortality.

Linguistics

George Lakoff and Mark Johnson: Their book “Metaphors We Live By” revolutionized how we understand metaphorical thinking. They analyze spatial metaphors used for time, highlighting how these metaphors inform our everyday understanding.

Lera Boroditsky: Her research explores how language shapes cognition. She examines how different cultures represent time spatially (e.g., left-to-right vs. front-to-back), suggesting that our spatialization of time is influenced by language.

Cognitive Science and Psychology

J.R. Evans: In his book “The Time of Our Lives,” Evans delves into the psychological processes behind our experience of time. He investigates the spatial metaphors we employ as a tool for understanding temporal concepts.
Metaphorical Mapping Theory: Many researchers investigate how we mentally map concepts from one domain (space) to another (time). This framework helps understand how spatial and temporal reasoning might be intertwined.

Arguments

Central arguments in discussions about the spatialization of time include:

The Universality of Spatio-Temporal Metaphors: To what degree is the use of spatial metaphors to understand time a universal human phenomenon, and to what extent are there cultural variances?
The Influence of Spatial Cognition: Does our spatial understanding of the world fundamentally shape our perception of time, or are they independent cognitive structures?

Time as an Illusion or Fundamental Reality: Philosophical arguments debate whether time is merely a construct shaped by our spatial understanding, or if it exists as a fundamental dimension of reality.

Spatialization of Time: Major Characteristics

Time as a Linear Construct:
- We commonly perceive time as a line with a clear past, present, and future.
- Literary Reference: Charles Dickens, Great Expectations – “That was a memorable day to me, for it made great changes in me. But, it is the same with any life. Imagine one selected day struck out of it, and think how different its course would have been.”
Time as Motion (Ego-Moving or Time-Moving):
- We feel ourselves moving through time, or we perceive time as flowing towards or past us.
- Literary Reference: T.S. Eliot The Four Quartets – “Time present and time past / Are both perhaps present in time future / And time future contained in time past.”
Time as Quantifiable and Measurable:
- We use clocks, calendars, and timelines to precisely measure and represent time.
- Literary Reference: William Shakespeare, Sonnet 12 – “When I do count the clock that tells the time, / And see the brave day sunk in hideous night…”
Time as Tangible and Container-Like:
- We envision events being “in” the future, “behind” us, or speak of “running out” of time.
- Literary Reference: Emily Dickinson, “Because I could not stop for Death” – The poem personifies time/death as a carriage ride with the speaker, spatially containing a journey.
Subjectivity of Temporal Experience:
- Our perception of time’s speed and length is influenced by emotion, memory, and attention.
- Literary Reference: Marcel Proust, In Search of Lost Time – The entire work explores how a simple sensory experience can unlock vast past memories, stretching the reader’s feel for a moment.

Important Notes

These characteristics are not mutually exclusive, and authors often play with and manipulate them.
Many modernist and postmodern literary works deliberately challenge traditional linear time representations, emphasizing the subjectivity and constructed nature of time.

Spatialization of Time: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Spatialization of Time
Structuralism	Examines how temporal structures (linear, cyclical, fragmented) are used to create narrative patterns and relationships between events. Focuses on the underlying formal organization of a literary work, often involving timelines or diagrams.
Poststructuralism	Challenges traditional linear views of time, emphasizing its subjective, constructed, and potentially unstable nature. Might focus on how a text plays with time to undermine notions of a singular, objective reality.
Cognitive Narratology	Studies the ways readers use spatial mental models to make sense of narrative time. How do readers navigate flashbacks, foreshadowing, and other temporal manipulations?
Feminist Theory	Explores how the spatialization of time can reflect patriarchal power structures (linear progress = masculine). Analyzes alternative representations of time (cyclical, embodied) that may represent a feminist perspective.
Marxist Theory	Investigates the relationship between representations of time and socioeconomic systems. How does an author’s depiction of time reflect or challenge dominant ideologies about progress, labor, and historical change?
Psychoanalytic Theory	Considers how temporal distortion and the blurring of past/present in a text may reflect unconscious desires, unresolved trauma, or the workings of memory.

Spatialization of Time: Application in Critiques

How to Apply the Concept

Identify Spatial Metaphors and Representations: Examine how the literary work uses the following concepts:
- Linearity vs. Circularity: Does time progress in a line, or are events presented in cyclical or non-linear patterns?
- Time as Motion: Does the author use “moving-ego” or “moving-time” metaphors, and how do they affect the narrative?
- Spatial Language for Time: Pay attention to words like “ahead”, “behind”, “long”, “short” when applied to time periods.
- Visual Timelines: Are there any graphic representations of time or significant events?

Connect to Cultural Representations of Time: Consider the author’s cultural background and how their social understanding of time might be reflected in the work. Are there any contrasts to typical Western linear concepts?
Analyze Impact on Meaning: Assess how the spatialization of time contributes to:
- Character Development: How does a character’s perception of time influence their actions and choices?
- Themes: Does the work highlight the subjective nature of time, memory, death, or fate?
- Narrative Structure: Does the spatialization of time influence the pacing or plot development (e.g., flashbacks, foreshadowing)?

Potential Examples: Authors & Works

Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia): Known for magical realism and blending past, present, and future in novels like One Hundred Years of Solitude.

Haruki Murakami (Japan): Often uses dreamlike sequences and a blurring of temporal boundaries in works like Kafka on the Shore.
Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina): Explored labyrinths, circular time, and infinite possibilities in short stories collected in works like Ficciones or The Aleph.
Milan Kundera (Czech Republic): Examines the impact of memory and history on individual experience with a fragmented sense of time in The Unbearable Lightness of Being.

Spatialization of Time: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Mental Timeline	A cognitive model where we mentally arrange events in a sequential and often linear order.
Time-Moving Metaphor	Conceptualizing time as movement past a stationary observer (e.g., “The deadline is approaching”).
Ego-Moving Metaphor	Conceptualizing the self as moving through a stationary landscape of time (e.g., “We’re moving into the future”).
Spatial Prepositions	Words like “before,” “after,” “during,” “ahead,” etc., used to describe temporal relationships.
Chronotope	(Literary Theory) The interconnectedness of time and space within a narrative, how settings are imbued with a sense of temporal significance.
Flashback	A narrative technique disrupting linear time by depicting a past event.
Foreshadowing	Providing hints or clues within a narrative about future events.
Subjective Time	The individual and variable experience of time influenced by emotion, memory, or attention.
Objective Time	The idea of a universal, measurable time by devices like clocks and calendars.
Anachronism	The deliberate placement of an event, object, or concept outside of its correct historical period within a text.

Spatialization of Time: Suggested Readings

Boroditsky, Lera. “How Language Shapes Thought.” Scientific American 284.2 (2001): 62-65. JSTOR. Web. Explores how language influences our spatial conceptualization of time.
Evans, Vyvyan. The Language of Time: The Cognitive Psychology of Temporal Language and Temporal Experience. Oxford University Press, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central. Web. A deep dive into the cognitive and linguistic aspects of how we experience time.
Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962. Philosophical exploration of time in relation to human existence.

Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Norman Kemp Smith, Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Kant’s influential work on the human mind’s categories of understanding, including time and space.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 2003. A foundational work on metaphorical thinking, with sections devoted to the spatialization of time.

Exoticism in Literature & Literary Theory

Exoticism is a mode of representation that focuses on the perceived differences between cultures, often emphasizing the foreign, unfamiliar, or “other.”

Exoticism: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology: The term “exoticism” stems from the Greek “exotikos” (ἔξωτικός), signifying “foreign” or “external.” This origin highlights the fundamental concept of exoticism as a mode of perceiving and representing that which is perceived as distinct from one’s own culture or experience.

Meanings and Concepts:

Othering: Exoticism often constructs a dichotomy of “self” versus “other,” wherein cultures, places, or individuals are defined primarily through their perceived difference from dominant norms. This process can perpetuate stereotypes, oversimplifications, or fetishization of the unfamiliar.
Objectification: The exotic can be commodified and transformed into an object of consumption, whether through tourism, art, or literature. This objectification reflects power imbalances and raises questions about the ethics of representation.

Fantasy and Idealization: Representations informed by exoticism frequently project idealized or romanticized visions of foreign cultures. These projections can prioritize aesthetic appeal, mystery, or the allure of the unknown, potentially obscuring complex lived realities or social issues.
Colonial Legacy: Exoticism is intertwined with the history of colonialism. Representations of the “exotic other” were often used to justify domination, exploitation, and the imposition of Western values and systems upon colonized territories.
Ambiguous Potential: While often complicit in problematic power dynamics, exoticism can also offer a space for cross-cultural exchange and the subversion of dominant narratives. It can potentially facilitate critical reflection on cultural norms and spark interest in understanding diverse perspectives.

Exoticism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Exoticism is a mode of representation that focuses on the perceived differences between cultures, often emphasizing the foreign, unfamiliar, or “other.” It can involve objectification, idealization, and the reinforcement of power imbalances between the observer and the observed. While exoticism can be associated with problematic stereotypes, it also holds the potential for cross-cultural exchange and critical reflection on established norms.

Exoticism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Edward Said and the Critique of Orientalism

Work: Orientalism (1978)

Argument: Edward Said’s groundbreaking work, Orientalism, critiques the West’s longstanding practice of constructing knowledge about the East (Orient). He argues that these representations are not objective portrayals, but rather serve to solidify Western dominance. Said exposes how the Orient is often stereotyped as passive, irrational, and inferior, justifying colonial projects and perpetuating a binary of “self” versus “other.”
Quote: “[Orientalism] is a way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the idea that the Orient is in some way fundamentally different from the West.” (Said, Orientalism, p. 1)

2. Loїc Winkin and the Myth of the Primitive

Work: The Myth of Primitive Society (1981)
Argument: Loїc Winkin challenges the romanticized portrayal of non-Western cultures as “primitive” or untouched by civilization. He argues that these representations simplify complex societies and erase their histories. Winkin suggests that such portrayals often serve a nostalgic purpose for a lost Western past, obscuring the diverse realities of these cultures.
Quote: “The image of the primitive is not the distorted reflection of a real and independent object, but the artificial product of a specific historical and cultural situation.” (Winkin, The Myth of Primitive Society, p. 13)

3. Gayatri Spivak and the Subaltern Voice

Work: “Can the Subaltern Speak?” (1988)
Argument: Gayatri Spivak’s influential essay, “Can the Subaltern Speak?”, problematizes the representation of colonized subjects (“subalterns”) within narratives dominated by the colonizer. She argues that the subaltern’s voice is often silenced or misrepresented due to the inherent power dynamics at play. Spivak highlights the challenges of representing the experiences of the colonized “other” within a framework established by the colonizer.

Quote: “The subaltern as historical agent is therefore constituted within the structure of an argument which, by its very nature, in its very essence, disappears that trace, constitutes it as a kind of vanishing point.” (Spivak, “Can the Subaltern Speak?”, p. 308)

4. Mary Louise Pratt and the Power of Travel Writing

Work: Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (1992)

Argument: Mary Louise Pratt analyzes travel writing as a tool of colonial exploration and control. She examines how travel narratives construct foreign landscapes and cultures, often through a lens of Western superiority and cultural dominance. Pratt argues that these narratives reinforce existing power structures while simultaneously revealing fissures and potential sites of resistance within the colonial project.
Quote: “The form of travel writing is deeply implicated in the imperial project, and yet it is also a site where that project is unstable and sometimes even contested.” (Pratt, Imperial Eyes, p. 7)

5. Homi K. Bhabha and the “Third Space” of Hybridity

Work: The Location of Culture (1994)
Argument: Homi K. Bhabha offers a more nuanced perspective on exoticism by introducing the concept of the “third space.” He identifies this liminal zone as the point of encounter and interaction between cultures, where fixed identities and hierarchies are challenged. In this space, Bhabha argues, exotic representations can become sites of resistance and the emergence of hybrid identities that subvert dominant narratives.
Quote: “It is in the ‘in-between spaces’ that the transformation of meaning and the emergence of new enunciatory strategies can be investigated.” (Bhabha, The Location of Culture, p. 37)

Exoticism: Major Characteristics

Emphasis on Difference:
- Example: Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness portrays Africa and its people as fundamentally “other” compared to the European colonizers. This emphasis on difference reinforces a sense of foreignness and mystery.
Romanticization and Idealization:
- Example: Pierre Loti’s Madame Chrysanthème paints a romanticized portrait of Japan, focusing on geishas, cherry blossoms, and notions of quaintness. This idealization often obscures the complexities and lived realities of the culture.
Objectification and the Exotic Gaze:
- Example: Gustave Flaubert’s Salammbô depicts ancient Carthage through a lens of exotic spectacle, emphasizing lavish rituals and sensual descriptions. This focus on the exotic as an object of consumption reflects a power dynamic between observer and observed.

Primitivism and Nostalgia:
- Example: Paul Gauguin’s paintings of Tahiti portray it as an idyllic paradise untouched by civilization. This primitivist lens often aligns with a sense of Western loss or disillusionment, projecting idealized visions onto the “other.”
Stereotypes and Erasure:
- Example: The use of “Oriental” tropes (harems, veiled women, despotic sultans) in many Western works simplifies diverse cultures, reducing the complex realities of the Middle East to a set of harmful stereotypes.
Subversion and Ambiguity:
- Example: Rudyard Kipling’s Kim explores cross-cultural exchange and identity formation with a degree of complexity. While often criticized for its colonial framework, the work also suggests the possibility of understanding (and even adopting) elements of the “other” culture.

Important Notes:

Context Matters: Representations of the exotic vary across historical periods and individual texts. Consider the specific social and cultural context of the work’s creation.
Power Dynamics: Exoticism is often bound up with issues of power, domination, and the perpetuation of stereotypes.
Not A Monolith: Avoid oversimplifying all exotic representations as wholly negative. Some works might offer critiques embedded within the exotic framework, or consciously subvert stereotypes.

Exoticism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Exoticism	Literary Example
Orientalism	Central concept. “The Orient” is constructed by the West as a place of mystery, sensuality, and inherent “otherness.” This justifies Western perspectives of dominance and control.	Edward Said’s Orientalism analyzes works like Flaubert’s descriptions of Egypt or Kipling’s Kim.
Postcolonial Criticism	Examines how exoticism was used historically to support colonial power structures. Focuses on how colonized cultures and people have been represented (often inaccurately) by those in power.	Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart challenges the exoticized portrayal of African cultures found in colonial literature like Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness.
Feminist Criticism	Explores the intersection of gender and exoticism. Often, exoticism of non-Western cultures is intertwined with portraying women as submissive, hyper-sexualized, or in need of “saving” by Western men.	Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley’s Frankenstein can be read as the monster embodying anxieties about the exotic and uncontrolled female power.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Exotic settings or characters can represent the unconscious desires, fears, or repressed aspects of the self (“the other”).	H. Rider Haggard’s She uses the African backdrop and the figure of Ayesha to explore the allure and danger of the unconscious feminine power.
Cultural Studies	Investigates how exoticism functions in contemporary popular culture. Analyzes how ideas of “the exotic” are packaged and sold, and the effects this has on cultural understanding	Films like Aladdin and “Eat, Pray, Love” perpetuate simplified tropes of the Middle East and Southeast Asia as mystical, spiritual escapes.

Exoticism: Application in Critiques

Short Story 1: “The Hills Like White Elephants” by Ernest Hemingway

Ambiguous Setting: The story is set in Spain, but lacks specific cultural markers. This creates a sense of a generic, “exotic” backdrop for the American couple’s conflict.

Symbolism of Landscape: The barren hills could symbolize the relationship’s emptiness, subtly influenced by the foreign, unwelcoming landscape.

The Woman as “Other”: Jig is associated with nature and the surrounding landscape, subtly marked as different and therefore potentially threatening to the male protagonist’s sense of control.

Short Story 2: “A Temporary Matter” by Jhumpa Lahiri

The Exotic Within the Familiar: The story focuses on an Indian-American couple, challenging assumptions about the “exotic” only being external and foreign.

Food as Cultural Marker: The preparation and sharing of meals highlight cultural differences within the couple, potentially symbolizing larger communication gaps.
Subversion of Expectations: Shukumar, though marked by his heritage, is ultimately the less emotionally expressive partner – upending stereotypical ideas of the “exotic.”

Poem 1: “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley

Ruins as Exotic Spectacle: The poem focuses on the remains of a once-mighty empire in a desert landscape, emphasizing the alluring mystery and transience of power.
Orientalist Lens?: Debate exists over whether the poem reinforces stereotypes of the East as decayed or serves as a critique of all empires, regardless of origin.
The Power of Description: Shelley’s vivid imagery (“lone and level sands”) constructs an exotic scene primarily for a Western audience.

Poem 2: “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot

Urban Exoticism: The poem evokes images of fog, yellow smoke, and half-deserted streets, creating an exotic sense of alienation within a familiar, modern city.
Prufrock as Self-Other: Prufrock’s anxieties and indecision paint himself as exotic, foreign, and potentially threatening to his own sense of social belonging.

Fragments of Culture: The poem weaves in snippets of foreign languages and cultural references, contributing to a sense of fragmented and potentially exotic high culture.

Exoticism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Orientalism	A theoretical framework, coined by Edward Said, analyzing how the West constructs “the Orient” (the Middle East, Asia) as fundamentally different, inferior, and in need of Western control.
Othering	The process of defining one group as the norm, thereby marking all other groups as different, unusual, or potentially threatening.
Stereotyping	Applying overly simplified, often negative characteristics to a whole group of people based on their culture, race, or other identity aspects.
Cultural Appropriation	Taking elements of another culture (symbols, practices, aesthetics) without understanding or respecting their context, often for personal gain or exploitation.
Noble Savage	A romanticized stereotype portraying people from non-Western cultures as inherently innocent, pure, and in harmony with nature (often contrasted against the perceived corruption of “civilization”).
Primitivism	A Western artistic movement that drew inspiration from non-Western art and cultures, often viewing them as more authentic or spiritually profound than Western society.
Gaze	The act of looking, often analyzed in terms of power dynamics. An “exotic gaze” can objectify or reduce the observed culture or person.
Hybridity	The blending of cultural influences. Can challenge exoticism by recognizing the complexity and interconnectedness of cultures.
Mimicry	The (sometimes unconscious) imitation of dominant cultural norms by a marginalized group. Can be a strategy for survival or an ambivalent act that both conforms to and undermines power structures.
Transculturation	The process of cultural exchange and transformation, emphasizing how cultures mutually influence each other, rather than just one imposing on another.

Exoticism: Suggested Readings

Foundational Works

Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, Macmillan, 1988, pp. 271-313.

Literary Applications

Kabbani, Rana. Europe’s Myths of Orient. Indiana University Press, 1986.

Melman, Billie. Women and the Popular Imagination: Popular Culture and the Representation of Women. Palgrave Macmillan, 1988.
Young, Robert J. C. Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture, and Race. Routledge, 1995.

Contemporary Perspectives and Applications

Huggan, Graham. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins. Routledge, 2001.

Lowe, Lisa. Immigrant Acts: On Asian American Cultural Politics. Duke University Press, 1996.
Prahba, Mridula. “Hybridity and its Discontents: Politics, Science, Culture.” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 31, no. 26, 1996, pp. 1591-1599.

Websites

Postcolonial Studies @ Emory: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/ A comprehensive resource with critical essays and links to further readings.

The Edward Said Archive: https://archive.org/details/orientalism0000said Contains biographical information, works by Said, and critical resources on Orientalism.

Parentheses in Literature

The term “parentheses” has its origins in Late Latin, deriving from the Greek word “parenthesis,” meaning “a putting in beside.”

Parentheses: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

The term “parentheses” has its origins in Late Latin, deriving from the Greek word “parenthesis,” meaning “a putting in beside.” This reflects its original function as a punctuation mark used to insert explanatory or qualifying material within a sentence. In its literal sense, parentheses serve to enclose supplementary information that is not essential to the main clause, providing additional context or clarification. Conceptually, parentheses can convey various meanings, including:

Literal Meaning	Conceptual Meaning
Enclosing supplementary information	Providing clarification or additional context
Indicating aside or digression	Signaling a departure from the main topic or thought
Creating a secondary focus	Highlighting details or asides within the narrative
Denoting alternatives or options	Presenting optional or alternative interpretations

In both its literal and conceptual applications, parentheses serve to enrich and elaborate upon the primary content of a text or discourse, offering readers a deeper understanding or perspective on the subject matter.

Parentheses: Definition

Parentheses are punctuation marks used to enclose supplementary or explanatory material within a sentence. They serve to provide additional information that is not essential to the main clause but contributes to the reader’s understanding. Parentheses are typically employed to set off digressions, clarifications, or asides in written text.

Parentheses: Examples in Everyday Life

Example	Usage
“Please purchase milk (preferably organic) on your way home.”	Providing additional information or preference within a request or instruction.
“The seminar will be held on Friday (excluding public holidays).”	Clarifying a specific condition or exception related to an event or activity.
“She completed her master’s degree (with honors) last year.”	Adding supplementary details, such as academic distinction, to a statement about an accomplishment.
“The new restaurant in town (located on Main Street) is quite popular.”	Including location information as an aside to provide context or identify a subject.
“I need to finish this report (due tomorrow) before I leave.”	Indicating a deadline or timeframe associated with a task or obligation.
“He is an expert in linguistics (his field of study).”	Specifying someone’s area of expertise or specialization within a sentence.
“The project timeline (outlined in the proposal) is ambitious.”	Referring to a document or source for additional information or validation.
“Our office hours are 9 am to 5 pm (Monday to Friday).”	Describing a recurring schedule or pattern, typically related to business or operations.

Parentheses in Literature: Examples

“A classic case in point is the relationship between Hamlet and Ophelia, in which Hamlet’s feigned madness (or perhaps real madness) plays a crucial role.” (Hamlet by William Shakespeare)
“She whispered the secret (which she had sworn never to reveal) to her closest friend.” (The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett)

“The protagonist’s thoughts (filled with doubt and uncertainty) reveal his inner turmoil.” (Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky)
“He glanced at her sideways, a sly smile creeping onto his face (indicating his amusement at her predicament).” (Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen)
“The wind howled outside, rattling the windows (which had been left open by mistake).” (The Shining by Stephen King)

“The detective noticed a peculiar smell in the room (reminiscent of sulfur or burnt matches).” (The Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur Conan Doyle)
“She stumbled over her words, trying to explain the situation (which was becoming increasingly awkward).” (To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee)
“The soldier recounted his harrowing experience in the war (which had left him deeply scarred).” (All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque)

“As she gazed out the window, lost in thought (contemplating her next move), she failed to notice the time slipping away.” (The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger)
“He received a mysterious letter (addressed in handwriting he didn’t recognize) that set off a chain of events.” (Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone by J.K. Rowling)

Parentheses in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Bracket	A punctuation mark used to enclose additional information, often used to clarify or add emphasis.
Parenthetical	Relating to or containing information enclosed within parentheses, often used for clarification.
Parenthetical phrase	A group of words enclosed in parentheses within a sentence, providing additional information or clarification.
Bracketing commas	Commas used in pairs to set off nonessential elements within a sentence, similar to parentheses.
Insertion marks	Punctuation marks, such as dashes or commas, used to insert additional information into a sentence.
Parenthetical citation	A citation format commonly used in academic writing, where the source information is enclosed within parentheses.
Parenthesis-free	Referring to writing or speech without the use of parentheses, often indicating directness or brevity.
Brackets-free	Referring to text without the use of brackets, often indicating simplicity or a lack of additional commentary.
Parenthetical expression	A phrase or clause enclosed in parentheses within a sentence, typically used for emphasis or qualification.
Insertion point	A place within a sentence where additional information or commentary can be inserted, often marked by parentheses or other punctuation.

Parentheses in Literature: Suggested Readings

Abrams, M.H. and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Cuddon, J.A. The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Penguin Books, 2015.
DiYanni, Robert. Literature: Approaches to Fiction, Poetry, and Drama. McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
Gibson, Walker. The Complete Guide to Literary Terms: A Handbook for Writers and Students. Writer’s Digest Books, 1999.

Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature: Reading, Thinking, Writing. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2015.
Roberts, Edgar V. and Henry E. Jacobs. Literature: An Introduction to Reading and Writing. Pearson, 2014.

Zeugma: A Literary Device

Zeugma is a literary device where a single word or phrase is used in a sentence to modify or govern two or more other words, often in different senses.

Zeugma: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology of Zeugma

The term “zeugma” originates from the Greek word “zeugnynai,” meaning “to join” or “to yoke.” In ancient rhetoric, zeugma referred to a figure of speech where a single word governs or modifies two or more other words, typically in different senses. This linguistic device yokes together disparate elements within a sentence, creating a surprising or witty effect.

Literal Meaning:

Linguistic Device: Zeugma functions as a rhetorical device in which a single word or phrase applies to two or more parts of a sentence, often in different ways.
Grammatical Structure: It involves the coordination of multiple elements, such as nouns, verbs, or adjectives, through a shared word or phrase.

Conceptual Meaning:

Figurative Connection: Zeugma enables writers to draw unexpected connections between ideas or objects, often for humorous, dramatic, or ironic effect.
Cognitive Impact: It engages readers by prompting them to reinterpret the shared word or phrase in different contexts within the same sentence, leading to a deeper understanding or appreciation of the text.

Zeugma: Definition as a Literary Device

Zeugma is a literary device where a single word or phrase is used in a sentence to modify or govern two or more other words, often in different senses. This technique creates a striking effect by linking together disparate elements within the same sentence. Zeugma is commonly employed for its rhetorical impact, adding depth, wit, or irony to the text.

Zeugma in Literature: Examples in Literature

Example	Explanation
“She broke his car and his heart.”	In this sentence, “broke” is used to describe the actions towards both “car” and “heart.” The word “broke” applies literally to the car and figuratively to the heart, creating a vivid image of both physical and emotional damage.
“He stole both her wallet and her heart.”	Here, “stole” is employed to describe the actions towards both “wallet” and “heart.” While it applies literally to the theft of the wallet, it is used metaphorically to convey the capturing of the person’s affection or love, employing the same verb for disparate contexts.
“She opened the door and her heart to the orphan.”	“Opened” is used to describe both the physical action of opening the door and the metaphorical action of opening one’s heart to someone in need. This zeugma highlights the emotional and physical act of kindness simultaneously.
“The storm sank ships and my hopes.”	“Sank” is used to describe the sinking of both “ships” and “hopes.” While it applies literally to the ships, it is metaphorically applied to the speaker’s feelings of optimism or expectation, drawing a parallel between physical and emotional destruction.
“He caught the train and a bad cold.”	“Caught” is employed to describe both “train” and “cold.” While it applies literally to catching the train, it is used metaphorically to describe the onset of an illness, creating a humorous juxtaposition of two different types of “catching.”
“She let down her hair and her guard.”	In this sentence, “let down” is used to describe both the physical action of releasing her hair and the metaphorical action of lowering her emotional defenses. This zeugma links the physical and emotional states of the character.
“The detective solved the crime and his own personal demons.”	“Solved” is used to describe both the solving of the crime and the resolution of personal issues. This zeugma juxtaposes the external action with the internal struggle of the detective, emphasizing the complexity of his journey.
“She stole his thunder and his spotlight.”	“Stole” is employed to describe the actions towards both “thunder” and “spotlight.” While it applies literally to the theft of thunder, it is metaphorically used to depict the usurping of attention or credit, creating a vivid and humorous image.
“He lost his keys and his temper.”	“Lost” is used to describe both the loss of “keys” and “temper.” While it applies literally to the keys, it is metaphorically applied to the loss of composure or control, demonstrating the connection between physical and emotional states.
“She broke the news and my heart.”	“Broke” is employed to describe both the action of breaking the news and the emotional impact on the speaker’s heart. This zeugma links the physical act of communication with its emotional consequences, emphasizing the depth of the emotional response.

Zeugma in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

From “Hamlet” (Act 3, Scene 1):
- “With mirth in funeral and with dirge in marriage”
- Explanation: In this line, Hamlet describes the contradictory emotions present at a funeral and a wedding. The word “with” governs both “mirth” and “dirge,” juxtaposing joy and sorrow within the context of these two events.

From “Julius Caesar” (Act 1, Scene 2):
- “I love the name of honor more than I fear death.”
- Explanation: Here, Brutus uses the word “love” to express his attitude towards both “honor” and “death.” The phrase highlights the conflict between his devotion to honor and his fear of death, employing the same verb for two different objects.

From “Antony and Cleopatra” (Act 2, Scene 2):
- “The barge she sat in, like a burnished throne, / Burned on the water.”
- Explanation: This line describes Cleopatra’s barge as both a “burnished throne” and something that “burned on the water.” The verb “burned” is used first in a metaphorical sense to describe the grandeur of the barge and then in a literal sense to depict its reflection on the water.

From “Macbeth” (Act 2, Scene 2):
- “Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, / And by opposing end them?”
- Explanation: Here, Hamlet deliberates whether to “take arms” against a “sea of troubles” and “by opposing end them.” The phrase employs the same verb “opposing” to suggest both physical and metaphorical opposition, emphasizing the magnitude of the challenges he faces.

Zeugma in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Zeugma
Formalism	Zeugma is relevant in formalist literary theory as it focuses on the technical aspects of literature, such as form, structure, and language. Formalists analyze how zeugma contributes to the overall aesthetic effect of a text by examining its syntactic and semantic properties. They might explore how zeugma creates tension, surprise, or resonance through its manipulation of linguistic elements within a work.
Structuralism	Within structuralist literary theory, zeugma is viewed as part of the broader system of language and signification. Structuralists examine how zeugma operates within the linguistic structure of a text, considering its role in creating meaning through relationships between signifiers and signifieds. They may analyze how zeugma contributes to the organization of narrative or thematic patterns within a literary work.
Reader-Response	Zeugma is relevant in reader-response theory as it focuses on the interaction between the text and the reader. Readers may interpret zeugma differently based on their individual experiences, cultural background, and linguistic proficiency. Reader-response theorists explore how zeugma invites readers to actively engage with the text, prompting them to decipher multiple layers of meaning and make personal connections to the narrative.
Postcolonialism	In postcolonial literary theory, zeugma may be examined in relation to questions of power, identity, and representation. Scholars may analyze how zeugma reflects colonial or postcolonial discourses, exploring its role in subverting or reinforcing dominant narratives. They might examine how zeugma functions within the language of resistance, hybridity, or cultural negotiation in texts from postcolonial contexts.
Feminist Criticism	Within feminist literary criticism, zeugma can be analyzed in terms of gender representation and agency. Scholars may explore how zeugma contributes to the portrayal of female characters and their relationships within a text. They might investigate how zeugma reflects or challenges traditional gender roles, stereotypes, or power dynamics, highlighting its role in shaping the narrative construction of gender identities.

Zeugma in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Polyptoton	The repetition of words derived from the same root but with different grammatical forms or inflections, such as “love” and “loving” in “His love for her was both passionate and enduring.”
Syllepsis	A rhetorical device where a single word is used with two others but must be understood differently in relation to each, such as in “She stole his heart and his wallet.”
Paronomasia	A form of wordplay involving punning or the deliberate use of similar-sounding words to create a humorous or witty effect, as seen in “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.”
Antanaclasis	A figure of speech in which a word is repeated in the same grammatical form but with a different meaning each time, as in “Your argument is sound, but your actions speak louder than words.”
Chiasmus	A rhetorical structure where words or concepts are repeated in reverse order to create an inverted parallelism, as seen in “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.”
Isocolon	A rhetorical device where parallel structures are used with similar or equal length and rhythm, as in “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”).
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures, phrases, or clauses within a sentence or passage to create balance and rhythm, as in “The cat chased the mouse, the dog chased the squirrel, and the bird chased the bug.”
Antithesis	A rhetorical device that involves the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structures, to highlight their differences or create tension, as in “Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing.”
Asyndeton	A stylistic device where conjunctions are deliberately omitted from a series of phrases or clauses, creating a sense of speed or urgency, as in “I came, I saw, I conquered.”
Polysyndeton	The deliberate use of multiple conjunctions in close succession within a sentence or passage for emphasis, rhythm, or pacing, as seen in “They ran and jumped and laughed and played.”

Zeugma in Literature: Suggested Readings

Genette, Gérard. Figures of Literary Discourse. Translated by Alan Sheridan, Columbia University Press, 1982.
Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
Leech, Geoffrey N. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1969.

Lintott, Sheila M. The Elements of Expression: A Guide to Writing and Speaking. Random House, 2012.
Quinn, Arthur. Figures of Speech: 60 Ways to Turn a Phrase. David R. Godine Publisher, 2010.
Smyth, Herbert Weir. Greek Grammar. Harvard University Press, 1956.

Wimsatt, William K., and Cleanth Brooks. Literary Criticism: A Short History. Knopf, 1957.

Introduction: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Annotations: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Themes: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Literary Theories and “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Critical Questions about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Literary Works Similar to “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Suggested Readings: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Books:

Representative Quotations “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Subjectivism: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology of Subjectivism

Meanings

Concept

Subjectivism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Subjectivism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists

Works

Arguments

Subjectivism: Major Characteristics

Subjectivism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Subjectivism: Application in Critiques

Novels

Non-Fiction

Subjectivism: Relevant Terms

Subjectivism: Suggested Readings

Books

Articles

Websites

Subjectivation: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Meanings and Concepts

Subjectivation: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Subjectivation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Key Points about Subjectivation:

Additional Notes:

Subjectivation: Major Characteristics

Subjectivation: Relevance in Literary Theories

Subjectivation: Application in Critiques

Subjectivation: Relevant Terms

Subjectivation: Suggested Readings

Stylistic Fidelity: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology and Term

Meanings and Concept

Stylistic Fidelity: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Stylistic Fidelity: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theoretical Underpinnings

Arguments for Stylistic Fidelity

Arguments Against Stylistic Fidelity

Stylistic Fidelity: Major Characteristics

Major Characteristics of Stylistic Fidelity

Importance of Stylistic Fidelity

Literary References

Stylistic Fidelity: Relevance in Literary Theories

Important Notes:

Stylistic Fidelity: Application in Critiques

Stylistic Fidelity: Relevant Terms

Stylistic Fidelity: Suggested Readings

Books

Articles

Additional Resources

Spiritualization: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymological Roots and Terminology:

Semantic Nuances:

Conceptual Framework:

Caveats:

Spiritualization: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Spiritualization: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Spiritualization: Major Characteristics

Spiritualization: Relevance in Literary Theories

Spiritualization: Application in Critiques

Spiritualization: Relevant Terms

Spiritualization: Suggested Readings

Spectrality: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Spectrality

Spectrality: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Spectrality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Spectrality: Major Characteristics

Spectrality: Relevance in Literary Theories

Spectrality: Application in Critiques